A matter of privilege: Infant mortality in the Garrison town of Gibraltar, 1870-1899

Journal of Family History

Volumn 27, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 399-429

  Sawchuk, Lawrence A ^a   Burke, Stacie D A ^b   Padiak, Janet ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^b MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0037903156     PISSN: 03631990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/036319902236626     Document Type: Review

References (161)

1. See Thomas McKeown, The Modern Rise of Population, (New York, 1977); Simon Szreter, "The Importance of Social Intervention in Britain's Mortality Decline c. 1850-1914: A Reinterpretation of the Role of Public Health, Social History of Medicine 1 (1988): 1-37; Sumit Guha, "The Importance of Social Intervention in England's Mortality Decline: The Evidence Reviewed," Social History of Medicine 1, no. 1 (1994): 89-113; M. Lewis, "Sanitation, Intestinal Infections and Infant Mortality in Late Victorian Sydney," Medical History 23 ( 1979): 325-38.
2. See Thomas McKeown, The Modern Rise of Population, (New York, 1977); Simon Szreter, "The Importance of Social Intervention in Britain's Mortality Decline c. 1850-1914: A Reinterpretation of the Role of Public Health, Social History of Medicine 1 (1988): 1-37; Sumit Guha, "The Importance of Social Intervention in England's Mortality Decline: The Evidence Reviewed," Social History of Medicine 1, no. 1 (1994): 89-113; M. Lewis, "Sanitation, Intestinal Infections and Infant Mortality in Late Victorian Sydney," Medical History 23 ( 1979): 325-38.
3. See Thomas McKeown, The Modern Rise of Population, (New York, 1977); Simon Szreter, "The Importance of Social Intervention in Britain's Mortality Decline c. 1850-1914: A Reinterpretation of the Role of Public Health, Social History of Medicine 1 (1988): 1-37; Sumit Guha, "The Importance of Social Intervention in England's Mortality Decline: The Evidence Reviewed," Social History of Medicine 1, no. 1 (1994): 89-113; M. Lewis, "Sanitation, Intestinal Infections and Infant Mortality in Late Victorian Sydney," Medical History 23 ( 1979): 325-38.
4. See Thomas McKeown, The Modern Rise of Population, (New York, 1977); Simon Szreter, "The Importance of Social Intervention in Britain's Mortality Decline c. 1850-1914: A Reinterpretation of the Role of Public Health, Social History of Medicine 1 (1988): 1-37; Sumit Guha, "The Importance of Social Intervention in England's Mortality Decline: The Evidence Reviewed," Social History of Medicine 1, no. 1 (1994): 89-113; M. Lewis, "Sanitation, Intestinal Infections and Infant Mortality in Late Victorian Sydney," Medical History 23 ( 1979): 325-38.
5. Gibraltar's position as a natural laboratory was appreciated even in the nineteenth century. In 1828, Chervin went to Gibraltar to study an outbreak of yellow fever. In 1866, von Pettenkofer went to study the conditions for cholera. Louis T. Chervin and D. Barry, Documens de la Commission Medicale Francais Envoyée á Gibraltar pour Observer l'Epidemie de 1828 (Paris, 1830); Max von Pettenkofer, "Die Choleraepidemie des Jahres 1865 in Gibraltar," Zeitschrifte für Biologie 6 (1870): 95-110.
6. Gibraltar's position as a natural laboratory was appreciated even in the nineteenth century. In 1828, Chervin went to Gibraltar to study an outbreak of yellow fever. In 1866, von Pettenkofer went to study the conditions for cholera. Louis T. Chervin and D. Barry, Documens de la Commission Medicale Francais Envoyée á Gibraltar pour Observer l'Epidemie de 1828 (Paris, 1830); Max von Pettenkofer, "Die Choleraepidemie des Jahres 1865 in Gibraltar," Zeitschrifte für Biologie 6 (1870): 95-110.
7. See, for example, R. A. Wrigley, Population and History (New York, 1969); R. Woods, "The Structure of Mortality in Mid-Nineteenth Century England and Wales," Journal of Historical Geography 8 (1982): 373-94; D. Friedlander et al., "Socio-economic Characteristics and Life Expectancies in Nineteenth-Century England: A District Analysis," Population Studies 39 (1985): 137-51.
8. See, for example, R. A. Wrigley, Population and History (New York, 1969); R. Woods, "The Structure of Mortality in Mid-Nineteenth Century England and Wales," Journal of Historical Geography 8 (1982): 373-94; D. Friedlander et al., "Socio-economic Characteristics and Life Expectancies in Nineteenth-Century England: A District Analysis," Population Studies 39 (1985): 137-51.
9. See, for example, R. A. Wrigley, Population and History (New York, 1969); R. Woods, "The Structure of Mortality in Mid-Nineteenth Century England and Wales," Journal of Historical Geography 8 (1982): 373-94; D. Friedlander et al., "Socio-economic Characteristics and Life Expectancies in Nineteenth-Century England: A District Analysis," Population Studies 39 (1985): 137-51.
10. L. A. Sawchuk, Deadly Visitations in Dark Times (Gibraltar, 2001).
11. Johannes Kramer, English and Spanish in Gibraltar (Hamburg, Germany, 1986).
12. See Lawrence A. Sawchuk and Stacie D. A. Burke, "Gibraltar's 1804 Yellow Fever Scourge: The Search for Scapegoats," Journal of History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 53 (1998): 3-42, at 3.
13. Census of Gibraltar (1878).
14. This is based on the period of residence within the colony at the time of death from 1869 to 1899 (military men, fifteen years of age and older).
15. Myna Trustram, Women of the Regiment: Marriage and the Victorian Army (Cambridge, 1984), 41.
16. Ibid., 41.
17. The number of coal heavers entering Gibraltar by day. From a letter by William Seed, chief of police, to the colonial secretary, January 18, 1889. Gibraltar Government Archives.
18. W. G. F. Jackson, The Rock of the Gibraltarians: A History of Gibraltar (Northants, 1990).
19. L. A. Sawchuk and J. Padiak, "Public Visitors, Hygiene and Human Rights: Issues in Prostitution in 19th Century Gibraltar" (paper presented at the Canadian Association of Physical Anthropologists in Fredericton, New Brunswick, 1999).
20. L. A. Sawchuk, "Rainfall, Patio Living, and Crisis Mortality in a Small-Scale Society: The Benefits of a Tradition of Scarcity?" Current Anthropology 37 (1996): 863-67.
21. L. A. Sawchuk, Deadly Visitations in Dark Times (Gibraltar, 2001).
22. W. G. F. Jackson, The Rock of the Gibraltarians (Toronto, Canada, 1987).
23. Ibid. Army Medical Report 1860, vol. 37 of Parliamentary Papers.
24. Report on the Barrack and Hospital Improvement Commission on the Sanitary Condition of the Mediterranean Stations (hereafter Barrack Improvement Commission, 1863), vol. 13 of Parliamentary Papers, 1.
25. J. Sutherland, Report on the Sanitary Condition of Gibraltar with Reference to the Epidemic Cholera in the Year 1865 (London, 1867); Dr. Baly, Quarantine (Gibraltar, 1855).
26. W. S. Hamer, Civil-Military Relations in Victorian Britain (Oxford, 1970).
27. I b i d.
28. It is important to note that much of the qualitative information presented here is derived from authors who were not without vested interests. Some sought improved sanitation, lying-in hospitals, and so forth, while others were more concerned with the cost of such reforms. Furthermore, it is important to recognize that Gibraltar had no free press during the study period, and opinions expressed by locals were often subject to censorship by the colonial authorities. Each statement should accordingly be weighed carefully as many of the sources quoted here were not without bias nor constraints.
29. S. Scott, S. R. Duncan, and C. J. Duncan, "Infant Mortality and Famine: A Study in Historical Epidemiology in Northern England," Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 49 (1995): 245-52.
30. Ibid., 248.
31. I b i d.
32. R. Pressat, Demographic Analysis (Chicago, 1972).
33. In the temporal period from 1870 to 1899, the Jews numbered 733 out of a population average of 15,159. See L. A. Sawchuk, D. A. Herring, and L. R. Waks, "Evidence of a Jewish Advantage: A Study of Infant Mortality in Gibraltar, 1870-1959," American Anthropologist 87 (1985): 616-25.
34. For civilian infants and children, see Sawchuk, "Rainfall, Patio Living and Crisis Mortality in a Small-Scale Society," note 7; L. A. Sawchuk, "Societal and Ecological Determinants of Urban Health - A Case Study of Pre-reproductive Mortality in 19th-century Gibraltar," Social Science and Medicine 36 (1993): 875-92; Sawchuk, Herring, and Waks, "Evidence of a Jewish Advantage," note 27; L. A. Sawchuk and L. Flanagan, "Infant Mortality among the Jews of Gibraltar, 1869 to 1977," Canadian Review of Physical Anthropology 1 (1979): 63-72.
35. For civilian infants and children, see Sawchuk, "Rainfall, Patio Living and Crisis Mortality in a Small-Scale Society," note 7; L. A. Sawchuk, "Societal and Ecological Determinants of Urban Health - A Case Study of Pre-reproductive Mortality in 19th-century Gibraltar," Social Science and Medicine 36 (1993): 875-92; Sawchuk, Herring, and Waks, "Evidence of a Jewish Advantage," note 27; L. A. Sawchuk and L. Flanagan, "Infant Mortality among the Jews of Gibraltar, 1869 to 1977," Canadian Review of Physical Anthropology 1 (1979): 63-72.
36. For civilian infants and children, see Sawchuk, "Rainfall, Patio Living and Crisis Mortality in a Small-Scale Society," note 7; L. A. Sawchuk, "Societal and Ecological Determinants of Urban Health - A Case Study of Pre-reproductive Mortality in 19th-century Gibraltar," Social Science and Medicine 36 (1993): 875-92; Sawchuk, Herring, and Waks, "Evidence of a Jewish Advantage," note 27; L. A. Sawchuk and L. Flanagan, "Infant Mortality among the Jews of Gibraltar, 1869 to 1977," Canadian Review of Physical Anthropology 1 (1979): 63-72.
37. For civilian infants and children, see Sawchuk, "Rainfall, Patio Living and Crisis Mortality in a Small-Scale Society," note 7; L. A. Sawchuk, "Societal and Ecological Determinants of Urban Health - A Case Study of Pre-reproductive Mortality in 19th-century Gibraltar," Social Science and Medicine 36 (1993): 875-92; Sawchuk, Herring, and Waks, "Evidence of a Jewish Advantage," note 27; L. A. Sawchuk and L. Flanagan, "Infant Mortality among the Jews of Gibraltar, 1869 to 1977," Canadian Review of Physical Anthropology 1 (1979): 63-72.
38. It is important to note that Figure 2 displays a five-year moving average temporal perspective of declining rates of infant mortality. In Phase I, there were 373 infant military deaths among 2,379 births, while there were 1,144 infant civilian deaths among 6,717 births. In Phase II, there were 212 infant military deaths among 1,737 births, while there were 1,216 infant civilian deaths among 7,579 births.
39. The infant mortality rate (IMR) of Gibraltar's civilians is somewhat higher than that of England and Wales from 1880 to 1899, which ranges between 139 and 156 infant deaths per 1,000 births. The military IMR, however, is somewhat lower. The English data cover a large population and a variety of ecological and sanitary situations. With its smaller populations and specific circumstances, the Gibraltar groups flank the English averages, providing a measure of the type of variation that could occur within a single urban center. Data are from William A. Brend, "The Relative Importance of Pre-natal and Post-natal Conditions as Causes of Infant Mortality," in Health and the State (London: Constable and Company, 1916): 27.
40. H. P. Elkington, Annual Report on the Public Health of Gibraltar for the Year 1900 (Gibraltar, 1901), 8.
41. R. MacPherson, Annual Report on the Health of Gibraltar 1892 (Gibraltar, 1893), 8.
42. See Sawchuk, "Rainfall, Patio Living, and Crisis Mortality in a Small-Scale Society," note 15; Sawchuk, "Societal and Ecological Determinants of Urban Health," note 28.
43. See Sawchuk, "Rainfall, Patio Living, and Crisis Mortality in a Small-Scale Society," note 15; Sawchuk, "Societal and Ecological Determinants of Urban Health," note 28.
44. Sawchuk, Deadly Visitations.
45. H. Tulloch, Report on the Water Supply and Sewage System of Gibraltar (London, 1890), 16.
46. R. MacPherson, Annual Report on the Health of Gibraltar 1890 (Gibraltar, 1891 ), 21.
47. The estimates provided here are regarded as ideal under normal rainfall conditions as well as the intelligent use and monitoring of the cistern tank.
48. G. Alton, Remarks on the Water Supply for Gibraltar (Gibraltar, 1870), 15.
49. Barrack Improvement Commission, note 19.
50. Despite these difficulties, recent work by Sawchuk suggests that children in households lacking access to cistern water may actually have fared better when faced with periods of high ecological stress in the form of low rainfall; see Sawchuk, "Rainfall, Patio Living and Crisis Mortality in a Small-Scale Society," note 15.
51. Barrack Improvement Commission, note 19; Sawchuk, Deadly Visitations.
52. Barrack Improvement Commission, note 19; Sawchuk, Deadly Visitations.
53. Tulloch, Report on the Water Supply, note 35, at 16.
54. R. MacPherson, Annual Report on the Health of Gibraltar 1893 (Gibraltar, 1984), note 31, at 12.
55. Frederick Sayer, The History of Gibraltar and of Its Political Relations to Events in Europe (London, 1865), 475.
56. Sutherland, Report on the Sanitary Condition of Gibraltar, note 20.
57. Tulloch, Report on the Water Supply, note 35, at 13.
58. W. G. MacPherson, Annual Report on the Health of Gibraltar 1891 (Gibraltar, 1892). Baked bread was problematic for reasons other than bad water. Sawchuk, "Societal and Ecological Determinants of Urban Health," notes that "many of the bakeries, devoid of any regulation or licensing, were in a disgraceful and filthy state. The use of mules in the kneading of the dough was often cited as a major contributing factor in this regard" (p. 48). The sanitary inspector, in cooperation with the district medical officers, endeavored to condemn the sale of any food deemed unwholesome. Their undertakings were somewhat hampered, however, "owing to a reluctance on the part of the public to give information, which may affect the interests of retailers," and unwholesome food continued to be imported and consumed by the public. H. Stokes, Appendix IV, Report of the Officer of Health of the Sanitary Commissioners of Gibraltar for the Year 1866 (Gibraltar, 1867).
59. W. G. MacPherson, Annual Report on the Health of Gibraltar 1891 (Gibraltar, 1892). Baked bread was problematic for reasons other than bad water. Sawchuk, "Societal and Ecological Determinants of Urban Health," notes that "many of the bakeries, devoid of any regulation or licensing, were in a disgraceful and filthy state. The use of mules in the kneading of the dough was often cited as a major contributing factor in this regard" (p. 48). The sanitary inspector, in cooperation with the district medical officers, endeavored to condemn the sale of any food deemed unwholesome. Their undertakings were somewhat hampered, however, "owing to a reluctance on the part of the public to give information, which may affect the interests of retailers," and unwholesome food continued to be imported and consumed by the public. H. Stokes, Appendix IV, Report of the Officer of Health of the Sanitary Commissioners of Gibraltar for the Year 1866 (Gibraltar, 1867).
60. W. G. MacPherson, Annual Report on the Health of Gibraltar 1891 (Gibraltar, 1892). Baked bread was problematic for reasons other than bad water. Sawchuk, "Societal and Ecological Determinants of Urban Health," notes that "many of the bakeries, devoid of any regulation or licensing, were in a disgraceful and filthy state. The use of mules in the kneading of the dough was often cited as a major contributing factor in this regard" (p. 48). The sanitary inspector, in cooperation with the district medical officers, endeavored to condemn the sale of any food deemed unwholesome. Their undertakings were somewhat hampered, however, "owing to a reluctance on the part of the public to give information, which may affect the interests of retailers," and unwholesome food continued to be imported and consumed by the public. H. Stokes, Appendix IV, Report of the Officer of Health of the Sanitary Commissioners of Gibraltar for the Year 1866 (Gibraltar, 1867).
61. Sawchuk, Deadly Visitations.
62. Even the garrison horses were included in water-provisioning estimates.
63. Tulloch, Report on the Water Supply, note 35, at 16.
64. Ibid., 16.
65. Thomas Walsh, Journal in the Late Campaign in Egypt, Including Descriptions of That Country and of Gibraltar, Minorca, Malta, and Macri (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies in the Strand, 1803), note 33, at 7.
66. H. Stokes, Memorandum contained in the Report of an Inquiry into the Working and Administration of the Gibraltar Sanitary Commission, J. Ponsonby Cox, Royal Engineers, 1877.
67. Baly, Quarantine, note 20.
68. J. Ponsonby Cox, Report of an Inquiry into the Working and Administration of the Gibraltar Sanitary Commission, November 12, 1877, Gibraltar Government Archives.
69. Collectively, these condensers would be capable of distilling about eight thousand gallons a day. Sir J. Adye, Recollections of a Military Life (London, 1895).
70. Treasury 1/14774, War Office, report by Arthur D. Hayter, December 7, 1882.
71. It was not until a decade later, in 1891, that a systematic inspection of civilian water tanks was initiated.
72. Army Medical Report, vol. 49 of Parliamentary Papers (1889), 62.
73. R. Collins, Annual Report of the Public Health of Gibraltar for the Year 1885 (Gibraltar, 1886).
74. Anonymous, November 12, 1885, Times.
75. Tulloch, Report on the Water Supply, note 35, at 16; Edward Roberts, Report of a Proposed Scheme for a Supply of Fresh Water to the Town and Garrison of Gibraltar (Gibraltar, 1870), pegs the average daily allowance of water to each member of the civilian population as less than two gallons per day.
76. Tulloch, Report on the Water Supply, note 35, at 16; Edward Roberts, Report of a Proposed Scheme for a Supply of Fresh Water to the Town and Garrison of Gibraltar (Gibraltar, 1870), pegs the average daily allowance of water to each member of the civilian population as less than two gallons per day.
77. Barrack Improvement Commission, note 19, at 26.
78. Edward Roberts, Selections from Reports of E. Roberts, Esq., Surveyor to the Sanitary Commissioners, March 31, 1866, in Report of the Proceedings of the Sanitary Commissioners of Gibraltar for the Year 1866 (Gibraltar, 1867).
79. Barrack Improvement Commission, note 19, at 27.
80. Sawchuk, Deadly Visitations.
81. I b i d.
82. I b i d.
83. Trustram, Women of the Regiment, note 10.
84. I b i d.
85. Barrack Improvement Commission, note 19, at 45.
86. Ibid., 45.
87. W. J. Barlette, Gleanings on the Overland Route (London, 1864), 143.
88. Barrack Improvement Commission, note 19.
89. John Bishop Antini, Correspondence to Colonel R. S. Baynes, April 4,1874. CO 91/331 Public Record Office (hereafter PRO).
90. Army Medical Report (1875), vol. 61 of Parliamentary Papers 1876.
91. Army Medical Report (1891), vol. 52 of Parliamentary Papers 1892.
92. Sawchuk, "Societal and Ecological Determinants of Urban Health," note 28, at 881.
93. R. G. Thomsett, A Record Voyage in H.M.S. Malabar and Reminiscences of the Rock (London, 1902), 156-58.
94. S. Guha, "Nutrition, Sanitation, Hygiene, and the Likelihood of Death: The British Army in India c. 1870-1920," Population Studies 47 (1993): 385-401, at 387.
95. Trustram, Women of the Regiment, note 10, at 141.
96. See, for example, the description in Derek J. Oddy, "Gone for a Soldier," Journal of Family History 25 (2000): 39-62.
97. Trustram, Women of the Regiment, note 10, at 139.
98. M. Rao, D. Benton, and S. Bremberg, "A Comparative Study of Army and Civilian Babies in a UK Garrison Town," Public Health 111 (1997): 317-19.
99. Ibid., 319.
100. Trustram, Women of the Regiment, note 10, at 165.
101. Ibid., 190.
102. Ibid., 106.
103. Ibid., 55.
104. Reports from 1877 indicate that Spanish fruit and vegetables were relatively abundant and that the garrison was well supplied with fish. While poultry and eggs were brought in from Morocco, fresh meat was more difficult to come by. This reliance on foreign sources to provision the garrison led to one of England's greatest weaknesses in maintaining as isolated territory such as Gibraltar. Walsh noted, In the event of war on the one side [with Spain], and pestilence on the other [the coast of Barbary], it often happens, as was case when I was there, that the garrison is compelled to live entirely on salt provision; not having even the advantage or comfort of vegetables, which are scarce, and very dear. (Walsh, Journal in the Late Campaign in Egypt, 9) According to Hennen, poor Gibraltarians largely relied on "fish, especially salted and dried, pork in its fresh and salted state, macaroni, rice, oil, bread and a large proportion of the leguminous and other vegetables" as the staples to their diet. J. Hennen, Sketches of the Medical Topography of the Mediterranean Comprising an Account of Gibraltar, the Ionian Islands, and Malta; to Which is Prefixed, a Sketch of a Plan for Memoirs on Medical Topography (London: Thomas and George Underwood, 1830).
105. Reports from 1877 indicate that Spanish fruit and vegetables were relatively abundant and that the garrison was well supplied with fish. While poultry and eggs were brought in from Morocco, fresh meat was more difficult to come by. This reliance on foreign sources to provision the garrison led to one of England's greatest weaknesses in maintaining as isolated territory such as Gibraltar. Walsh noted, In the event of war on the one side [with Spain], and pestilence on the other [the coast of Barbary], it often happens, as was case when I was there, that the garrison is compelled to live entirely on salt provision; not having even the advantage or comfort of vegetables, which are scarce, and very dear. (Walsh, Journal in the Late Campaign in Egypt, 9) According to Hennen, poor Gibraltarians largely relied on "fish, especially salted and dried, pork in its fresh and salted state, macaroni, rice, oil, bread and a large proportion of the leguminous and other vegetables" as the staples to their diet. J. Hennen, Sketches of the Medical Topography of the Mediterranean Comprising an Account of Gibraltar, the Ionian Islands, and Malta; to Which is Prefixed, a Sketch of a Plan for Memoirs on Medical Topography (London: Thomas and George Underwood, 1830).
106. Trustram, Women of the Regiment, note 10, at 105-6.
107. Geo. Bent, Colonel Royal Engineers, et al., Report and Recommendations of Special Board of Inspection on the North Front, April 1866, May 23. In Report of the Proceedings of the Sanitary Commissioners of Gibraltar for the Year 1866 (Gibraltar, 1866), 52.
108. Ibid., 54.
109. J. Errington Ker, letter to the subcommittee appointed to investigate the question of a lying in hospital for the wives of soldiers in connection with the Colonial Hospital, December 23, 1893. Gibraltar Government Archives.
110. Firm divisions between the care of military and civilian women at childbirth persisted well into the twentieth century with the provision of strictly defined practicing midwives. A. W. Fawkes, Letter of December 29, 1893, Gibraltar Government Archives.
111. J. Errington Ker, letter to the subcommittee, note 89.
112. I b i d.
113. District Medical Officer [name illegible], letter to the subcommittee on the proposed maternity hospital, December 24, 1893, Gibraltar Government Archives.
114. Trustram, Women of the Regiment, note 10, at 84.
115. Christine Lawrance, The History of the Old Naval Hospital Gibraltar 1741 to 1922 (Hampshire, 1994), 81.
116. I. Louden, "Deaths in Childbed from the Eighteenth Century to 1935," Medical History 30 (1986): 1-41.
117. Nicky Hart, "Beyond Infant Mortality: Gender and Stillbirth in Reproductive Mortality before the Twentieth Century," Population Studies 52 (1998): 215-29.
118. See I. Zusman and A. Ornoy, "Embryonic Resistance to Chemical and Physical Factors: Manifestation, Mechanism, Role in Reproduction and Adaptation to Ecology," Biological Review 65 ( 1990): 1 -18; P. Gruenwald, "Stillbirth and Early Neonatal Death," in Perinatal Problems: The Second Report of the 1958 British Perinatal Mortality Survey, ed. N. R. Butler and E. D. Alberman (Edinburgh/London, 1969).
119. See I. Zusman and A. Ornoy, "Embryonic Resistance to Chemical and Physical Factors: Manifestation, Mechanism, Role in Reproduction and Adaptation to Ecology," Biological Review 65 ( 1990): 1 -18; P. Gruenwald, "Stillbirth and Early Neonatal Death," in Perinatal Problems: The Second Report of the 1958 British Perinatal Mortality Survey, ed. N. R. Butler and E. D. Alberman (Edinburgh/London, 1969).
120. A nominal charge of one-tenth of the regular fee that was charged for digging and interment was imposed on any child under ten years of age; this reduced fee amounted to one dollar.
121. Linda Bryder, "Sex, Race, and Colonialism: An Historiographical Review," International History Review 20 (1998): 806-22; Philippa Levine, "Rereading the 1890s: Venereal Disease as 'Constitutional Crisis' in Britain and British India," Journal of Asian Studies 55 (1996): 585-612; Douglas M. Peers, "Privates off Parade: Regimenting Sexuality in the Nineteenth-Century Indian Empire," International History Review 20 (1998): 823-54.
122. Linda Bryder, "Sex, Race, and Colonialism: An Historiographical Review," International History Review 20 (1998): 806-22; Philippa Levine, "Rereading the 1890s: Venereal Disease as 'Constitutional Crisis' in Britain and British India," Journal of Asian Studies 55 (1996): 585-612; Douglas M. Peers, "Privates off Parade: Regimenting Sexuality in the Nineteenth-Century Indian Empire," International History Review 20 (1998): 823-54.
123. Linda Bryder, "Sex, Race, and Colonialism: An Historiographical Review," International History Review 20 (1998): 806-22; Philippa Levine, "Rereading the 1890s: Venereal Disease as 'Constitutional Crisis' in Britain and British India," Journal of Asian Studies 55 (1996): 585-612; Douglas M. Peers, "Privates off Parade: Regimenting Sexuality in the Nineteenth-Century Indian Empire," International History Review 20 (1998): 823-54.
124. See, for example, A. Conde-Agudelo, J. M. Belizan, and J. L. Diaz-Rossello, "Epidemiology of Fetal Death in Latin America," Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 79 (2000): 371-78; A. De Schryverand A. Meheus, "Epidemiology of Sexually Transmitted Diseases: The Global Picture," Bulletin of the World Health Organization 68 (1990): 639-54; M. Gene and W. J. Ledger, "Syphilis in Pregnancy," Sexually Transmitted Infections 76 (2000): 73-79; M. Koskiniemi et al., "Stillbirths and Maternal Antibodies to Chlamydia Trachomatis: A New EIA Test for Serology," Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 75 (1996): 657-61 ; M. Temmerman et al., "Effect of a Syphilis Control Programme on Pregnancy Outcome in Nairobi, Kenya," Sexually Transmitted Infections 76 (2000): 117-21.
125. See, for example, A. Conde-Agudelo, J. M. Belizan, and J. L. Diaz-Rossello, "Epidemiology of Fetal Death in Latin America," Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 79 (2000): 371-78; A. De Schryverand A. Meheus, "Epidemiology of Sexually Transmitted Diseases: The Global Picture," Bulletin of the World Health Organization 68 (1990): 639-54; M. Gene and W. J. Ledger, "Syphilis in Pregnancy," Sexually Transmitted Infections 76 (2000): 73-79; M. Koskiniemi et al., "Stillbirths and Maternal Antibodies to Chlamydia Trachomatis: A New EIA Test for Serology," Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 75 (1996): 657-61 ; M. Temmerman et al., "Effect of a Syphilis Control Programme on Pregnancy Outcome in Nairobi, Kenya," Sexually Transmitted Infections 76 (2000): 117-21.
126. See, for example, A. Conde-Agudelo, J. M. Belizan, and J. L. Diaz-Rossello, "Epidemiology of Fetal Death in Latin America," Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 79 (2000): 371-78; A. De Schryverand A. Meheus, "Epidemiology of Sexually Transmitted Diseases: The Global Picture," Bulletin of the World Health Organization 68 (1990): 639-54; M. Gene and W. J. Ledger, "Syphilis in Pregnancy," Sexually Transmitted Infections 76 (2000): 73-79; M. Koskiniemi et al., "Stillbirths and Maternal Antibodies to Chlamydia Trachomatis: A New EIA Test for Serology," Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 75 (1996): 657-61 ; M. Temmerman et al., "Effect of a Syphilis Control Programme on Pregnancy Outcome in Nairobi, Kenya," Sexually Transmitted Infections 76 (2000): 117-21.
127. See, for example, A. Conde-Agudelo, J. M. Belizan, and J. L. Diaz-Rossello, "Epidemiology of Fetal Death in Latin America," Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 79 (2000): 371-78; A. De Schryverand A. Meheus, "Epidemiology of Sexually Transmitted Diseases: The Global Picture," Bulletin of the World Health Organization 68 (1990): 639-54; M. Gene and W. J. Ledger, "Syphilis in Pregnancy," Sexually Transmitted Infections 76 (2000): 73-79; M. Koskiniemi et al., "Stillbirths and Maternal Antibodies to Chlamydia Trachomatis: A New EIA Test for Serology," Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 75 (1996): 657-61 ; M. Temmerman et al., "Effect of a Syphilis Control Programme on Pregnancy Outcome in Nairobi, Kenya," Sexually Transmitted Infections 76 (2000): 117-21.
128. See, for example, A. Conde-Agudelo, J. M. Belizan, and J. L. Diaz-Rossello, "Epidemiology of Fetal Death in Latin America," Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 79 (2000): 371-78; A. De Schryverand A. Meheus, "Epidemiology of Sexually Transmitted Diseases: The Global Picture," Bulletin of the World Health Organization 68 (1990): 639-54; M. Gene and W. J. Ledger, "Syphilis in Pregnancy," Sexually Transmitted Infections 76 (2000): 73-79; M. Koskiniemi et al., "Stillbirths and Maternal Antibodies to Chlamydia Trachomatis: A New EIA Test for Serology," Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 75 (1996): 657-61 ; M. Temmerman et al., "Effect of a Syphilis Control Programme on Pregnancy Outcome in Nairobi, Kenya," Sexually Transmitted Infections 76 (2000): 117-21.
129. F. Solly Flood, correspondence to Freeling, colonial secretary, August 25, 1866, CO 91/285 PRO.
130. For a more detailed examination of this issue, see Sawchuk, "Public Visitors," note 14.
131. Statistical Report on the Sickness, Mortality, and Invaliding among Troops in the Mediterranean, vol. 59 of Parliamentary Papers 1853, 129.
132. Trustram, Women of the Regiment, note 10, at 46.
133. N. M. Mirza et al., "Risk Factors for Diarrheal Duration," American Journal of Epidemiology 146 (1997): 776-85.
134. Jean Bourgeois-Pichat, "De la mésure de la mortalité infantile," Population 1 (1946): 53-68; idem, "Analyse de la mortalité infantile," Revue de l'Institut International de Statistiques 18(1950): 45-68; idem, "La mésure de la mortalité infantile. I. Principles et méthodes," Population 6 (1951 ): 223-48; idem, "La mésure de la mortalité infantile. II. Les causes de décès," Population 6 (1951): 459-80; idem, "Essai sur la mortalité 'Biologique' de l'Homme," Population 7 (1952): 381-94; idem, "An Analysis of Infant Mortality," Population Bulletin of the United Nations 2 (1952): 1-14.
135. Jean Bourgeois-Pichat, "De la mésure de la mortalité infantile," Population 1 (1946): 53-68; idem, "Analyse de la mortalité infantile," Revue de l'Institut International de Statistiques 18(1950): 45-68; idem, "La mésure de la mortalité infantile. I. Principles et méthodes," Population 6 (1951 ): 223-48; idem, "La mésure de la mortalité infantile. II. Les causes de décès," Population 6 (1951): 459-80; idem, "Essai sur la mortalité 'Biologique' de l'Homme," Population 7 (1952): 381-94; idem, "An Analysis of Infant Mortality," Population Bulletin of the United Nations 2 (1952): 1-14.
136. Jean Bourgeois-Pichat, "De la mésure de la mortalité infantile," Population 1 (1946): 53-68; idem, "Analyse de la mortalité infantile," Revue de l'Institut International de Statistiques 18(1950): 45-68; idem, "La mésure de la mortalité infantile. I. Principles et méthodes," Population 6 (1951 ): 223-48; idem, "La mésure de la mortalité infantile. II. Les causes de décès," Population 6 (1951): 459-80; idem, "Essai sur la mortalité 'Biologique' de l'Homme," Population 7 (1952): 381-94; idem, "An Analysis of Infant Mortality," Population Bulletin of the United Nations 2 (1952): 1-14.
137. Jean Bourgeois-Pichat, "De la mésure de la mortalité infantile," Population 1 (1946): 53-68; idem, "Analyse de la mortalité infantile," Revue de l'Institut International de Statistiques 18(1950): 45-68; idem, "La mésure de la mortalité infantile. I. Principles et méthodes," Population 6 (1951 ): 223-48; idem, "La mésure de la mortalité infantile. II. Les causes de décès," Population 6 (1951): 459-80; idem, "Essai sur la mortalité 'Biologique' de l'Homme," Population 7 (1952): 381-94; idem, "An Analysis of Infant Mortality," Population Bulletin of the United Nations 2 (1952): 1-14.
138. Jean Bourgeois-Pichat, "De la mésure de la mortalité infantile," Population 1 (1946): 53-68; idem, "Analyse de la mortalité infantile," Revue de l'Institut International de Statistiques 18(1950): 45-68; idem, "La mésure de la mortalité infantile. I. Principles et méthodes," Population 6 (1951 ): 223-48; idem, "La mésure de la mortalité infantile. II. Les causes de décès," Population 6 (1951): 459-80; idem, "Essai sur la mortalité 'Biologique' de l'Homme," Population 7 (1952): 381-94; idem, "An Analysis of Infant Mortality," Population Bulletin of the United Nations 2 (1952): 1-14.
139. Jean Bourgeois-Pichat, "De la mésure de la mortalité infantile," Population 1 (1946): 53-68; idem, "Analyse de la mortalité infantile," Revue de l'Institut International de Statistiques 18(1950): 45-68; idem, "La mésure de la mortalité infantile. I. Principles et méthodes," Population 6 (1951 ): 223-48; idem, "La mésure de la mortalité infantile. II. Les causes de décès," Population 6 (1951): 459-80; idem, "Essai sur la mortalité 'Biologique' de l'Homme," Population 7 (1952): 381-94; idem, "An Analysis of Infant Mortality," Population Bulletin of the United Nations 2 (1952): 1-14.
140. J. Knodel and H. Kintner, "The Impact of Breast Feeding Patterns on the Biometric Analysis of Infant Mortality," Demography 14(1977): 391-409.
141. For other examples of the application of this technique, see D. Ann Herring, S. R. Saunders, and M. A. Katzenberg, "Investigating the Weaning Process in Past Populations," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 105 (1998): 425-39; Larry A. Sawchuk and Stacie D. A. Burke, "Mortality in an Early Ontario Community: Belleville 1876-1885," Urban History Review/Revue d'Histoire urbaine 29 (2000): 33-47; S. Scott, S. R. Duncan, and C. J. Duncan, "Malnutrition, Pregnancy, and Infant Mortality: A Biometric Model," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 30 (1999): 37-60.
142. For other examples of the application of this technique, see D. Ann Herring, S. R. Saunders, and M. A. Katzenberg, "Investigating the Weaning Process in Past Populations," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 105 (1998): 425-39; Larry A. Sawchuk and Stacie D. A. Burke, "Mortality in an Early Ontario Community: Belleville 1876-1885," Urban History Review/Revue d'Histoire urbaine 29 (2000): 33-47; S. Scott, S. R. Duncan, and C. J. Duncan, "Malnutrition, Pregnancy, and Infant Mortality: A Biometric Model," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 30 (1999): 37-60.
143. For other examples of the application of this technique, see D. Ann Herring, S. R. Saunders, and M. A. Katzenberg, "Investigating the Weaning Process in Past Populations," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 105 (1998): 425-39; Larry A. Sawchuk and Stacie D. A. Burke, "Mortality in an Early Ontario Community: Belleville 1876-1885," Urban History Review/Revue d'Histoire urbaine 29 (2000): 33-47; S. Scott, S. R. Duncan, and C. J. Duncan, "Malnutrition, Pregnancy, and Infant Mortality: A Biometric Model," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 30 (1999): 37-60.
144. See also Herring, Saunders, and Katzenberg, "Investigating the Weaning Process in Past Populations," note 109.
145. Bacteriological contamination and the adulteration of milk were also commonplace in many other European countries. P. J. Atkins, "White Poison? The Social Consequences of Milk Consumption, 1850-1930," Social History of Medicine 5 (1992): 207-26; B. Moring, "Motherhood, Milk, and Money," Social History of Medicine 11 (1998): ) 77-96; D. Dwork, "The Milk Option: An Aspect of the History of the Infant Welfare Movement in England, 1898-1908," Medical History 31 (1987): 51-69: M. W. Beaver, "Population, Infant Mortality and Milk," Population Studies 27 (1973): 243-54.
146. Bacteriological contamination and the adulteration of milk were also commonplace in many other European countries. P. J. Atkins, "White Poison? The Social Consequences of Milk Consumption, 1850-1930," Social History of Medicine 5 (1992): 207-26; B. Moring, "Motherhood, Milk, and Money," Social History of Medicine 11 (1998): ) 77-96; D. Dwork, "The Milk Option: An Aspect of the History of the Infant Welfare Movement in England, 1898-1908," Medical History 31 (1987): 51-69: M. W. Beaver, "Population, Infant Mortality and Milk," Population Studies 27 (1973): 243-54.
147. Bacteriological contamination and the adulteration of milk were also commonplace in many other European countries. P. J. Atkins, "White Poison? The Social Consequences of Milk Consumption, 1850-1930," Social History of Medicine 5 (1992): 207-26; B. Moring, "Motherhood, Milk, and Money," Social History of Medicine 11 (1998): ) 77-96; D. Dwork, "The Milk Option: An Aspect of the History of the Infant Welfare Movement in England, 1898-1908," Medical History 31 (1987): 51-69: M. W. Beaver, "Population, Infant Mortality and Milk," Population Studies 27 (1973): 243-54.
148. Bacteriological contamination and the adulteration of milk were also commonplace in many other European countries. P. J. Atkins, "White Poison? The Social Consequences of Milk Consumption, 1850-1930," Social History of Medicine 5 (1992): 207-26; B. Moring, "Motherhood, Milk, and Money," Social History of Medicine 11 (1998): ) 77-96; D. Dwork, "The Milk Option: An Aspect of the History of the Infant Welfare Movement in England, 1898-1908," Medical History 31 (1987): 51-69: M. W. Beaver, "Population, Infant Mortality and Milk," Population Studies 27 (1973): 243-54.
149. Army Medical Report (1892), vol. 53 of Parliamentary Papers 1894, 39.
150. W. MacPherson, health officer, memorandum to the sanitary commissioner's office. October 13, 1891, Gibraltar Government Archives.
151. Sawchuk, "Societal and Ecological Determinants of Urban Heath," note 28.
152. Gibraltar 1914 Annual Report on the Public Health of Gibraltar (Gibraltar, 1915).
153. I b i d.
154. Sawchuk, Deadly Visitations.
155. Gibraltar 1916 Annual Report on the Public Health of Gibraltar (Gibraltar, 1917).
156. MacPherson, Annual Report on the Public Health of Gibraltar (1892), note 31, at 21.
157. It was not until 1907 that the boiling of milk became a bylaw in Gibraltar.
158. MacPherson, Annual Report on the Public Health of Gibraltar (1892).
159. MacPherson, Annual Report on the Public Health of Gibraltar (1893).
160. The regulations are as follows: (1) people can only sell milk that is absolutely pure and free from extraneous matter or adulteration of any kind whatsoever, and carried in clean vessels; (2) premises for the sale of milk must be certified in writing by sanitary commissioners as fit and proper premises for milk shops; (3) sanitary commissioners require premises of sale of milk to be kept clean and lime-washed; (4) places where milk is sold must not be used for any other purposes; (5) vessels and receptacles must be kept scrupulously clean with water from a pure source; (6) disease among animals that supply milk must be immediately reported to the sanitary commission; (7) for any person duly authorized, the power to enter and inspect rooms or other places where milk is kept for sale to assess sanitary conditions, condition of milk, and vessel conditions; and (8) the officer of health has the power to examine and take samples for analysis from all milk kept for sale in any place, including street vendors.
161. Bacteriological testing was first reported in Gibraltar in 1897. Army Medical Report 1897, vol. 54 of Parliamentary Papers 1898, 625.