Motherhood, Milk, and Money: Infant Mortality in Pre-Industrial Finland

Social History of Medicine

Volumn 11, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 177-196

  Moring, Beatrice ^a  

^a Cambridge Group for the History of Population and Social Structure   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Breastfeeding; Feeding practices; Female work; Infant mortality; Infections; Pre industrial Finland; Regional variation; Seasonal variation; Wet nursing

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; ARTICLE; BREAST FEEDING; CHILD CARE; CHILD NUTRITION; FINLAND; HISTORY; HUMAN; INFANT; INFANT MORTALITY; INFANT NUTRITION; MILK; NEWBORN; NURSING; PRESCHOOL CHILD;

ANIMALS; BREAST FEEDING; CHILD CARE; CHILD NUTRITION PHYSIOLOGY; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; FINLAND; HISTORY, MODERN 1601-; HUMANS; INFANT; INFANT MORTALITY; INFANT NUTRITION PHYSIOLOGY; INFANT, NEWBORN; MILK; NURSING;

EID: 0032133993     PISSN: 0951631X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/shm/11.2.177     Document Type: Article

References (148)

1. V. Fildes, Breasts, Bottles and Babies (Edinburgh, 1986); V. Fildes, Wet Nursing (Oxford, 1988); S. F. Mattews Grieco, Breastfeeding, Wet Nursing and Infant Mortality in Europe 1400-1800 (Florence, 1991); A. Brändström, De kärlekslösa mödrarna (Umeå, 1984); D. B. Jelliffe and E. F. P. Jelliffe, Programmes to Promote Breastfeeding (Oxford, 1988); H. J. Kintner, 'Trends and Regional Differences in Breastfeeding in Germany from 1871-1937', Journal of Family History, 10 (1985), 163-82; D. E. Knodel and E. van der Walle, 'Breastfeeding, Fertility and Infant Mortality: an Analysis of Some Early German Data', Population Studies, 21 (1967); R. A. Lawrence, Breastfeeding. A Guide for the Medical Profession (St Louis, 1985); U.-B. Lithell, Breastfeeding and Reproduction, Studia Historica Uppsaliensia 120 (Uppsala, 1981); B. M. Popkin, T. Lasky et al., The Infant-Feeding Triad, Infant, Mother and Household (New York, 1986); K. Pitkänen, 'Infant Mortality in a Changing Society', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, XXI (1983), 46-74; J. D. Wray, 'Breastfeeding: an International and Historical Review', in F. Faulkner (ed.), Infant and Child Nutrition Worldwide (Boca Raton, 1991), pp. 61-116.
2. V. Fildes, Breasts, Bottles and Babies (Edinburgh, 1986); V. Fildes, Wet Nursing (Oxford, 1988); S. F. Mattews Grieco, Breastfeeding, Wet Nursing and Infant Mortality in Europe 1400-1800 (Florence, 1991); A. Brändström, De kärlekslösa mödrarna (Umeå, 1984); D. B. Jelliffe and E. F. P. Jelliffe, Programmes to Promote Breastfeeding (Oxford, 1988); H. J. Kintner, 'Trends and Regional Differences in Breastfeeding in Germany from 1871-1937', Journal of Family History, 10 (1985), 163-82; D. E. Knodel and E. van der Walle, 'Breastfeeding, Fertility and Infant Mortality: an Analysis of Some Early German Data', Population Studies, 21 (1967); R. A. Lawrence, Breastfeeding. A Guide for the Medical Profession (St Louis, 1985); U.-B. Lithell, Breastfeeding and Reproduction, Studia Historica Uppsaliensia 120 (Uppsala, 1981); B. M. Popkin, T. Lasky et al., The Infant-Feeding Triad, Infant, Mother and Household (New York, 1986); K. Pitkänen, 'Infant Mortality in a Changing Society', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, XXI (1983), 46-74; J. D. Wray, 'Breastfeeding: an International and Historical Review', in F. Faulkner (ed.), Infant and Child Nutrition Worldwide (Boca Raton, 1991), pp. 61-116.
3. V. Fildes, Breasts, Bottles and Babies (Edinburgh, 1986); V. Fildes, Wet Nursing (Oxford, 1988); S. F. Mattews Grieco, Breastfeeding, Wet Nursing and Infant Mortality in Europe 1400-1800 (Florence, 1991); A. Brändström, De kärlekslösa mödrarna (Umeå, 1984); D. B. Jelliffe and E. F. P. Jelliffe, Programmes to Promote Breastfeeding (Oxford, 1988); H. J. Kintner, 'Trends and Regional Differences in Breastfeeding in Germany from 1871-1937', Journal of Family History, 10 (1985), 163-82; D. E. Knodel and E. van der Walle, 'Breastfeeding, Fertility and Infant Mortality: an Analysis of Some Early German Data', Population Studies, 21 (1967); R. A. Lawrence, Breastfeeding. A Guide for the Medical Profession (St Louis, 1985); U.-B. Lithell, Breastfeeding and Reproduction, Studia Historica Uppsaliensia 120 (Uppsala, 1981); B. M. Popkin, T. Lasky et al., The Infant-Feeding Triad, Infant, Mother and Household (New York, 1986); K. Pitkänen, 'Infant Mortality in a Changing Society', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, XXI (1983), 46-74; J. D. Wray, 'Breastfeeding: an International and Historical Review', in F. Faulkner (ed.), Infant and Child Nutrition Worldwide (Boca Raton, 1991), pp. 61-116.
4. V. Fildes, Breasts, Bottles and Babies (Edinburgh, 1986); V. Fildes, Wet Nursing (Oxford, 1988); S. F. Mattews Grieco, Breastfeeding, Wet Nursing and Infant Mortality in Europe 1400-1800 (Florence, 1991); A. Brändström, De kärlekslösa mödrarna (Umeå, 1984); D. B. Jelliffe and E. F. P. Jelliffe, Programmes to Promote Breastfeeding (Oxford, 1988); H. J. Kintner, 'Trends and Regional Differences in Breastfeeding in Germany from 1871-1937', Journal of Family History, 10 (1985), 163-82; D. E. Knodel and E. van der Walle, 'Breastfeeding, Fertility and Infant Mortality: an Analysis of Some Early German Data', Population Studies, 21 (1967); R. A. Lawrence, Breastfeeding. A Guide for the Medical Profession (St Louis, 1985); U.-B. Lithell, Breastfeeding and Reproduction, Studia Historica Uppsaliensia 120 (Uppsala, 1981); B. M. Popkin, T. Lasky et al., The Infant-Feeding Triad, Infant, Mother and Household (New York, 1986); K. Pitkänen, 'Infant Mortality in a Changing Society', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, XXI (1983), 46-74; J. D. Wray, 'Breastfeeding: an International and Historical Review', in F. Faulkner (ed.), Infant and Child Nutrition Worldwide (Boca Raton, 1991), pp. 61-116.
5. V. Fildes, Breasts, Bottles and Babies (Edinburgh, 1986); V. Fildes, Wet Nursing (Oxford, 1988); S. F. Mattews Grieco, Breastfeeding, Wet Nursing and Infant Mortality in Europe 1400-1800 (Florence, 1991); A. Brändström, De kärlekslösa mödrarna (Umeå, 1984); D. B. Jelliffe and E. F. P. Jelliffe, Programmes to Promote Breastfeeding (Oxford, 1988); H. J. Kintner, 'Trends and Regional Differences in Breastfeeding in Germany from 1871-1937', Journal of Family History, 10 (1985), 163-82; D. E. Knodel and E. van der Walle, 'Breastfeeding, Fertility and Infant Mortality: an Analysis of Some Early German Data', Population Studies, 21 (1967); R. A. Lawrence, Breastfeeding. A Guide for the Medical Profession (St Louis, 1985); U.-B. Lithell, Breastfeeding and Reproduction, Studia Historica Uppsaliensia 120 (Uppsala, 1981); B. M. Popkin, T. Lasky et al., The Infant-Feeding Triad, Infant, Mother and Household (New York, 1986); K. Pitkänen, 'Infant Mortality in a Changing Society', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, XXI (1983), 46-74; J. D. Wray, 'Breastfeeding: an International and Historical Review', in F. Faulkner (ed.), Infant and Child Nutrition Worldwide (Boca Raton, 1991), pp. 61-116.
6. V. Fildes, Breasts, Bottles and Babies (Edinburgh, 1986); V. Fildes, Wet Nursing (Oxford, 1988); S. F. Mattews Grieco, Breastfeeding, Wet Nursing and Infant Mortality in Europe 1400-1800 (Florence, 1991); A. Brändström, De kärlekslösa mödrarna (Umeå, 1984); D. B. Jelliffe and E. F. P. Jelliffe, Programmes to Promote Breastfeeding (Oxford, 1988); H. J. Kintner, 'Trends and Regional Differences in Breastfeeding in Germany from 1871-1937', Journal of Family History, 10 (1985), 163-82; D. E. Knodel and E. van der Walle, 'Breastfeeding, Fertility and Infant Mortality: an Analysis of Some Early German Data', Population Studies, 21 (1967); R. A. Lawrence, Breastfeeding. A Guide for the Medical Profession (St Louis, 1985); U.-B. Lithell, Breastfeeding and Reproduction, Studia Historica Uppsaliensia 120 (Uppsala, 1981); B. M. Popkin, T. Lasky et al., The Infant-Feeding Triad, Infant, Mother and Household (New York, 1986); K. Pitkänen, 'Infant Mortality in a Changing Society', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, XXI (1983), 46-74; J. D. Wray, 'Breastfeeding: an International and Historical Review', in F. Faulkner (ed.), Infant and Child Nutrition Worldwide (Boca Raton, 1991), pp. 61-116.
7. V. Fildes, Breasts, Bottles and Babies (Edinburgh, 1986); V. Fildes, Wet Nursing (Oxford, 1988); S. F. Mattews Grieco, Breastfeeding, Wet Nursing and Infant Mortality in Europe 1400-1800 (Florence, 1991); A. Brändström, De kärlekslösa mödrarna (Umeå, 1984); D. B. Jelliffe and E. F. P. Jelliffe, Programmes to Promote Breastfeeding (Oxford, 1988); H. J. Kintner, 'Trends and Regional Differences in Breastfeeding in Germany from 1871-1937', Journal of Family History, 10 (1985), 163-82; D. E. Knodel and E. van der Walle, 'Breastfeeding, Fertility and Infant Mortality: an Analysis of Some Early German Data', Population Studies, 21 (1967); R. A. Lawrence, Breastfeeding. A Guide for the Medical Profession (St Louis, 1985); U.-B. Lithell, Breastfeeding and Reproduction, Studia Historica Uppsaliensia 120 (Uppsala, 1981); B. M. Popkin, T. Lasky et al., The Infant-Feeding Triad, Infant, Mother and Household (New York, 1986); K. Pitkänen, 'Infant Mortality in a Changing Society', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, XXI (1983), 46-74; J. D. Wray, 'Breastfeeding: an International and Historical Review', in F. Faulkner (ed.), Infant and Child Nutrition Worldwide (Boca Raton, 1991), pp. 61-116.
8. V. Fildes, Breasts, Bottles and Babies (Edinburgh, 1986); V. Fildes, Wet Nursing (Oxford, 1988); S. F. Mattews Grieco, Breastfeeding, Wet Nursing and Infant Mortality in Europe 1400-1800 (Florence, 1991); A. Brändström, De kärlekslösa mödrarna (Umeå, 1984); D. B. Jelliffe and E. F. P. Jelliffe, Programmes to Promote Breastfeeding (Oxford, 1988); H. J. Kintner, 'Trends and Regional Differences in Breastfeeding in Germany from 1871-1937', Journal of Family History, 10 (1985), 163-82; D. E. Knodel and E. van der Walle, 'Breastfeeding, Fertility and Infant Mortality: an Analysis of Some Early German Data', Population Studies, 21 (1967); R. A. Lawrence, Breastfeeding. A Guide for the Medical Profession (St Louis, 1985); U.-B. Lithell, Breastfeeding and Reproduction, Studia Historica Uppsaliensia 120 (Uppsala, 1981); B. M. Popkin, T. Lasky et al., The Infant-Feeding Triad, Infant, Mother and Household (New York, 1986); K. Pitkänen, 'Infant Mortality in a Changing Society', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, XXI (1983), 46-74; J. D. Wray, 'Breastfeeding: an International and Historical Review', in F. Faulkner (ed.), Infant and Child Nutrition Worldwide (Boca Raton, 1991), pp. 61-116.
9. V. Fildes, Breasts, Bottles and Babies (Edinburgh, 1986); V. Fildes, Wet Nursing (Oxford, 1988); S. F. Mattews Grieco, Breastfeeding, Wet Nursing and Infant Mortality in Europe 1400-1800 (Florence, 1991); A. Brändström, De kärlekslösa mödrarna (Umeå, 1984); D. B. Jelliffe and E. F. P. Jelliffe, Programmes to Promote Breastfeeding (Oxford, 1988); H. J. Kintner, 'Trends and Regional Differences in Breastfeeding in Germany from 1871-1937', Journal of Family History, 10 (1985), 163-82; D. E. Knodel and E. van der Walle, 'Breastfeeding, Fertility and Infant Mortality: an Analysis of Some Early German Data', Population Studies, 21 (1967); R. A. Lawrence, Breastfeeding. A Guide for the Medical Profession (St Louis, 1985); U.-B. Lithell, Breastfeeding and Reproduction, Studia Historica Uppsaliensia 120 (Uppsala, 1981); B. M. Popkin, T. Lasky et al., The Infant-Feeding Triad, Infant, Mother and Household (New York, 1986); K. Pitkänen, 'Infant Mortality in a Changing Society', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, XXI (1983), 46-74; J. D. Wray, 'Breastfeeding: an International and Historical Review', in F. Faulkner (ed.), Infant and Child Nutrition Worldwide (Boca Raton, 1991), pp. 61-116.
10. V. Fildes, Breasts, Bottles and Babies (Edinburgh, 1986); V. Fildes, Wet Nursing (Oxford, 1988); S. F. Mattews Grieco, Breastfeeding, Wet Nursing and Infant Mortality in Europe 1400-1800 (Florence, 1991); A. Brändström, De kärlekslösa mödrarna (Umeå, 1984); D. B. Jelliffe and E. F. P. Jelliffe, Programmes to Promote Breastfeeding (Oxford, 1988); H. J. Kintner, 'Trends and Regional Differences in Breastfeeding in Germany from 1871-1937', Journal of Family History, 10 (1985), 163-82; D. E. Knodel and E. van der Walle, 'Breastfeeding, Fertility and Infant Mortality: an Analysis of Some Early German Data', Population Studies, 21 (1967); R. A. Lawrence, Breastfeeding. A Guide for the Medical Profession (St Louis, 1985); U.-B. Lithell, Breastfeeding and Reproduction, Studia Historica Uppsaliensia 120 (Uppsala, 1981); B. M. Popkin, T. Lasky et al., The Infant-Feeding Triad, Infant, Mother and Household (New York, 1986); K. Pitkänen, 'Infant Mortality in a Changing Society', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, XXI (1983), 46-74; J. D. Wray, 'Breastfeeding: an International and Historical Review', in F. Faulkner (ed.), Infant and Child Nutrition Worldwide (Boca Raton, 1991), pp. 61-116.
11. V. Fildes, Breasts, Bottles and Babies (Edinburgh, 1986); V. Fildes, Wet Nursing (Oxford, 1988); S. F. Mattews Grieco, Breastfeeding, Wet Nursing and Infant Mortality in Europe 1400-1800 (Florence, 1991); A. Brändström, De kärlekslösa mödrarna (Umeå, 1984); D. B. Jelliffe and E. F. P. Jelliffe, Programmes to Promote Breastfeeding (Oxford, 1988); H. J. Kintner, 'Trends and Regional Differences in Breastfeeding in Germany from 1871-1937', Journal of Family History, 10 (1985), 163-82; D. E. Knodel and E. van der Walle, 'Breastfeeding, Fertility and Infant Mortality: an Analysis of Some Early German Data', Population Studies, 21 (1967); R. A. Lawrence, Breastfeeding. A Guide for the Medical Profession (St Louis, 1985); U.-B. Lithell, Breastfeeding and Reproduction, Studia Historica Uppsaliensia 120 (Uppsala, 1981); B. M. Popkin, T. Lasky et al., The Infant-Feeding Triad, Infant, Mother and Household (New York, 1986); K. Pitkänen, 'Infant Mortality in a Changing Society', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, XXI (1983), 46-74; J. D. Wray, 'Breastfeeding: an International and Historical Review', in F. Faulkner (ed.), Infant and Child Nutrition Worldwide (Boca Raton, 1991), pp. 61-116.
12. V. Fildes, Breasts, Bottles and Babies (Edinburgh, 1986); V. Fildes, Wet Nursing (Oxford, 1988); S. F. Mattews Grieco, Breastfeeding, Wet Nursing and Infant Mortality in Europe 1400-1800 (Florence, 1991); A. Brändström, De kärlekslösa mödrarna (Umeå, 1984); D. B. Jelliffe and E. F. P. Jelliffe, Programmes to Promote Breastfeeding (Oxford, 1988); H. J. Kintner, 'Trends and Regional Differences in Breastfeeding in Germany from 1871-1937', Journal of Family History, 10 (1985), 163-82; D. E. Knodel and E. van der Walle, 'Breastfeeding, Fertility and Infant Mortality: an Analysis of Some Early German Data', Population Studies, 21 (1967); R. A. Lawrence, Breastfeeding. A Guide for the Medical Profession (St Louis, 1985); U.-B. Lithell, Breastfeeding and Reproduction, Studia Historica Uppsaliensia 120 (Uppsala, 1981); B. M. Popkin, T. Lasky et al., The Infant-Feeding Triad, Infant, Mother and Household (New York, 1986); K. Pitkänen, 'Infant Mortality in a Changing Society', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, XXI (1983), 46-74; J. D. Wray, 'Breastfeeding: an International and Historical Review', in F. Faulkner (ed.), Infant and Child Nutrition Worldwide (Boca Raton, 1991), pp. 61-116.
13. E. Shorter, The Making of the Modern Family (New York, 1975), pp. 169-90; E. Badinter, Den kärleksfulla modern (Avesta, 1980), pp.110, 123, 150.
14. E. Shorter, The Making of the Modern Family (New York, 1975), pp. 169-90; E. Badinter, Den kärleksfulla modern (Avesta, 1980), pp.110, 123, 150.
15. C. D. Haartman and E. Lönnroth, Neuvoja yhteiselle kansalle Pohjanmaalla pienten lasten kasvattamisesta ja ruokkimisesta (Helsinfors, 1844), p. 16; Finska Läkare Sällskapets Handlingar (hereafter FLH) VIII (1860), p. 981.
16. C. D. Haartman and E. Lönnroth, Neuvoja yhteiselle kansalle Pohjanmaalla pienten lasten kasvattamisesta ja ruokkimisesta (Helsinfors, 1844), p. 16; Finska Läkare Sällskapets Handlingar (hereafter FLH) VIII (1860), p. 981.
17. U.-B. Lithell, Kvinnoarbete och barntillsyn i 1700 och 1800-talets Österbotten, Studia Historica Uppsaliensia 156 (Uppsala, 1988); O. Turpeinen, 'Infectious Diseases and Regional Differences in Finnish Death Rates 1749-1773', Population Studies, 32 (1978), 523-33.
18. U.-B. Lithell, Kvinnoarbete och barntillsyn i 1700 och 1800-talets Österbotten, Studia Historica Uppsaliensia 156 (Uppsala, 1988); O. Turpeinen, 'Infectious Diseases and Regional Differences in Finnish Death Rates 1749-1773', Population Studies, 32 (1978), 523-33.
19. A. Imhof, 'The Amazing Simultaneousness of the Big Differences and the Boom in the 19th Century - Some Facts and Hypotheses About Infant and Maternal Mortality in Germany, 18th to 20th Century', in T. Bengtsson, G. Fridlizius, and R. Ohlsson (eds.), Pre-Industrial Population Change (Lund, 1984), pp. 209-13; R. Lee, 'Mortality Levels and Agrarian Reforms in Early 19th Century Prussia: Some Regional Evidence', in Bengtsson, Fridlizius, and Ohlsson (eds.), Pre-Industrial Population Change, pp. 168-70.
20. A. Imhof, 'The Amazing Simultaneousness of the Big Differences and the Boom in the 19th Century - Some Facts and Hypotheses About Infant and Maternal Mortality in Germany, 18th to 20th Century', in T. Bengtsson, G. Fridlizius, and R. Ohlsson (eds.), Pre-Industrial Population Change (Lund, 1984), pp. 209-13; R. Lee, 'Mortality Levels and Agrarian Reforms in Early 19th Century Prussia: Some Regional Evidence', in Bengtsson, Fridlizius, and Ohlsson (eds.), Pre-Industrial Population Change, pp. 168-70.
21. E. A. Ingman, Några annmärkningar om de i Finland öfliga sätten att uppföda späda barn (Helsingfors, 1858); FLH VII (1857, 1858); B. Moring, 'Allmogens barnsyn i det agrara Finland och överhetens vantolkningar av densamma', Historisk Tidskrift för Finland, 1 (1993), 16-33.
22. E. A. Ingman, Några annmärkningar om de i Finland öfliga sätten att uppföda späda barn (Helsingfors, 1858); FLH VII (1857, 1858); B. Moring, 'Allmogens barnsyn i det agrara Finland och överhetens vantolkningar av densamma', Historisk Tidskrift för Finland, 1 (1993), 16-33.
23. E. A. Ingman, Några annmärkningar om de i Finland öfliga sätten att uppföda späda barn (Helsingfors, 1858); FLH VII (1857, 1858); B. Moring, 'Allmogens barnsyn i det agrara Finland och överhetens vantolkningar av densamma', Historisk Tidskrift för Finland, 1 (1993), 16-33.
24. O. Turpeinen, 'Lastensuojelu ja väestönkehitys', in P. Pulma and O. Turpeinen, Suomen lastensuojelun historia (Helsinki, 1987), pp. 352, 392; Pitkänen, 'Infant Mortality', p. 64; T. Herranen, 'Helsingin kasvulapuja vuosisadan vaihteessa', Arki ja Murros (Helsinki, 1990), pp. 105-10.
25. O. Turpeinen, 'Lastensuojelu ja väestönkehitys', in P. Pulma and O. Turpeinen, Suomen lastensuojelun historia (Helsinki, 1987), pp. 352, 392; Pitkänen, 'Infant Mortality', p. 64; T. Herranen, 'Helsingin kasvulapuja vuosisadan vaihteessa', Arki ja Murros (Helsinki, 1990), pp. 105-10.
26. O. Turpeinen, 'Lastensuojelu ja väestönkehitys', in P. Pulma and O. Turpeinen, Suomen lastensuojelun historia (Helsinki, 1987), pp. 352, 392; Pitkänen, 'Infant Mortality', p. 64; T. Herranen, 'Helsingin kasvulapuja vuosisadan vaihteessa', Arki ja Murros (Helsinki, 1990), pp. 105-10.
27. Collegium Medicum, Om späda barns ans och skötsel (Stockholm, 1755); Åbo Tidning (1803), pp. 5-6; Haartman and Lönnrot, Neuvoja, pp. 6-7, 10; Moring, 'Allmogens barnsyn', pp. 19-21, 24-26, 29-30.
28. Collegium Medicum, Om späda barns ans och skötsel (Stockholm, 1755); Åbo Tidning (1803), pp. 5-6; Haartman and Lönnrot, Neuvoja, pp. 6-7, 10; Moring, 'Allmogens barnsyn', pp. 19-21, 24-26, 29-30.
29. Collegium Medicum, Om späda barns ans och skötsel (Stockholm, 1755); Åbo Tidning (1803), pp. 5-6; Haartman and Lönnrot, Neuvoja, pp. 6-7, 10; Moring, 'Allmogens barnsyn', pp. 19-21, 24-26, 29-30.
30. Collegium Medicum, Om späda barns ans och skötsel (Stockholm, 1755); Åbo Tidning (1803), pp. 5-6; Haartman and Lönnrot, Neuvoja, pp. 6-7, 10; Moring, 'Allmogens barnsyn', pp. 19-21, 24-26, 29-30.
31. O. Hjelt, Svenska och Finska Medicinalverkets historia II (Helsingfors, 1892), pp. 61, 128; Turpeinen, 'Lastensuojelu', p. 289; G. V. Levander, 'Kätilöoloista maaseudulla', Duodecim, XXVII (Helsinki, 1911), pp. 323-4; L. Näse, 'Barnmorskeyrket i skärgården', Skärgård, 1 (1984), 21; U. Högberg, 'Maternal Mortality in Sweden'.
32. O. Hjelt, Svenska och Finska Medicinalverkets historia II (Helsingfors, 1892), pp. 61, 128; Turpeinen, 'Lastensuojelu', p. 289; G. V. Levander, 'Kätilöoloista maaseudulla', Duodecim, XXVII (Helsinki, 1911), pp. 323-4; L. Näse, 'Barnmorskeyrket i skärgården', Skärgård, 1 (1984), 21; U. Högberg, 'Maternal Mortality in Sweden'.
33. O. Hjelt, Svenska och Finska Medicinalverkets historia II (Helsingfors, 1892), pp. 61, 128; Turpeinen, 'Lastensuojelu', p. 289; G. V. Levander, 'Kätilöoloista maaseudulla', Duodecim, XXVII (Helsinki, 1911), pp. 323-4; L. Näse, 'Barnmorskeyrket i skärgården', Skärgård, 1 (1984), 21; U. Högberg, 'Maternal Mortality in Sweden'.
34. O. Hjelt, Svenska och Finska Medicinalverkets historia II (Helsingfors, 1892), pp. 61, 128; Turpeinen, 'Lastensuojelu', p. 289; G. V. Levander, 'Kätilöoloista maaseudulla', Duodecim, XXVII (Helsinki, 1911), pp. 323-4; L. Näse, 'Barnmorskeyrket i skärgården', Skärgård, 1 (1984), 21; U. Högberg, 'Maternal Mortality in Sweden'.
35. O. Hjelt, Svenska och Finska Medicinalverkets historia II (Helsingfors, 1892), pp. 61, 128; Turpeinen, 'Lastensuojelu', p. 289; G. V. Levander, 'Kätilöoloista maaseudulla', Duodecim, XXVII (Helsinki, 1911), pp. 323-4; L. Näse, 'Barnmorskeyrket i skärgården', Skärgård, 1 (1984), 21; U. Högberg, 'Maternal Mortality in Sweden'.
36. FLH VIII (1860), p. 981.
37. Pitkänen, 'Infant Mortality', p. 63.
38. A. Ylppö, Det späda barnets vård och föda (Helsingfors, 1920), pp. 18-28; Turpeinen, 'Lastensuojelu', pp. 392-5, 402; I. Blom, Spedbarneomsorg fra århundreskiftet til omkring 1940- foreldres eller samfunnets ansvar? Paper given at the Nordic Historian's Conference, Reykjavik, 1987, pp. 6-10; K. Eskelin, Terweydenhoidosta talonpoikaiskodeissa ja pienten lasten hoidosta, Martta- yhdistyksen kirjasia (Helsinki, 1899), p. 12.
39. A. Ylppö, Det späda barnets vård och föda (Helsingfors, 1920), pp. 18-28; Turpeinen, 'Lastensuojelu', pp. 392-5, 402; I. Blom, Spedbarneomsorg fra århundreskiftet til omkring 1940- foreldres eller samfunnets ansvar? Paper given at the Nordic Historian's Conference, Reykjavik, 1987, pp. 6-10; K. Eskelin, Terweydenhoidosta talonpoikaiskodeissa ja pienten lasten hoidosta, Martta- yhdistyksen kirjasia (Helsinki, 1899), p. 12.
40. A. Ylppö, Det späda barnets vård och föda (Helsingfors, 1920), pp. 18-28; Turpeinen, 'Lastensuojelu', pp. 392-5, 402; I. Blom, Spedbarneomsorg fra århundreskiftet til omkring 1940-foreldres eller samfunnets ansvar? Paper given at the Nordic Historian's Conference, Reykjavik, 1987, pp. 6-10; K. Eskelin, Terweydenhoidosta talonpoikaiskodeissa ja pienten lasten hoidosta, Martta- yhdistyksen kirjasia (Helsinki, 1899), p. 12.
41. A. Ylppö, Det späda barnets vård och föda (Helsingfors, 1920), pp. 18-28; Turpeinen, 'Lastensuojelu', pp. 392-5, 402; I. Blom, Spedbarneomsorg fra århundreskiftet til omkring 1940- foreldres eller samfunnets ansvar? Paper given at the Nordic Historian's Conference, Reykjavik, 1987, pp. 6-10; K. Eskelin, Terweydenhoidosta talonpoikaiskodeissa ja pienten lasten hoidosta, Martta- yhdistyksen kirjasia (Helsinki, 1899), p. 12.
42. M. W. Beaver, 'Population Infant Mortality and Milk', Population Studies, 27 (1973), 250-2.
43. Turpeinen, 'Lastensuojelu', pp. 335-6.
44. V. Rasila, 'Kehitys ja sen tulokset', Suomen Taloushistoria 2 (Helsinki, 1982), pp. 154-67; Turpeinen, 'Lastensujelu', p. 413.
45. V. Rasila, 'Kehitys ja sen tulokset', Suomen Taloushistoria 2 (Helsinki, 1982), pp. 154-67; Turpeinen, 'Lastensujelu', p. 413.
46. Pitkänen, 'Infant Mortality', p. 66; H. Gille 'World Population Development in the Light of the World Fertility Survey and the Latest Researches', in H. Hatunen (ed.), Family and Population (Helsinki, 1984), pp. 28-31.
47. Pitkänen, 'Infant Mortality', p. 66; H. Gille 'World Population Development in the Light of the World Fertility Survey and the Latest Researches', in H. Hatunen (ed.), Family and Population (Helsinki, 1984), pp. 28-31.
48. Turpeinen, 'Infectious Diseases', p. 332; F. W. Westerlund, Om dödligheten bland barn under 1 år i Finland 1872-1886, FLH XXXI (1889), pp. 661-3; Brändström, De kärlekslösa; F. J. Rabbe, Om de åtgärder som tid efter annan finnas vidtagne till införande af en rationel behandling af barnsjukdomarne i Finland, FLH (1844-45), 2 vols
49. Turpeinen, 'Infectious Diseases', p. 332; F. W. Westerlund, Om dödligheten bland barn under 1 år i Finland 1872-1886, FLH XXXI (1889), pp. 661-3; Brändström, De kärlekslösa; F. J. Rabbe, Om de åtgärder som tid efter annan finnas vidtagne till införande af en rationel behandling af barnsjukdomarne i Finland, FLH (1844-45), 2 vols
50. Turpeinen, 'Infectious Diseases', p. 332; F. W. Westerlund, Om dödligheten bland barn under 1 år i Finland 1872-1886, FLH XXXI (1889), pp. 661-3; Brändström, De kärlekslösa; F. J. Rabbe, Om de åtgärder som tid efter annan finnas vidtagne till införande af en rationel behandling af barnsjukdomarne i Finland, FLH (1844-45), 2 vols
51. Turpeinen, 'Infectious Diseases', p. 332; F. W. Westerlund, Om dödligheten bland barn under 1 år i Finland 1872-1886, FLH XXXI (1889), pp. 661-3; Brändström, De kärlekslösa; F. J. Rabbe, Om de åtgärder som tid efter annan finnas vidtagne till införande af en rationel behandling af barnsjukdomarne i Finland, FLH (1844-45), 2 vols
52. FLH VII (1857), p. 239; FLH VII (1858), p. 576; FLH VIII (1860), p. 468; O. Turpeinen, 'Monthly Mortality in Finland 1751-1806', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, XVII (1979), 58-9; O. Turpeinen, 'Infant Mortality in Finland 1749-1865', The Scandinavian Economic History Review, XXVII (1979), 1-21.
53. FLH VII (1857), p. 239; FLH VII (1858), p. 576; FLH VIII (1860), p. 468; O. Turpeinen, 'Monthly Mortality in Finland 1751-1806', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, XVII (1979), 58-9; O. Turpeinen, 'Infant Mortality in Finland 1749-1865', The Scandinavian Economic History Review, XXVII (1979), 1-21.
54. FLH VII (1857), p. 239; FLH VII (1858), p. 576; FLH VIII (1860), p. 468; O. Turpeinen, 'Monthly Mortality in Finland 1751-1806', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, XVII (1979), 58-9; O. Turpeinen, 'Infant Mortality in Finland 1749-1865', The Scandinavian Economic History Review, XXVII (1979), 1-21.
55. FLH VII (1857), p. 239; FLH VII (1858), p. 576; FLH VIII (1860), p. 468; O. Turpeinen, 'Monthly Mortality in Finland 1751-1806', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, XVII (1979), 58-9; O. Turpeinen, 'Infant Mortality in Finland 1749-1865', The Scandinavian Economic History Review, XXVII (1979), 1-21.
56. FLH VII (1857), p. 239; FLH VII (1858), p. 576; FLH VIII (1860), p. 468; O. Turpeinen, 'Monthly Mortality in Finland 1751-1806', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, XVII (1979), 58-9; O. Turpeinen, 'Infant Mortality in Finland 1749-1865', The Scandinavian Economic History Review, XXVII (1979), 1-21.
57. Turpeinen, 'Infant Mortality', p. 64.
58. Turpeinen, 'Infant Mortality', figure 2.
59. Collegium Medicum, Om späda barns.
60. Haartman and Lönnrot, Neuvoja.
61. J. Granlund, 'Kinderwiegen in Skandinavien', Ethnologia Europaea, VIII (1975), 146-52.
62. E. Klingius, Historisk Beskrifning ofver Malax Församling 1767 (Malax, 1986), p. 83; H. R. Sjöberg, Livet bland kvarkens söner och döttrar (Vasa, 1925/1984), pp. 5, 111; H. Tegengren, Kronoby sockens historia (Åbo, 1943), p. 171; Turpeinen, 'Infectious Diseases', p. 531; C. C. Böcker, Questionnaire of the Situation in the Rural Parishes of Finland 1833-1834. The Finnish National Archives.
63. E. Klingius, Historisk Beskrifning ofver Malax Församling 1767 (Malax, 1986), p. 83; H. R. Sjöberg, Livet bland kvarkens söner och döttrar (Vasa, 1925/1984), pp. 5, 111; H. Tegengren, Kronoby sockens historia (Åbo, 1943), p. 171; Turpeinen, 'Infectious Diseases', p. 531; C. C. Böcker, Questionnaire of the Situation in the Rural Parishes of Finland 1833-1834. The Finnish National Archives.
64. E. Klingius, Historisk Beskrifning ofver Malax Församling 1767 (Malax, 1986), p. 83; H. R. Sjöberg, Livet bland kvarkens söner och döttrar (Vasa, 1925/1984), pp. 5, 111; H. Tegengren, Kronoby sockens historia (Åbo, 1943), p. 171; Turpeinen, 'Infectious Diseases', p. 531; C. C. Böcker, Questionnaire of the Situation in the Rural Parishes of Finland 1833-1834. The Finnish National Archives.
65. E. Klingius, Historisk Beskrifning ofver Malax Församling 1767 (Malax, 1986), p. 83; H. R. Sjöberg, Livet bland kvarkens söner och döttrar (Vasa, 1925/1984), pp. 5, 111; H. Tegengren, Kronoby sockens historia (Åbo, 1943), p. 171; Turpeinen, 'Infectious Diseases', p. 531; C. C. Böcker, Questionnaire of the Situation in the Rural Parishes of Finland 1833-1834. The Finnish National Archives.
66. E. Klingius, Historisk Beskrifning ofver Malax Församling 1767 (Malax, 1986), p. 83; H. R. Sjöberg, Livet bland kvarkens söner och döttrar (Vasa, 1925/1984), pp. 5, 111; H. Tegengren, Kronoby sockens historia (Åbo, 1943), p. 171; Turpeinen, 'Infectious Diseases', p. 531; C. C. Böcker, Questionnaire of the Situation in the Rural Parishes of Finland 1833-1834. The Finnish National Archives.
67. K. Vilkuna, Suomen Kulttuurihistoria II (Helsinki, 1934), pp. 309-11.
68. Collegium Medicum, 'Om späda barns'; Westerlund, Om dödligheten, p. 600; Finska Hushållningssällskapets arkiv (The Archive of the Society for Economic Progress) FHS D IV 7 (1880); Haartman and Lönnroth, Neuvoja, pp. 7, 13.
69. Collegium Medicum, 'Om späda barns'; Westerlund, Om dödligheten, p. 600; Finska Hushållningssällskapets arkiv (The Archive of the Society for Economic Progress) FHS D IV 7 (1880); Haartman and Lönnroth, Neuvoja, pp. 7, 13.
70. Collegium Medicum, 'Om späda barns'; Westerlund, Om dödligheten, p. 600; Finska Hushållningssällskapets arkiv (The Archive of the Society for Economic Progress) FHS D IV 7 (1880); Haartman and Lönnroth, Neuvoja, pp. 7, 13.
71. Collegium Medicum, 'Om späda barns'; Westerlund, Om dödligheten, p. 600; Finska Hushållningssällskapets arkiv (The Archive of the Society for Economic Progress) FHS D IV 7 (1880); Haartman and Lönnroth, Neuvoja, pp. 7, 13.
72. FHS IV 7 (1800), p. 64-8;
73. Folkkultursarkivet (The Archive for Popular Culture) FKA coll. 361 V:7.
74. Lithell, Kvinnoarbete, p. 71.
75. A. M. Soininen, Vanha maataloutemme (Helsinki, 1974), pp. 401-2.
76. Pitkänen, 'Infant Mortality', pp. 62-3.
77. Lithell, Kvinnoarbete, figure 1, p. 106.
78. Turpeinen, 'Infectious Diseases', p. 532; Turpeinen, 'Lastensuojelu', p. 322.
79. Turpeinen, 'Infectious Diseases', p. 532; Turpeinen, 'Lastensuojelu', p. 322.
80. Turpeinen, 'Lastensuojelu', pp. 320-1; Brändström, De kärlekslösa.
81. Turpeinen, 'Lastensuojelu', pp. 320-1; Brändström, De kärlekslösa.
82. FHS D IV (1880), pp. 11, 215; K. V. Åkerblom, Replot historia (Vasa, 1925), p. 262; J. Tegengren, 'Seder vid barnfȯdsel och barnsöl i Vöro', Brage Årsskrift XII-XIV (Helsingfors, 1923), pp. 60-9.
83. FHS D IV (1880), pp. 11, 215; K. V. Åkerblom, Replot historia (Vasa, 1925), p. 262; J. Tegengren, 'Seder vid barnfȯdsel och barnsöl i Vöro', Brage Årsskrift XII-XIV (Helsingfors, 1923), pp. 60-9.
84. FHS D IV (1880), pp. 11, 215; K. V. Åkerblom, Replot historia (Vasa, 1925), p. 262; J. Tegengren, 'Seder vid barnfȯdsel och barnsöl i Vöro', Brage Årsskrift XII-XIV (Helsingfors, 1923), pp. 60-9.
85. Westerlund, Om dödligheten, pp. 669-70.
86. Soininen, Vanha maataloutemme, p. 401.
87. Haartman and Lönnroth, Neuvoja, p. 18.
88. F. von Knorring, Om helsovård (Tavastehus, 1865), pp. 35-7.
89. Ingman, Några anmärkningar, pp. 12-13.
90. E. Juvelius, 'Muutamia tietoja vastasyntyneitten lasten ruokkimisesta Suomessa 1750-luvulla', Historiallinen Aikakauskirja (Helsinki, 1921), pp. 249-50.
91. Turpeinen, 'Lastensuojelu', p. 320.
92. FKA 486, FKA coll FMK 40.
93. FLH VII (1858), p. 623.
94. FKA 361; H. Stockhammar, Flydda tider i Sydösterbotten (Åbo, 1946), p. 109.
95. FKA 361; H. Stockhammar, Flydda tider i Sydösterbotten (Åbo, 1946), p. 109.
96. Figure 3, 1841-65.
97. Westerlund, Om dödliheten, pp. 601, 661, 663.
98. G. Karste-Liikkanen, Pietarinsuuntaus kannakselaisessa elämänkentässä 1800-luvun loppupuolelta vuoteen 1918. Kansantieteellinen Arkisto 20 (Helsinki, 1968), pp. 90-2; M. Engman, 'Hittebarnets värld i 1700- och 1800-talets Europa', Historisk Tidskrift för Finland, 3 (1990) pp. 423-5; Westerlund, Om dödligheten, p. 601; D. Ransel, 'Abandonment and Fosterage of Unwanted Children: The Women of the Foundling System', in D. Ransel (ed.), The Family in Imperial Russia (Urbana, 1976), pp. 189-217.
99. G. Karste-Liikkanen, Pietarinsuuntaus kannakselaisessa elämänkentässä 1800-luvun loppupuolelta vuoteen 1918. Kansantieteellinen Arkisto 20 (Helsinki, 1968), pp. 90-2; M. Engman, 'Hittebarnets värld i 1700- och 1800-talets Europa', Historisk Tidskrift för Finland, 3 (1990) pp. 423-5; Westerlund, Om dödligheten, p. 601; D. Ransel, 'Abandonment and Fosterage of Unwanted Children: The Women of the Foundling System', in D. Ransel (ed.), The Family in Imperial Russia (Urbana, 1976), pp. 189-217.
100. G. Karste-Liikkanen, Pietarinsuuntaus kannakselaisessa elämänkentässä 1800-luvun loppupuolelta vuoteen 1918. Kansantieteellinen Arkisto 20 (Helsinki, 1968), pp. 90-2; M. Engman, 'Hittebarnets värld i 1700- och 1800-talets Europa', Historisk Tidskrift för Finland, 3 (1990) pp. 423-5; Westerlund, Om dödligheten, p. 601; D. Ransel, 'Abandonment and Fosterage of Unwanted Children: The Women of the Foundling System', in D. Ransel (ed.), The Family in Imperial Russia (Urbana, 1976), pp. 189-217.
101. G. Karste-Liikkanen, Pietarinsuuntaus kannakselaisessa elämänkentässä 1800-luvun loppupuolelta vuoteen 1918. Kansantieteellinen Arkisto 20 (Helsinki, 1968), pp. 90-2; M. Engman, 'Hittebarnets värld i 1700- och 1800-talets Europa', Historisk Tidskrift för Finland, 3 (1990) pp. 423-5; Westerlund, Om dödligheten, p. 601; D. Ransel, 'Abandonment and Fosterage of Unwanted Children: The Women of the Foundling System', in D. Ransel (ed.), The Family in Imperial Russia (Urbana, 1976), pp. 189-217.
102. U.-B. Lithell, 'Poverty and Marital Fertility', Meddelande från Familjehistoriska projektet 3, Historiska institutionen, Uppsala Universitet (Uppsala, 1982), pp. 71-3, 80, 90.
103. Y. Kaukiainen, 'Vanha Suomi ulkomaisten matkailijoiden kuvauksissa', Historiallinen Arkisto 64 (Helsinki, 1969), pp. 184-5, 196-203.
104. Lithell, 'Poverty', p. 81.
105. I.-L. Notkola, Luonnollisesta hedelmällisyydestä lapsirajoitukseen, Publications of the Finnish Demographic Society 12 (Helsinki, 1989), pp. 126-7;
106. Lithell, 'Poverty', pp. 76-7.
107. E. Raussi, Virolahden kansanelämää 1840-luvulla. SKS Toimituksia 280 (Helsinki, 1966/1840), pp. 321, 331-2.
108. Engman 'Hittebarnets', p. 432; Ransel, 'Abandonment', pp. 197-201, 213.
109. Engman 'Hittebarnets', p. 432; Ransel, 'Abandonment', pp. 197-201, 213.
110. Karste-Liikkanen, Pietarinsuuntaus, p. 91; Engman, 'Hittebarnets', pp. 410-11, 438 ; FLH VII (1857), pp. 246-7, 257, 263; FLH VII (1858), pp. 616, 629; Westerlund, Om dödligheten, pp. 661-3.
111. Karste-Liikkanen, Pietarinsuuntaus, p. 91; Engman, 'Hittebarnets', pp. 410-11, 438 ; FLH VII (1857), pp. 246-7, 257, 263; FLH VII (1858), pp. 616, 629; Westerlund, Om dödligheten, pp. 661-3.
112. Karste-Liikkanen, Pietarinsuuntaus, p. 91; Engman, 'Hittebarnets', pp. 410-11, 438 ; FLH VII (1857), pp. 246-7, 257, 263; FLH VII (1858), pp. 616, 629; Westerlund, Om dödligheten, pp. 661-3.
113. Karste-Liikkanen, Pietarinsuuntaus, p. 91; Engman, 'Hittebarnets', pp. 410-11, 438 ; FLH VII (1857), pp. 246-7, 257, 263; FLH VII (1858), pp. 616, 629; Westerlund, Om dödligheten, pp. 661-3.
114. Karste-Liikkanen, Pietarinsuuntaus, p. 91; Engman, 'Hittebarnets', pp. 410-11, 438 ; FLH VII (1857), pp. 246-7, 257, 263; FLH VII (1858), pp. 616, 629; Westerlund, Om dödligheten, pp. 661-3.
115. O. Turpeinen, 'Regional Differentials in Finnish Mortality Rates 1816-1865', Scandinavian Economic History Review, XXI (1973), 153-4; Turpeinen, 'Lastensuojelu', p. 322.
116. O. Turpeinen, 'Regional Differentials in Finnish Mortality Rates 1816-1865', Scandinavian Economic History Review, XXI (1973), 153-4; Turpeinen, 'Lastensuojelu', p. 322.
117. F. W. Radloff, Beskrifning öfver Åland (Mariehamn, 1795/1968), pp. 213-14; FLH VII (1857), pp. 2, 38, 572-3; FLH VIII (1860), pp. 469-70;
118. F. W. Radloff, Beskrifning öfver Åland (Mariehamn, 1795/1968), pp. 213-14; FLH VII (1857), pp. 2, 38, 572-3; FLH VIII (1860), pp. 469-70;
119. F. W. Radloff, Beskrifning öfver Åland (Mariehamn, 1795/1968), pp. 213-14; FLH VII (1857), pp. 2, 38, 572-3; FLH VIII (1860), pp. 469-70;
120. Ingman, Några anmärkinngar, pp. 18-19.
121. FLH VII (1857), pp. 239, 572-6, 581; FLH VIII (1860), pp. 468-9.
122. FLH VII (1857), pp. 239, 572-6, 581; FLH VIII (1860), pp. 468-9.
123. B. Moring, Skärgårdsbor. Hushåll, familj och demografi i finländsk kustbygd på i 600-, 1700- och 1800-talen (Helsingfors, 1994), pp. 124-5.
124. Ibid.
125. Radloff, Beskrifining, p. 190; R. Ahlbäck, Bonden i Svenska Finland, Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland (Helsingfors, 1983), p. 135; K. Nordberg, En öst-åländsk skärgårdsby (Åbo, 1925), pp. 83-4; L. Zilliacus, Hur potatisodlingen infȯrdes i Finland på 1700-talet (unpublished thesis, Åbo Akademi, Department of History, 1955), p. 106; Böckers survey, 1834-1835.
126. Radloff, Beskrifining, p. 190; R. Ahlbäck, Bonden i Svenska Finland, Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland (Helsingfors, 1983), p. 135; K. Nordberg, En öst-åländsk skärgårdsby (Åbo, 1925), pp. 83-4; L. Zilliacus, Hur potatisodlingen infȯrdes i Finland på 1700-talet (unpublished thesis, Åbo Akademi, Department of History, 1955), p. 106; Böckers survey, 1834-1835.
127. Radloff, Beskrifining, p. 190; R. Ahlbäck, Bonden i Svenska Finland, Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland (Helsingfors, 1983), p. 135; K. Nordberg, En öst-åländsk skärgårdsby (Åbo, 1925), pp. 83-4; L. Zilliacus, Hur potatisodlingen infȯrdes i Finland på 1700-talet (unpublished thesis, Åbo Akademi, Department of History, 1955), p. 106; Böckers survey, 1834-1835.
128. Radloff, Beskrifining, p. 190; R. Ahlbäck, Bonden i Svenska Finland, Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland (Helsingfors, 1983), p. 135; K. Nordberg, En öst-åländsk skärgårdsby (Åbo, 1925), pp. 83-4; L. Zilliacus, Hur potatisodlingen infȯrdes i Finland på 1700-talet (unpublished thesis, Åbo Akademi, Department of History, 1955), p. 106; Böckers survey, 1834-1835.
129. FLH VII (1857), p. 572; FLH VIII (1860), p. 467.
130. FLH VII (1857), p. 572; FLH VIII (1860), p. 467.
131. Ingman, Några anmärkningar, pp. 7, 18; B. Bonsdorff, The History of Medicine in Finland (Helsinki, 1975), pp. 235-6; J. Mokyr, Why Ireland Starved (London, 1985), pp. 7-8; B. Moring, 'Infant Mortality in South-Western Finland 1750-1850', Scandinavian Population Studies 9 (1989), 143-4; Moring, Skärgårdsbor, p. 123; T. Bengtsson, 'Harvest Fluctuations and Demographic Response: Southern Sweden 1751-1858', in Bengtsson, Fridlizius, and Ohlsson (eds.), Pre-Industrial Population Change, pp. 336-9; C. Corsini, 'Structural Modifications of Infant Mortality in Tuscany Between the 17th and the 18th Centuries', in Bengtsson, Fridlizius, and Ohlsson (eds.), Pre-Industrial Population Change, pp. 143-4.
132. Ingman, Några anmärkningar, pp. 7, 18; B. Bonsdorff, The History of Medicine in Finland (Helsinki, 1975), pp. 235-6; J. Mokyr, Why Ireland Starved (London, 1985), pp. 7-8; B. Moring, 'Infant Mortality in South-Western Finland 1750-1850', Scandinavian Population Studies 9 (1989), 143-4; Moring, Skärgårdsbor, p. 123; T. Bengtsson, 'Harvest Fluctuations and Demographic Response: Southern Sweden 1751-1858', in Bengtsson, Fridlizius, and Ohlsson (eds.), Pre-Industrial Population Change, pp. 336-9; C. Corsini, 'Structural Modifications of Infant Mortality in Tuscany Between the 17th and the 18th Centuries', in Bengtsson, Fridlizius, and Ohlsson (eds.), Pre-Industrial Population Change, pp. 143-4.
133. Ingman, Några anmärkningar, pp. 7, 18; B. Bonsdorff, The History of Medicine in Finland (Helsinki, 1975), pp. 235-6; J. Mokyr, Why Ireland Starved (London, 1985), pp. 7-8; B. Moring, 'Infant Mortality in South-Western Finland 1750-1850', Scandinavian Population Studies 9 (1989), 143-4; Moring, Skärgårdsbor, p. 123; T. Bengtsson, 'Harvest Fluctuations and Demographic Response: Southern Sweden 1751-1858', in Bengtsson, Fridlizius, and Ohlsson (eds.), Pre-Industrial Population Change, pp. 336-9; C. Corsini, 'Structural Modifications of Infant Mortality in Tuscany Between the 17th and the 18th Centuries', in Bengtsson, Fridlizius, and Ohlsson (eds.), Pre-Industrial Population Change, pp. 143-4.
134. Ingman, Några anmärkningar, pp. 7, 18; B. Bonsdorff, The History of Medicine in Finland (Helsinki, 1975), pp. 235-6; J. Mokyr, Why Ireland Starved (London, 1985), pp. 7-8; B. Moring, 'Infant Mortality in South-Western Finland 1750-1850', Scandinavian Population Studies 9 (1989), 143-4; Moring, Skärgårdsbor, p. 123; T. Bengtsson, 'Harvest Fluctuations and Demographic Response: Southern Sweden 1751-1858', in Bengtsson, Fridlizius, and Ohlsson (eds.), Pre-Industrial Population Change, pp. 336-9; C. Corsini, 'Structural Modifications of Infant Mortality in Tuscany Between the 17th and the 18th Centuries', in Bengtsson, Fridlizius, and Ohlsson (eds.), Pre-Industrial Population Change, pp. 143-4.
135. Ingman, Några anmärkningar, pp. 7, 18; B. Bonsdorff, The History of Medicine in Finland (Helsinki, 1975), pp. 235-6; J. Mokyr, Why Ireland Starved (London, 1985), pp. 7-8; B. Moring, 'Infant Mortality in South-Western Finland 1750-1850', Scandinavian Population Studies 9 (1989), 143-4; Moring, Skärgårdsbor, p. 123; T. Bengtsson, 'Harvest Fluctuations and Demographic Response: Southern Sweden 1751-1858', in Bengtsson, Fridlizius, and Ohlsson (eds.), Pre-Industrial Population Change, pp. 336-9; C. Corsini, 'Structural Modifications of Infant Mortality in Tuscany Between the 17th and the 18th Centuries', in Bengtsson, Fridlizius, and Ohlsson (eds.), Pre-Industrial Population Change, pp. 143-4.
136. Ingman, Några anmärkningar, pp. 7, 18; B. Bonsdorff, The History of Medicine in Finland (Helsinki, 1975), pp. 235-6; J. Mokyr, Why Ireland Starved (London, 1985), pp. 7-8; B. Moring, 'Infant Mortality in South-Western Finland 1750-1850', Scandinavian Population Studies 9 (1989), 143-4; Moring, Skärgårdsbor, p. 123; T. Bengtsson, 'Harvest Fluctuations and Demographic Response: Southern Sweden 1751-1858', in Bengtsson, Fridlizius, and Ohlsson (eds.), Pre-Industrial Population Change, pp. 336-9; C. Corsini, 'Structural Modifications of Infant Mortality in Tuscany Between the 17th and the 18th Centuries', in Bengtsson, Fridlizius, and Ohlsson (eds.), Pre-Industrial Population Change, pp. 143-4.
137. Ingman, Några anmärkningar, pp. 7, 18; B. Bonsdorff, The History of Medicine in Finland (Helsinki, 1975), pp. 235-6; J. Mokyr, Why Ireland Starved (London, 1985), pp. 7-8; B. Moring, 'Infant Mortality in South-Western Finland 1750-1850', Scandinavian Population Studies 9 (1989), 143-4; Moring, Skärgårdsbor, p. 123; T. Bengtsson, 'Harvest Fluctuations and Demographic Response: Southern Sweden 1751-1858', in Bengtsson, Fridlizius, and Ohlsson (eds.), Pre-Industrial Population Change, pp. 336-9; C. Corsini, 'Structural Modifications of Infant Mortality in Tuscany Between the 17th and the 18th Centuries', in Bengtsson, Fridlizius, and Ohlsson (eds.), Pre-Industrial Population Change, pp. 143-4.
138. Westerlund, Om dödligheten, p. 693.
139. FLH VIII (1860), p. 475; Näse, 'Barnmorskeyrket', p. 21.
140. FLH VIII (1860), p. 475; Näse, 'Barnmorskeyrket', p. 21.
141. Moring, Skärgårdsbor, p. 126.
142. Moring, Skärgårdsbor, p. 118; FLH VII (1857), pp. 238, 573.
143. Moring, Skärgårdsbor, p. 118; FLH VII (1857), pp. 238, 573.
144. FHS D XIII, 2B pp. 22, 81; FLH VIII (1860), p. 45.
145. FHS D XIII, 2B pp. 22, 81; FLH VIII (1860), p. 45.
146. B. Moring, 'The Regulation of Fertility in Pre-Industrial Populations: A Local Study from Eighteenth Century Finland', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland (1996), 284-94.
147. Moring, Skärgårdsbor, pp. 66-9, 125-7, Moring, 'Infant Mortality', p. 140.
148. Moring, Skärgårdsbor, pp. 66-9, 125-7, Moring, 'Infant Mortality', p. 140.