Gibraltar's 1804 Yellow Fever Scourge: The Search for Scapegoats

Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences

Volumn 53, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 3-42

  Sawchuk, Lawrence A ^a   Burke, Stacie D A ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; DISPLACEMENT BEHAVIOR; EPIDEMIC; GIBRALTAR; HISTORY; HUMAN; MIGRATION; YELLOW FEVER;

DISEASE OUTBREAKS; EMIGRATION AND IMMIGRATION; GIBRALTAR; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HUMANS; SCAPEGOATING; YELLOW FEVER;

EID: 0031603061     PISSN: 00225045     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jhmas/53.1.3     Document Type: Article

References (158)

1. Sir William Jackson, The Rock of the Gibraltarians: A History of Gibraltar (Grendon, Northants: Gibraltar Books, 1990), pp. 196-97.
2. Alberto Palloni, "Assessing the levels and impact of mortality in crisis situations," in Jacques Vallin, Stan D'Souza, and Alberto Palloni, eds., Measurement and Analysis of Mortality: New Approaches (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), p. 194-228.
3. Sherburne F. Cook, "The significance of disease in the extinction of the New England Indians," Hum. Biol., 1973, 45, 485-508; Henry F. Dobyns, "Disease transfer at contact," Annu. Rev. Anthropol., 1993, 22, 273-91; Charles D. Laughlin, and Ivan A. Brady, "Introduction: Diaphasis and change in human populations," in Charles D. Laughlin and Ivan A. Brady, eds., Extinction and Survival in Human Populations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), pp. 18-19; William H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (New York: Anchor Press, 1976).
4. Sherburne F. Cook, "The significance of disease in the extinction of the New England Indians," Hum. Biol., 1973, 45, 485-508; Henry F. Dobyns, "Disease transfer at contact," Annu. Rev. Anthropol., 1993, 22, 273-91; Charles D. Laughlin, and Ivan A. Brady, "Introduction: Diaphasis and change in human populations," in Charles D. Laughlin and Ivan A. Brady, eds., Extinction and Survival in Human Populations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), pp. 18-19; William H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (New York: Anchor Press, 1976).
5. Sherburne F. Cook, "The significance of disease in the extinction of the New England Indians," Hum. Biol., 1973, 45, 485-508; Henry F. Dobyns, "Disease transfer at contact," Annu. Rev. Anthropol., 1993, 22, 273-91; Charles D. Laughlin, and Ivan A. Brady, "Introduction: Diaphasis and change in human populations," in Charles D. Laughlin and Ivan A. Brady, eds., Extinction and Survival in Human Populations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), pp. 18-19; William H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (New York: Anchor Press, 1976).
6. Sherburne F. Cook, "The significance of disease in the extinction of the New England Indians," Hum. Biol., 1973, 45, 485-508; Henry F. Dobyns, "Disease transfer at contact," Annu. Rev. Anthropol., 1993, 22, 273-91; Charles D. Laughlin, and Ivan A. Brady, "Introduction: Diaphasis and change in human populations," in Charles D. Laughlin and Ivan A. Brady, eds., Extinction and Survival in Human Populations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), pp. 18-19; William H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (New York: Anchor Press, 1976).
7. Jo Ann Carrigan, The Saffron Scourge: A History of Yellow Fever in Louisiana, 1796-1905 (Lafayette, La: Center for Louisiana Studies, University of Southwestern Louisiana, 1994), p. 5.
8. Philip D. Curtin, Death by Migration: Europe's Encounter until the Tropical World in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); see also Mary J. Dobson, "Mortality gradients and disease exchanges: Comparisons from Old England and colonial America," Soc. Hist. Med., 1989, 2, 259-97.
9. Philip D. Curtin, Death by Migration: Europe's Encounter until the Tropical World in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); see also Mary J. Dobson, "Mortality gradients and disease exchanges: Comparisons from Old England and colonial America," Soc. Hist. Med., 1989, 2, 259-97.
10. Tito Benady, "The Jewish community of Gibraltar," in R.D. Barnett and W.M. Schwab, eds., The Sephardi Heritage, vol. II. Essays on the History and Cultural Contributions of the Jews of Spain and Portugal (Grendon, Northants: Gibraltar Books, 1989), pp. 144-179.
11. C.E. Gordon Smith and Mary E. Gibson, "Yellow fever in South Wales, 1865," Med. Hist., 1986, 30, 322-40.
12. McNeill, (n. 3) Plagues and Peoples, p. 96.
13. G. Augustin, History of Yellow Fever (New Orleans: Searcy & Pfaff, 1909), p. 484.
14. W. Pym, Observations upon Bulam, Vomito-Negro or Yellow Fever (London: John Churchill, 1838), p. 21.
15. Thomas Dodd, Secretary, Proclamation, Headquarters of Gibraltar, 27 August 1804, p. 26. Gibraltar Government Archives, Gibraltar (referred to hereafter as GGA).
16. J. Sutherland, Report on the Sanitary Condition of Gibraltar with Reference to the Epidemic Cholera in the Year 1865 (London: George Edward Eyre and William Spottiswode, 1867).
17. John Hennen, Sketches of the Medical Topography of the Mediterranean comprising an account of Gibraltar, the Ionian Islands, and Malta; to which is prefixed, A Sketch of a Plan for Memoirs on Medical Topography (London: Thomas and George Underwood, Fleet Street, 1830), p. 18.
18. Sam Benady, Civil Hospital and Epidemics in Gibraltar (Grendon, Northants: Gibraltar Books Ltd., 1994).
19. J.D. Goodyear, "The sugar connection: a new perspective on the history of yellow fever," Bull. Hist. Med., 1978, 52, 5-21, p. 12; Robert Shope, "Global climate change and infectious diseases," Environ. Health Perspect., 1991, 96, 171-74, p. 172.
20. J.D. Goodyear, "The sugar connection: a new perspective on the history of yellow fever," Bull. Hist. Med., 1978, 52, 5-21, p. 12; Robert Shope, "Global climate change and infectious diseases," Environ. Health Perspect., 1991, 96, 171-74, p. 172.
21. Jean Slosek, "Aedes aegypti mosquitoes in the Americas: A review of their Interactions with the human population," Soc. Sci. Med., 1986, 23, 249-57, p. 251.
22. Sutherland, (n. 13) Report on the Sanitary Condition.
23. G. Dansey-Browning, Annual Report on the Public Health of Gibraltar (Gibraltar: Garrison Printing Press, 1915).
24. Hennen, (n. 14) Sketches, p. 71.
25. Frederick Sayer, The History of Gibraltar and of Its Political Relation to Events in Europe, 2nd ed. (London: Chapman and Hall, 1865), p. 477.
26. Goodyear, (n. 16), p. 10.
27. Hennen, (n. 14) Sketches, pp. 27, 30.
28. Goodyear, (n. 16), p. 10.
29. Smith and Gibson, (n. 7), p. 332.
30. Hennen, (n. 14) Sketches, p. 60.
31. Slosek, (n. 17), p. 251.
32. According to Smith and Gibson, Carlos Finlay first published his findings on the role of A. aegypti in the transmission of yellow fever in 1881 (Smith and Gibson, [n. 7], p. 336). However, as Löwy states, "little attention was paid to it. Nowhere were concrete steps taken in order to eradicate the mosquito or to isolate the yellow fever patient trom flying insects" (Ilana Löwy, "Yellow fever in Rio de Janeiro and the Pasteur Institute Mission [1901-1905]: The transfer of science to the periphery," Med. Hist., 1990, 34, 144-63, p. 151). The combined work of Finlay, Sternberg, Carter, and the Reed group eventually helped to restructure the methods of microbiology, leading to a more definite understanding of the yellow fever virus, which had been a long-standing thom in the side of microbe hunters (Ibid.; Harold M. Malkin, "The trials and tribulations of George Miller Sternberg [1838-1915] - America's first bacteriologist," Perspect. Biol. Med., 1993, 36, 666-78; Theodore E. Woodward, "Epidemiologic classics of Carter, Maxcy, Trudeau, and Smith," J. Infect. Dis., 1992, 165, 233-44).
33. According to Smith and Gibson, Carlos Finlay first published his findings on the role of A. aegypti in the transmission of yellow fever in 1881 (Smith and Gibson, [n. 7], p. 336). However, as Löwy states, "little attention was paid to it. Nowhere were concrete steps taken in order to eradicate the mosquito or to isolate the yellow fever patient trom flying insects" (Ilana Löwy, "Yellow fever in Rio de Janeiro and the Pasteur Institute Mission [1901-1905]: The transfer of science to the periphery," Med. Hist., 1990, 34, 144-63, p. 151). The combined work of Finlay, Sternberg, Carter, and the Reed group eventually helped to restructure the methods of microbiology, leading to a more definite understanding of the yellow fever virus, which had been a long-standing thom in the side of microbe hunters (Ibid.; Harold M. Malkin, "The trials and tribulations of George Miller Sternberg [1838-1915] - America's first bacteriologist," Perspect. Biol. Med., 1993, 36, 666-78; Theodore E. Woodward, "Epidemiologic classics of Carter, Maxcy, Trudeau, and Smith," J. Infect. Dis., 1992, 165, 233-44).
34. According to Smith and Gibson, Carlos Finlay first published his findings on the role of A. aegypti in the transmission of yellow fever in 1881 (Smith and Gibson, [n. 7], p. 336). However, as Löwy states, "little attention was paid to it. Nowhere were concrete steps taken in order to eradicate the mosquito or to isolate the yellow fever patient trom flying insects" (Ilana Löwy, "Yellow fever in Rio de Janeiro and the Pasteur Institute Mission [1901-1905]: The transfer of science to the periphery," Med. Hist., 1990, 34, 144-63, p. 151). The combined work of Finlay, Sternberg, Carter, and the Reed group eventually helped to restructure the methods of microbiology, leading to a more definite understanding of the yellow fever virus, which had been a long-standing thom in the side of microbe hunters (Ibid.; Harold M. Malkin, "The trials and tribulations of George Miller Sternberg [1838-1915] - America's first bacteriologist," Perspect. Biol. Med., 1993, 36, 666-78; Theodore E. Woodward, "Epidemiologic classics of Carter, Maxcy, Trudeau, and Smith," J. Infect. Dis., 1992, 165, 233-44).
35. According to Smith and Gibson, Carlos Finlay first published his findings on the role of A. aegypti in the transmission of yellow fever in 1881 (Smith and Gibson, [n. 7], p. 336). However, as Löwy states, "little attention was paid to it. Nowhere were concrete steps taken in order to eradicate the mosquito or to isolate the yellow fever patient trom flying insects" (Ilana Löwy, "Yellow fever in Rio de Janeiro and the Pasteur Institute Mission [1901-1905]: The transfer of science to the periphery," Med. Hist., 1990, 34, 144-63, p. 151). The combined work of Finlay, Sternberg, Carter, and the Reed group eventually helped to restructure the methods of microbiology, leading to a more definite understanding of the yellow fever virus, which had been a long-standing thom in the side of microbe hunters (Ibid.; Harold M. Malkin, "The trials and tribulations of George Miller Sternberg [1838-1915] - America's first bacteriologist," Perspect. Biol. Med., 1993, 36, 666-78; Theodore E. Woodward, "Epidemiologic classics of Carter, Maxcy, Trudeau, and Smith," J. Infect. Dis., 1992, 165, 233-44).
36. Hennen, (n. 14) Sketches, p. 109.
37. David Barry, On the Sanatory Management of the Gibraltar Epidemic Fever (London: Thomas Wilson, 1830), p. 8.
38. Pym, (n. 10) Observations, p. 21.
39. Ibid.
40. Ibid.
41. Hennen, (n. 14) Sketches, pp. 108-9.
42. Thomas Trigge, General and Governor of Gibraltar to Mr. Stuges Bourne, Esquire, Secretary of the Treasury, Treasury Chambers, London, 20 October 1804. Correspondence in the Treasury Book: June 1803 to July 1830, p. 29, GGA.
43. Reverend W.H. Rule, Memoir of a Mission to Gibraltar and Spain, with Collected Notices (London: John Mason, 1844), pp. 16-17.
44. Ibid.
45. According to Benady, the number of civilian deaths is probably somewhat exaggerated inasmuch as when Sir Thomas Trigge, the Lieutenant-Governor, returned to England a few months following the epidemic, "he organized a collection for the orphans of 'upwards of 2,200' inhabitants who had died" (Benady, [n. 6], p.162).
46. Ibid.
47. Goodyear, (n. 16), p.6.
48. Geoffrey T. Garratt, Gibraltar and the Mediterranean (London: J. Cape, 1939), p. 110.
49. Jonathan B. Pritchett and Insan Tunali, "Strangers' disease: Determinants of yellow fever mortality during the New Orleans epidemic of 1853," Exp. Econ. Hist., 1995, 32, 517-39.
50. Barry, (n. 30) On the Sanatory Management, p. 13.
51. K. David Patterson, "Yellow fever epidemics and mortality in the United States, 1693-1905," Soc. Sci. Med., 1992, 34, 855-65.
52. See Curtin, (n. 5), Death By Migration, pp. 68-70; John H. Ellis, Yellow Fever and Public Health in the New South (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1992), p. 41.
53. See Curtin, (n. 5), Death By Migration, pp. 68-70; John H. Ellis, Yellow Fever and Public Health in the New South (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1992), p. 41.
54. Solly Flood to His Excellency General Sir W. Fenwick Williams, Bart., Governor, Gibraltar. Correspondence, 12 May 1871, p. m., GGA.
55. Thomas Walsh, Journal of the Late Campaign in Egypt Including Descriptions of that Country and of Gibraltar, Minorca, Malta, Marmorica and Macri (London: Jan T. Cadell, and W. Davies in The Strand, 1803), p. 7.
56. Gibraltar and Its Sieges with a Description of Its Natural Features (London: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1900), p.112-114.
57. Garratt, (n. 41) Gibraltar and the Mediterranean, p. 110.
58. George Palao, "The great epidemic Pt. I, Gibraltar, our forgotten past" #15," Gibraltar Chronicle, 1977, p. 3.
59. Thomas Dodd, Secretary, Proclamation, Headquarters of Gibraltar, 28 September 1804, p. 38, GGA.
60. Tito Benady, "The Jews of Gibraltar after the Great Siege," Lecture delivered to the Jewish Historical Society of London, 5 June 1978, p. 15.
61. The decline in immigration corresponds well with the observations that by the 1830s the halcyon days of trade in Gibraltar were waning, shipping was declining, and Gibraltar was being used more often simply as a port of call. Immigration came to a virtual halt following a drop in commercial activity coupled with a decline in the strength of the garrison. See Lawrence A. Sawchuk and D. Ann Herring, "Historic marriage patterns in the Sephardim of Gibraltar, 1704 to 1939," Jewish Soc. Stud., 1988/1993, 50, 177-200.
62. George Hills, Rock of Contention: A History of Gibraltar (London: Robert Hale and Company, 1974), p. 381.
63. E.F. Kelaart, Flora Calpensis: Contributions to the Botany and Topography of Gibraltar and Its Neighbourhood: With Plan, and Views of the Rock (London: John Van Voorst, 1866), p. 36.
64. Pernick's work on yellow fever in Philadelphia illustrates this concept, see Martin S. Pernick, "Politics, parties, and pestilence: epidemic yellow fever in Philadelphia and the rise of the first party system," Wm. Mary Q., 1972, 29, 559-86.
65. See Curtin, (n. 5), Death by Migration; William Coleman, Yellow Fever in the North: The Methods of Early Epidemiology (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987).
66. See Curtin, (n. 5), Death by Migration; William Coleman, Yellow Fever in the North: The Methods of Early Epidemiology (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987).
67. Barry, (n. 30) On the Sanatory Management, p. 8.
68. Life expectancy at birth varied between 21.72 and 30.15 years; the periods of greatest mortality were associated with epidemics of measles (1800) and smallpox (1802).
69. Raw data were collected by Dr. D.A. Herring under the guidance of Monsieur Caruana.
70. Ill-defined causes of death include diagnoses such as madness, cough, and "suddenly."
71. Hennen, (n. 14) Sketches, p. 82.
72. The needs of the military encroached on the civilian population in areas of health owing to new defensive works which were constructed without any regard for their effects on Gibraltar's existing sanitation infrastructure (sewage and aqueduct); see Gibraltar Chronicle, 21 February 1868.
73. Hennen, (n. 14) Sketches, pp. 81-82.
74. Ibid., p. 46.
75. Ibid., p. 47
76. Margaret Humphreys, Yellow Fever and the South (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1992), p. 19.
77. Sayer, (n. 21) History, pp. 479-80.
78. Gibraltar Chronicle, 22 September 1804.
79. Pym, (n. 10) Observatiom, p. 21.
80. Hennen, (n. 14) Sketches, p. 110.
81. Patterson, (n. 44), p. 855.
82. Ellis, (n. 45) Yellow Fever, p. 55.
83. Thomas Dodd, Secretary, Proclamation, Headquarters of Gibraltar, 5 October 1804, pp. 38-39, GGA.
84. Thomas Dodd, Secretary, Proclamation, Headquarters of Gibraltar, 8 November 1804, pp. 43-44, GGA.
85. Hennen, (n. 14) Sketches, p. 109.
86. Barry, (n. 30) On the Sanatory Management, p. 8.
87. Hennen, (n. 14) Sketches, p. 96.
88. Coleman, (n. 57) Yellow Fever, p.55.
89. Mr. Parody of Malaga's Cure for the Fever, 4 October 1813, GGA.
90. Thomas Dodd, Secretary, Proclamation, Headquarters of Gibraltar, 27 August 1804, p. 26, GGA.
91. Thomas Dodd, Secretary, Proclamation, Headquarters of Gibraltar, 6 September 1804, p. 29, GGA.
92. Extract from the Gibraltar Chronicle, 22 September 1804.
93. Barry, (n. 30) On the Sanatory Management, p. 4.
94. Thomas Dodd, Secretary, Proclamation, Headquarters of Gibraltar, 17 September 1804, pp. 31-32, GGA.
95. J.G. Coad, The Royal Dockyards, 1690-1850 (Aldershot: Scholar Press, 1989), pp. 318-20.
96. Barry, (n. 30) On the Sanatory Management, p. 18 (emphasis added).
97. Ibid., pp. 18-19.
98. Daniel M. Fox, "The history of responses to epidemic disease in the United States since the 18th century," Mt. Sin. J. Med., 1989, 36, 223-29.
99. Barry, (n. 30) On the Sanatory Management, p. 20.
100. For a comprehensive review see Coleman, (n. 57) Yellow Fever.
101. Messrs. Chervin, Louis, Trousseau (French Medical Commissioners), and David Barry (English Army Physician), Document de la Commission Médicale Française Envoyée à Gibraltar pour Observer l'Epidémie de 1828 (Paris: Imprimerie Royale, 1830).
102. Coleman, (n. 57) Yellow Fever.
103. Thomas Dodd, Secretary, Proclamation, Headquarters of Gibraltar, 27 August 1804, p. 26, GGA.
104. Benady, (n. 52), p. 8.
105. Thomas Dodd, Secretary, Proclamation, Headquarters of Gibraltar, 28 August 1804, p. 28, GGA.
106. Committee of Public Health to His Excellency Sir Thomas Trigge K.B., Commander in Chief of Gibraltar, 17 December 1804, correspondence, GGA.
107. Ibid.
108. Ibid.
109. Ibid.
110. Lawrence A. Sawchuk, "Societal and ecological determinants of urban health: A case study of pre-reproductive mortality in 19th century Gibraltar," Soc. Sci. Med., 1993, 36, 875-92.
111. Frederick Solly Flood, Gibraltar Police Magistrate, Correspondence to the Colonial Secretary, 13 April 1866, p. 28, GGA.
112. Lawrence A. Sawchuk, "Historical intervention, tradition, and change: A study of the age at marriage in Gibraltar, 1909-1983," J. Fam. Hist., 1992, 17, 69-94.
113. Committee of Public Health, (n. 97).
114. Ibid.
115. Major H. Tulloch, Report on the Water Supply and Sewage System (London: Waterlow and Sons Limited, 1890), p. 13.
116. Based on market prices for a variety of food items, wine, oil, and washing, Gibraltar's cost of living was 123 percent higher than that of Malta and 115 percent higher than that of Corfu (R.M. Martin, History of the British Possessions in the Mediterranean [London: Whittaker & Co., 1837], p. 93).
117. Committee of Public Health, (n. 97).
118. Garratt, (n. 41) Gibraltar and the Mediterranean, p. 110.
119. Benady, (n. 52), p. 14.
120. Committee of Public Health, (n. 97).
121. Report by the Committee of Public Health to Major General Burnett, Commandant, 4 October 1804, in Tommy J. Finlayson, Gibraltar Government Archivist, Stories from the Rock, unpublished manuscript, GGA.
122. Ibid.
123. Thomas Dodd, Secretary, Proclamation, Headquarters of Gibraltar, 5 October 1804, pp. 39-40, GGA.
124. Tommy J. Finlayson, Gibraltar Government Archivist, Stories from the Rock, unpublished manuscript, GGA.
125. Joshua Benoliel, Isaac Cardozo, M. Cansino, and other members of the Memorialists (31 names in all), Gibraltar, 31 March 1848, Letter to the Right Honourable Earl Grey, Her Majesty's Secretary of State for the Colonies, GGA.
126. Joshua Benoliel, Isaac Cardozo, M. Cansino, and other members of the Memorialists (31 names in all), Gibraltar, 16 June 1848, Letter to the Right Honourable Earl Grey, Her Majesty's Secretary of State for the Colonies, GGA.
127. Benoliel et al., (n. 116).
128. Committee of Public Health, (n. 97).
129. John B. Scandella et al., Report on the Allen Question, most Respectfully Submitted to His Excellency General R.C. Lord Napier of Magdala, Governor of Gibraltar (Gibraltar: Garrison Library, 1876), p. 3.
130. John Drinkwater, A History of the Late Siege of Gibraltar (Dublin: Printed for Messrs. Colles, White, Byrne, McKenzie, and Moore, 1786), p. 191.
131. Jack Russell, Gibraltar Besieged, 1779-1783 (London: Heinemann, 1965), p. 29.
132. Benady, (n. 36), p. 165.
133. Sayer, (n. 21) History, p. 483. See also The Report of the Barrack and Hospital Improvement Commission on the Sanitary Condition of the Mediterranean Stations. Part I, Gibraltar (London: George Edward Eyre and William Spottiswode, 1862), p. 6.
134. Sayer, (n. 21) History, p. 483. See also The Report of the Barrack and Hospital Improvement Commission on the Sanitary Condition of the Mediterranean Stations. Part I, Gibraltar (London: George Edward Eyre and William Spottiswode, 1862), p. 6.
135. This point is raised by Ellis, (n. 45) Yellow Fever, p. 80.
136. Quarantine imposed many difficulties on shipping-based economies. For North American experiences, see Ellis, (n. 45) Yellow Fever, and Humphreys, (n. 67) Yellow Fever.
137. Quarantine imposed many difficulties on shipping-based economies. For North American experiences, see Ellis, (n. 45) Yellow Fever, and Humphreys, (n. 67) Yellow Fever.
138. Thomas Dodd, Secretary, Proclamation, Headquarters of Gibraltar, 27 September 1804, p. 37, GGA.
139. Thomas Dodd, Secretary, Proclamation, Headquarters of Gibraltar, Headquarters of Gibraltar, 9 January 1805, p. 49, GGA.
140. Russell, (n. 122) Gibraltar Besieged, p. 29.
141. Major General Drummond (President), Drs. Bolton, Fellowes, and Pym, and Messrs. Smith, Ross, Allardyce, and Rankine, Board of Public Health, Report on Sundry Queries and Suggestions Laid Before them by Command of His Excellency, 8 January 1805, Gibraltar, GGA.
142. Fox, (n. 89), p. 224.
143. Benady, (n. 15), Civil Hospital, p. 81-88.
144. As Major Tulloch exclaimed, "how can a town exist under proper sanitary conditions unless the officials of the local governing body are armed with special powers in their respective departments?" (Tulloch, [n. 107] Report on the Water Supply, p. 3).
145. Sutherland, (n. 13) Report on the Sanitary Condition, p. 19.
146. Report of the Barrack and Hospital Improvement Commission, (n. 124), p. 6.
147. Ibid.
148. Report of the Proceedings of the Sanitary Commissioners of Gibraltar, for the Year 1867 (Gibraltar: Garrison Library Printing Press).
149. Sawchuk, (n. 101), p. 879.
150. Hennen, (n. 14) Sketches, p. 46.
151. Report of the Barrack and Hospital Improvement Commission, (n. 124), p. 6.
152. Ibid., p. 7.
153. Special File: Gibraltar Estates. Messrs. Lofts and Warner's Report (London: Berkeley Square, 13 December 1886), p. 2, GGA.
154. In the early 1830s Gibraltar's governor even hesitated to give sixteen Spaniards and their wives and children permission to reside in the garrison for thirty days for a theatrical exhibition: I am not disposed to object to allow [the locals] the occasional indulgence of a species of recreation which has been engrafted into the habits of civilized society, but as I should be unwilling on the other hand to give sanction to any measures which might tend to consolidate the alien character of the population of Gibraltar, I must express my hope that the performance of Spanish Plays will not become an established public amusement (Extract A No. 36 of Dispatch from His Majesty's Government dated 12 July 1832, GGA [emphasis added]).
155. Proclamation, Headquarters of Gibraltar, Headquarters of Gibraltar, 12 November 1814, GGA.
156. Flood, (n. 46), p. 3, point number 26.
157. Flood, (n.46), p. 4, point number 30.
158. Ibid.