Drowning

Current Opinion in Anaesthesiology

Volumn 16, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 139-145

  Hasibeder, Walter R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF INNSBRUCK   (Austria)

Author keywords

Adult respiratory distress syndrome; Drowning; Hypothermia; Near drowning; Systemic inflammatory response syndrome

Indexed keywords

ASPHYXIA; BRAIN INJURY; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH ROUTE; DROWNING; HUMAN; HYPOTHERMIA; HYPOXEMIA; HYPOXIA; LUNG INJURY; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; NEAR DROWNING; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; QUALITY OF LIFE; RESUSCITATION; REVIEW; SURVIVAL; SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE SYNDROME;

EID: 0037398095     PISSN: 09527907     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00001503-200304000-00006     Document Type: Review

References (90)

1. Fields AI. Near drowning in the paediatric population. Crit Care Clin 1992; 8:113-129.
2. Olshaker JS. Near drowning. Environ Emerg 1992; 10:339-350.
3. Hasibeder W, Schobersberger W. Near drowning. In: Søreide E, Grande CM, editors. Prehospital trauma care. 1. New York: Marcel Dekker; 2001. pp. 603-614.
4. Golden FC, Tipton MJ, Scott RC. Immersion, near-drowning and drowning. Br J Anaesth 1997; 79:214-225.
5. Sibert JR, Lyons RA, Smith BA, et al. Preventing deaths by drowning in children in the United Kingdom: have we made progress in 10 years? Population based incidence study. BMJ 2002; 324:1070-1071. Overview on changes in incidence of drowning accidents in children through the years 1988/9 to 1998/9.
6. Brenner RA, Smith GS, Overbeck MD. Divergent trends in childhood drowning rates, 1971 through 1988. JAMA 1994; 271:1606-1608.
7. Mitic W, Greschner J. Alcohol's role in the deaths of BC children and youth. Can J Public Health 2002; 93:173-175. In children, alcohol consumption still contributes to approximately 30% of death by submersion.
8. Rimsza ME, Schackner RA, Bowen KA, Marshall W. Can child deaths be prevented? The Arizona Child Fatality Review Program experience. Pediatrics 2002; 110:e11.
9. Crume TL, Diguiseppi C, Beyers T, et al. Underascertainment of child maltreatment fatalities by death certificates, 1990-1998. Pedriatics 2002; 110:e18. Maltreatment as a cause of drowning accidents is still underestimated and often misinterpreted as neglect.
10. McGraw EP, Pless JE, Pennington DJ, White SJ. Postmortem radiography after unexpected death in neonates, infants, and children: should imaging be routine? Am J Roentgenol 2002; 178:1517-1521. Postmortem radiography may provide important information to distinguish unintentional drowning from abuse, which may not be detected by autopsy alone.
11. Kemp AM, Sibert JR. Epilepsy in children and the risk of drowning. Arch Dis Child 1993; 68:684-685.
12. Ackerman MJ, Tester DJ, Porter CJ. Swimming, a gene-specific arrhythmogenic trigger for inherited long QT syndrome. Mayo Clin Proc 1999; 11:1088-1094.
13. Yoshinaga M, Kamimura J, Fukushige T, et al. Face immersion in cold water induces prolongation of the QT interval and T-wave changes in children with nonfamilial long QT syndrome. Am J Cardiol 1999; 83:1494-1497.
14. Ishmael HA, Begleiter ML, Butler MG. Drowning as a cause of death in Angelman syndrome. Am J Ment Retard 2002; 107:69-70.
15. Shavelle RM, Strauss DJ, Pickett J. Causes of death in autism. J Autism Dev Disord 2001; 6:569-576.
16. Nguyen S, Kuschel C, Teele R. Water birth: a near-drowning experience. Pedriatics 2002; 110:411-413. This is the first report on near-drowning in association with the practice of water birth.
17. Spira A. Diving and marine medicine review part II: diving diseases. J Travel Med 1999; 6:180-198.
18. Noble CS, Sharpe N. Drowning: its mechanism and treatment. Can Med Assoc J 1963; 89:402-405.
19. Modell JH, Graves SA, Ketover A. Clinical course of 91 consecutive near-drowning victims. Chest 1976; 70:231-238.
20. Wunderlich P, Rupprecht E, Trefftz F, et al. Chest radiographs of near-drowned children. Pedia Radiol 1985; 15:297-299.
21. Kringsholm B, Filkov A, Kock K. Autopsied cases of drowning in Denmark 1987-1989. Forensic Sci Int 1991; 52:85-92.
22. Van Berkel M, Bierens JJ, Lie RL, et al. Pulmonary oedema, pneumonia and mortality in submersion victims: a retrospective study in 125 patients. Int Care Med 1996; 22:101-107.
23. Modell JH, Moya F. Effects of volume of aspirated fluid during chlorinated fresh water drowning. Anesthesiology 1966; 27:662-672.
24. Harries MG. Drowning in man. Crit Care Med 1981; 9:407-408.
25. Giammona ST, Modell JH. Drowning by total immersion: effects on pulmonary surfactant of destilled water, isotonic saline, and sea water. Am J Dis Child 1967; 114:612-616.
26. Orlewski JP. Drowning, near drowning, and ice-water submersion. Pedriat Clin North Am 1987; 34:75-91.
27. Fuller RH. The 1962 Wellcome prize essay. Drowning and the postimmersion syndrome: a clinicopathologic study. Milit Med 1963; 128:22-36.
28. Kim KI, Lee KN, Tomiyama N, et al. Near drowning: thin-section CT findings in six patients. J Comp Assist Tomogr 2000; 24:562-566.
29. Kennedy GA, Kanter RK, Weiner LB, Tompkins JM. Can early bacterial complications of aspiration with respiratory failure be predicted? Pedriatr Emerg Care 1992; 3:123-125.
30. Miyake M, Iga K, Izumi C, et al. Rapidly progressing pneumonia due to Aeromonas hydrophilia shortly after near-drowning. Intern Med 2000; 12:1128-1130.
31. Gooden BA. Why some people do not drown: hypothermia versus the diving response. Med J Aust 1992; 157:629-632.
32. Reis DJ, Golanov EV, Galea E, Feinstein DL. Central neurogenic neuroprotection: central neural systems that protect the brain from hypoxia and ischemia. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1997; 835:168-186.
33. Goksor E, Rosengren L, Wennergren G. Bradycardic response during submersion in infant swimming. Acta Paediatr 2002; 91:307-312. Infants develop immediate and sustained bradycardia during diving suggesting vagal mediation. This diving response is also observed in infants older than 6 months.
34. Schipke JD, Pelzer M. Effect of immersion, submersion, and scuba diving on heart rate variability. Br J Sports Med 2001; 35:174-180.
35. Hayashi N, Ishihara M, Tanaka A, et al. Face immersion increases vagal activity as assessed by heart rate variability. Eur J Appl Physiol 1997; 76:394-399.
36. Conn AW, Katsuyuki M, Katayama M, et al. A canine study of cold water drowning in fresh versus salt water. Crit Care Med 1995; 23:2029-2037.
37. Michiels C, Arnould T, Remacle J. Endothelial cell response to hypoxia: initiation of a cascade of cellular interactions. Biochim Biophys Acta 2000; 1497:1-10.
38. Lucking SE, Pollack MM, Fields AI. Shock following generalized hypoxicischemic injury in previously healthy infants and children. J Pediatr 1986; 108:359-364.
39. Hildebrand ChA, Hartmann AG, Arcinue L, et al. Cardiac performance in pediatric near-drowning. Crit Care Med 1988; 16:331-335.
40. Mattu A, Brady WJ, Perron AD. Electrocardiographic manifestations of hypothermia. Am J Emerg Med 2002; 20:314-326. Excellent review on electrocardiographic manifestations of hypothermia.
41. Porath A, Mosseri M, Harmon I, et al. Dead sea water poisoning. Ann Emerg Med 1989, 18:187-191.
42. Yagil Y, Stalnikowicz R, Michaeli J, Mogle P. Near drowning in the dead sea: electrolyte imbalances and therapeutic implications. Arch Intern Med 1985; 145:50-53.
43. Culpepper RM. Bleeding diathesis in fresh water drowning. Ann Intern Med 1975; 83:675-678.
44. Modell JH, Kuck EJ, Ruiz BC, et al. Effect of intravenous vs. aspirated distilled water on serum electrolytes and blood gas tensions. J Appl Physiol 1972; 32:579-584.
45. Spicer ST, Quinn D, Nyi Nyi NN, et al. Acute renal impairment after immersion and near-drowning. J Am Soc Nephrol 1999; 10:382-386.
46. Bonnor R, Siddiqui M, Ahuja TS. Rhabdomyolysis associated with near drowning. Am J Med Sci 1999; 318:201-202.
47. Kemp AM, Sibert JR. Outcome in children who nearly drown. MBJ 1991; 302:931-933.
48. Tipton M, Eglin C, Gennser M, Golden F. Immersion deaths and deterioration in swimming performance in cold water. Lancet 1999; 354:627-629.
49. Suominen P, Baillie C, Korpela R, et al. Impact of age, submersion time and water temperature on outcome in near-drowning. Resuscitation 2002; 52:247-254. Study investigating the influence of different parameters on outcome in 61 near-drowning victims.
50. Frates RC. Analysis of predictive factors in the assessment of warm-water near-drowning in children. Am J Dis Child 1981; 135:1006-1008.
51. Dean JM, Kaufman ND. Prognostic indicators in pedriatic near-drowning: the Glasgow coma scale. Crit Care Med 1981; 9:536-539.
52. Jacobsen WK, Mason LJ, Briggs BA, et al. Correlation of spontaneous respiration and neurologic damage in near-drowning. Crit Care Med 1983; 11:487-489.
53. Nichter MA, Everett PB. Childhood near drowning: is cardiopulmonary resuscitation always indicated? Crit Care Med 1989; 17:993-996.
54. Ashwal S, Schneider S, Tomasi L, Thompson J. Prognostic implications of hyperglycemia and reduced cerebral blood flow in childhood near-drowning. Neurology 1990; 40:820-823.
55. Graf WD, Cummings P, Quan L, Brutocao D. Predicting outcome in pedriatic submersion victims. Ann Emerg Med 1995; 26:312-319.
56. Gonzales-Luis G, Pons M, Cambra FJ, et al. Use of pedriatic risk of mortality score as predictor of death and serious neurologic damage in children after submersion. Pedriatr Emerg Care 2001; 17:405-409.
57. Wollenek G, Honarwar N, Golej J, Marx M. Cold water submersion and cardiac arrest in treatment of severe hypothermia with cardiopulmonary bypass. Resuscitation 2002; 52:255-263.
58. 1H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Clin Invest 1996; 97:1142-1154.
59. Hughes SK, Nilsson DE, Boyer RS, et al. Neurodevelopmental outcome for extended cold water drowning: a longitudinal case study. J Int Neurophysiol Soc 2002; 8:588-595. Longitudinal case study examining neurologic outcome of a child after prolonged submersion. Although initially the patient was classified as having no neurologic deficits, the longitudinal profile revealed broad cognitive difficulties.
60. Giesbrecht GG. Cold stress, near drowning and accidental hypothermia: a review. Aviat Space Environ Med 2000; 71:733-752.
61. Watson RS, Cummings P, Quan L, et al. Cervical spine injuries among submersion victims. J Trauma 2001; 51:658-662. Large retrospective analysis involving 2244 submersion victims.
62. Causey AL, Tilelli JA, Swanson ME. Predicting discharge in uncomplicated near-drowning. Am J Emerg Med 2000; 18:9-11.
63. Edwards ND, Timmins AC, Randalls B, et al. Survival in adults after cardiac arrest due to drowning. Int Care Med 1990; 16:336-337.
64. Lopez-Pison J, Pineda-Ortiz I, Oteiza C, et al. Survival with no sequelae after near-drowning with very poor signs for prognosis including persistent bilateral non-reactive mydriasis. Rev Neurol 1999; 28:388-390.
65. Perk L, Borger van de Burg F, Berendsen HH, van't Wout JW. Full recovery after 45 min accidental submersion. Int Care Med 2002; 28:524.
66. Wyatt JP, Tomlinson GS, Busuttil A. Resuscitation of drowning victims in south-east Scotland. Resuscitation 1999; 41:101-104.
67. Kuisma M, Jaara K. Unwitnessed out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: is resuscitation worthwhile? Ann Emerg Med 1997; 30:69-75.
68. Kornberger E, Schwarz B, Lindner KH, Mair P. Forced air surface rewarming in patients with severe accidental hypothermia. Resuscitation 1999; 41:105-111.
69. Vretenar DF, Urschel JD, Parrott JC, Unruh HW. Cardiopulmonary bypass resuscitation for accidental hypothermia. Ann Thorac Surg 1994; 58:895-898.
70. Gilbert M, Busund R, Skagseth A, et al. Resuscitation from accidental hypothermia of 13.7°C with circulatory arrest. Lancet 2000; 355:375-376.
71. Wollenek G, Honarwar N, Golej J, Marxx M. Cold water submersion an cardiac arrest in treatment of severe hypothemia with cardiopulmonary bypass. Resuscitation 2002; 52:255-263. Experience is presented of active rewarming on cardiopulmonary bypass in treatment of three children suffering from cold water submersion and cardiac arrest.
72. Mair P, Kornberger E, Furtwaengler W, et al. Prognostic markers in patients with severe accidental hypothermia and cardiocirculatory arrest. Resuscitation 1994; 28:72-73.
73. Bender PR, Debehnke DJ, Swart GL, Hall KN. Serum potassium concentration as a predictor of resuscitation outcome in hypothermic cardiac arrest. Wilderness Environ Med 1995; 6:273-282.
74. Amato M, Barbas C, Bigelow DB, et al. Effect of a protective-ventilation strategy on mortality in acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 1998; 338:347-354.
75. The ARDS Network. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2000; 18:1301-1308.
76. Gillette MA, Hess DR. Ventilator-induced lung injury and the evolution of lung-protective strategies in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Respir Care 2001; 46:826-828. Summary on effects of 'protective mechanical ventilation' aimed at avoiding overdistension and repeated collapse of certain lung areas.
77. Falke KJ, Pontoppidan H, Kumar A, et al. Ventilation with end-expiratory pressure in acute lung disease. J Clin Invest 1972; 51:2315-2323.
78. Ranieri VM, Eissa NT, Corbeil C, et al. Effects of positive end-expiratory pressure on alveolar recruitment and gas exchange in patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 145:355-360.
79. 2O abolished expiratory flow limitation thereby reducing the risk of 'low volume lung injury'.
80. Ranieri VM, Suter PM, Tortorella C, et al. Effects of mechanical ventilation on inflammatory mediators in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1999; 282:54-61.
81. Stuber F, Wrigge H, Schroeder S, et al. Kinetic and reversibility of mechanical ventilation-associated pulmonary and systemic inflammatory response in patients with acute lung injury. Intensive Care Med 2002; 28:834-841.
82. Meduri GU, Kanangat S, Stefan J, et al. Cytokines IL-1beta, IL-6, and TNF-alpha enhance invitro growth of bacteria. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 160:961-967.
83. Staudinger T, Bankier A, Strohmaier W, et al. Exogenous surfactant therapy in a patient with adult respiratory distress syndrome after near drowning. Resuscitation 1997; 35:179-182.
84. Moller JC, Schaible TF, Reiss I, et al. Treatment of severe non-neonatal ARDS in children with surfactant and nitric oxide in a 'pre-ECMO'-situation. Int J Artif Organs 1995; 18:598-602.
85. Thalmann M, Rampitsch E, Haberfellner N, et al. Resuscitation in near drowning with extracorporal membrane oxygenation. Ann Thorac Surg 2001; 72:607-608.
86. Lowson SM. Inhaled alternatives to nitric oxide. Anesthesiology 2002; 96:1504-1513. Excellent review article reporting recent advances in treatment of pulmonary hypertension and oxygenation failure associated with ARDS.
87. Della Rocca G, Costa MG, Pompei L, et al. Continuous and intermitted cardiac output measurements: pulmonary artery versus aortic transpulmonary technique. Br J Anesth 2002; 88:350-356.
88. Gonzales-Rothi RJ. Near drowning: consensus and controversies in pulmonary and cerebral resuscitation. Heart Lung 1987; 16:474-482.
89. Bohn DJ, Biggar WD, Smith CR, et al. Influence of hypothermia, barbiturate therapy, and intracranial pressure monitoring on morbidity and mortality after near-drowning. Crit Care Med 1986; 14:529-534.
90. Sarnaik AP, Preston G, Lieh-Lai M, Eisenbrey AB. Intracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure in near drowning. Crit Care Med 1985; 13:224-227.