Spatial grain and the causes of regional diversity gradients in ants

American Naturalist

Volumn 161, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 459-477

  Kaspari, Michael ^a,b   Yuan, May ^a   Alonso, Leeanne ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA   (United States)

^b Betty and Gordon Moore Center for Science and Oceans   (United States)

Author keywords

Ants; Area; Biodiversity; Spatial scale; Speciation; Temperature

Indexed keywords

ANT; SCALE EFFECT; SPECIATION (BIOLOGY); SPECIES DIVERSITY; SPECIES-AREA RELATIONSHIP; TEMPERATURE;

ANIMAL; ANT; ARTICLE; BIOLOGICAL MODEL; CENTRAL AMERICA; CLASSIFICATION; ECOSYSTEM; ENVIRONMENT; NORTH AMERICA; PHYSIOLOGY; POPULATION DYNAMICS; SOUTH AMERICA; SPECIES DIFFERENCE; TEMPERATURE;

ANIMALS; ANTS; CENTRAL AMERICA; ECOSYSTEM; ENVIRONMENT; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; NORTH AMERICA; POPULATION DYNAMICS; SOUTH AMERICA; SPECIES SPECIFICITY; TEMPERATURE;

ANIMALIA; FORMICIDAE; HYMENOPTERA; MARTES PENNANTI;

EID: 0037348830     PISSN: 00030147     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/367906     Document Type: Article

References (120)

1. Agosti, D., J. D. Majer, L. E. Alonso, and T. R. Schultz. 2000. Measuring and monitoring biological diversity: standard methods for ground-living ants. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
2. Andersen, A. N. 1997. Functional groups and patterns of organization in North American ant communities: a comparison with Australia. Journal of Biogeography 24:433-460.
3. Beattie, A. J. 1985. The evolutionary ecology of ant-plant mutualisms. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
4. Bestelmeyer, B. T., and J. A. Wiens. 1996. The effects of land use on the structure of ground-foraging ant communities in the Argentine Chaco. Ecological Applications 6:1225-1240.
5. Blackburn, T. M., and K. J. Gaston. 1998. Some methodological issues in macroecology. American Naturalist 151:68-83.
6. Brian, M. V., and A. D. Brian. 1951. Insolation and ant populations in the west of Scotland. Transactions of the Royal Entomological Society of London 102:303-330.
7. Brown, J. 1981. Two decades of homage to Santa Rosalia: toward a general theory of diversity. American Zoologist 21:877-888.
8. Brown, J. H. 1995. Macroecology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
9. Caley, M. J., and D. Schluter. 1997. The relationship between local and regional diversity. Ecology 78:70-80.
10. Cardillo, M. 1999. Latitude and rates of diversification in birds and butterflies. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, Biological Sciences 266:1221-1225.
11. Chown, S., and K. Gaston. 2000. Areas, cradles and museums: the latitudinal gradient in species richness. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 15:311-315.
12. Collins, S. L., and S. M. Glenn. 1990. A hierarchical analysis of species' abundance patterns in grassland vegetation. American Naturalist 135:633-648.
13. Colwell, R. 1997. Estimate S: statistical estimation of species richness and shared species from samples. Version 5. User's guide and application published at http://viceroy.eeb.uconn.edu/estimates.
14. Colwell, R., and J. Coddington. 1994. Estimating terrestrial biodiversity through extrapolation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, Biological Sciences 345:101-118.
15. Colwell, R. K., and D. C. Lees. 2000. The mid-domain effect: geometric constraints on the geography of species richness. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 15:70-76.
16. Condit, R. 1995. Research in large, long-term tropical forest plots. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 10:18-22.
17. Cornell, H. V. 1985. Local and regional richness of Cynipine gall wasps on California oaks. Ecology 66:1247-1260.
18. Cornell, H. V., and J. H. Lawton. 1992. Species interactions, local and regional processes, and limits to the richness of ecological communities: a theoretical perspective. Journal of Animal Ecology 61:1-12.
19. Crawley, M. J., and J. E. Harral. 2001. Scale dependence in plant biodiversity. Science (Washington, D.C.) 291:864-868.
20. Creighton, W. S. 1950. The ants of North America. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University 104:1-585.
21. Currie, D. J. 1991. Energy and large-scale patterns of animal- and plant-species richness. American Naturalist 137:27-49.
22. Cushman, J. H., and J. F. Addicott. 1989. Intra- and interspecific competition for mutualists: ants as a limited and limiting resource for aphids. Oecologia (Berlin) 79:315-321.
23. Cushman, J. H., and T. G. Whitham. 1991. Competition mediating the outcome of a mutualism: protective services of ants as a limiting resource for membracids. American Naturalist 138:851-865.
24. Davidson, D. W., D. A. Samson, and R. S. Inouye. 1985. Granivory in the Chihuahuan Desert: interactions within and between trophic levels. Ecology 66:486-502.
25. Draper, N. R., and H. Smith. 1981. Applied regression analysis. Wiley, New York.
26. Elton, C. 1927. Animal ecology. Macmillan, New York.
27. Enquist, B. J., and K. J. Niklas. 2001. Invariant scaling relations across tree-dominated communities. Nature 410:655-660.
28. Erwin, T. L. 1986. The tropical forest canopy: the heart of biotic diversity. Pages 123-129 in E. Wilson, ed. Biodiversity. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
29. Feener, D. H. J., and E. W. Schupp. 1998. Effect of treefall gaps on the patchiness and species richness of Neotropical ant assemblages. Oecologia (Berlin) 116:191-201.
30. Fenchel, T. 1992. What can ecologists learn from microbes: life beneath a square centimetre of sediment surface. Functional Ecology 6:499-507.
31. Fisher, R. A., A. S. Corbet, and C. B. Williams. 1943. The relation between the number of species and the number of individuals in a random sample of an animal population. Journal of Animal Ecology 12:42-58.
32. Franks, N. R. 1982. Social insects in the aftermath of swarm raids of the army ant Eciton burchelli. Pages 275-279 in M. D. Breed, C. D. Michener, and H. E. Evans, eds. The biology of social insects. Proceedings of the 9th Congress of the International Union for the Study of Social Insects, Boulder, Colorado, August 1982. Westview, Boulder, Colo.
33. Franks, N. R., and W. H. Bossert. 1983. The influence of swarm raiding army ants on the patchiness and diversity of a tropical leaf litter ant community. Pages 151-163 in E. L. Sutton, T. C. Whitmore, and A. C. Chadwick, eds. Tropical rain forest: ecology and management. Blackwell, Oxford.
34. Fraser, R. H. 1998. Vertebrate species richness at the mesoscale: relative roles of energy and heterogeneity. Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 7:215-220.
35. Gilbert, L., and L. Morrison. 1997. Patterns of host specificity in Pseudoaceton parasitoid flies (Diptera: Phoridae) that attack Solenopsis fire ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Environmental Entomology 26:1149-1154.
36. Gotelli, N., and G. Entsminger. 2001. EcoSim: null models software for ecology. Acquired Intelligence & Kesey-Bear, Burlington, Vt. http://homepages.together.net/gentsmin/ecosim.htm.
37. Gotelli, N. J., and A. E. Arnett. 2000. Biogeographic effects of red fire ant invasion. Ecology Letters 3:257-261.
38. Gotelli, N. J., and R. K. Colwell. 2001. Quantifying biodiversity: procedures and pitfalls in the measurement and estimation of species richness. Ecology Letters 4:379-391.
39. Gotelli, N. J., and G. R. Graves. 1996. Null models in ecology. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
40. Herbers, J. M. 1985. Seasonal structuring of a north temperate ant community. Insectes Sociaux 32:224-240.
41. Holldobler, B., and E. O. Wilson. 1990. The ants. Belknap, Cambridge, Mass.
42. Holway, D. A. 1998. Effect of Argentine ant invasions on ground-dwelling arthropods in northern California riparian woodlands. Oecologia (Berlin) 116:252-258.
43. Hubbell, S. 1979. Tree dispersion, abundance, and diversity in a tropical dry forest. Science (Washington, D.C.) 203:1299-1309.
44. _. 2001. The unified neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
45. Hubbell, S. P., and R. B. Foster. 1986. Biology, chance, and history and the structure of tropical rain forest tree communities. Pages 314-329 in J. Diamond and T. Case, eds. Community ecology. Harper & Row, New York.
46. Human, K., and D. Gordon. 1997. Effects of Argentine ants on invertebrate biodiversity in northern California. Conservation Biology 11:1242-1248.
47. Huston, M. 1994. Biological diversity: the coexistence of species on changing landscapes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
48. Jetz, W., and C. Rahbek. 2001. Geometric constraints explain much of the species richness pattern in African birds. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 98:5661-5666.
49. Johnson, R. A. 1992. Soil texture as an influence on the distribution of the desert seed-harvester ants Pogonomyrmex rugosus and Messor pergandei. Oecologia (Berlin) 89:118-124.
50. Kareiva, P. M., and M. Andersen. 1988. Spatial aspects of species interactions: the wedding of models and experiments. Pages 38-54 in A. Hastings, ed. Community ecology: proceedings of a workshop held at Davis, California, April 1986. Sinauer, Sunderland, Mass.
51. Karlson, R. H. 2002. Global, regional, and local patterns in species richness and abundance of butterflyfishes: comment. Ecology 83:583-585.
52. Kaspari, M. 1993. Body size and microclimate use in Neotropical granivorous ants. Oecologia (Berlin) 96:500-507.
53. _. 2000. Arboreal pitfall traps show impact of imported fire ants (Solenopsis wagneri) on a Texas arboreal ant assemblage. Southwestern Naturalist 45:118-122.
54. _. 2001. Taxonomic level, trophic biology, and the regulation of local abundance. Global Ecology and Biogeography 10:229-244.
55. Kaspari, M., L. Alonso, and S. O'Donnell. 2000a. Energy, density, and constraints to species richness: ant assemblages along a productivity gradient. American Naturalist 155:280-293.
56. Kaspari, M., S. O'Donnell, and J. Kercher. 2000b. Three energy variables predict ant abundance at a geographic scale. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, Biological Sciences 267:485-490.
57. Kaspari, M., J. Pickering, and D. Windsor. 2001. The reproductive flight phenology of a Neotropical ant assemblage. Ecological Entomology 26:245-257.
58. Kerr, J., and L. Packer. 1997. Habitat heterogeneity as a determinant of mammal species richness in high energy regions. Nature 385:252-254.
59. Kerr, J., R. Vincent, and D. Currie. 1998. Lepidoptera richness patterns in North America. Ecoscience 5:448-453.
60. Labandeira, C., and J. J. Sepkoski. 1993. Insect diversity in the fossil record. Science (Washington, D.C.) 261:310-315.
61. Latham, R., and R. Ricklefs. 1993. Global patterns of tree species richness in moist forests: energy diversity theory does not account for variation in species richness. Oikos 67:325-333.
62. Lees, D. C., C. Kremen, and L. Andriamampianina. 1999. A null model for species richness gradients: bounded range overlap of butterflies and other rain forest endemics of Madagascar. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 67:529-584.
63. Leigh, E. G. J. 1981. The average lifetime of a population in a varying environment. Journal of Theoretical Biology 90:212-239.
64. Levey, D., and M. Byrne. 1993. Complex ant-plant interactions: rain forest ants as secondary dispersers and post-dispersal seed predators of rain forest plants. Ecology 74:1802-1812.
65. Levin, S. A. 1992. The problem of pattern and scale in ecology. Ecology 73:1943-1967.
66. Levine, J. M. 2000. Species diversity and biological invasions: relating local process to community pattern. Science (Washington, D.C.) 288:852-854.
67. Levinton, J. 1979. A theory of diversity equilibrium and morphological evolution. Science (Washington, D.C.) 204:335-336.
68. Lieth, H. 1975. Modeling the primary productivity of the world. Pages 237-263 in H. Lieth and R. H. Whittaker, eds. Primary productivity of the biosphere. Springer, New York.
69. Lomolino, M. V., and M. D. Weiser. 2001. Towards a more general species-area relationship: diversity on all islands, great and small. Journal of Biogeography 28:431-445.
70. Longino, J. T., and R. K. Colwell. 1997. Biodiversity assessment using structured inventory: capturing the ant fauna of a tropical rain forest. Ecological Applications 7:1263-1277.
71. Losos, J. B., and D. Schluter. 2000. Analysis of an evolutionary species-area relationship. Nature 408:847-850.
72. Lyons, S. K., and M. R. Willig. 2002. Species richness, latitude, and scale-sensitivity. Ecology 83:47-58.
73. MacArthur, R. 1972. Geographical ecology. Harper & Row, New York.
74. MacArthur, R. H., and E. O. Wilson. 1967. The theory of island biogeography. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
75. May, R. M. 1975. Patterns of species abundance and diversity. Pages 81-120 in M. L. Cody and J. M. Diamond, eds. Ecology and evolution of communities. Belknap, Cambridge, Mass.
76. Merriam, C. 1890. Results of a biological survey of the San Francisco Mountain region and desert of the Little Colorado. North American Fauna 3:1-136.
77. _. 1898. Life zones and crop zones of the United States. No. 10. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
78. Mielke, P. 1998. Blossom statistical software. U.S. Geological Survey, Fort Collins, Colo.
79. Morrison, L. W. 2002. Long-term impacts of an arthropod-community invasion by the imported fire ant. Ecology 83:2337-2345.
80. Morton, S. R., and D. W. Davidson. 1988. Comparative structure of harvester ant communities in arid Australia and North America. Ecological Monographs 58:19-38.
81. O'Brien, E. M., R. J. Whittaker, and R. Field. 1998. Climate and woody plant diversity in southern Africa: relationships at species, genus and family levels. Ecography 21:495-509.
82. Orr, M. R., and S. H. Seike. 1998. Parasitoids deter foraging by Argentine ants (Linepithema humile) in their native habitat in Brazil. Oecologia (Berlin) 117:420-425.
83. Pianka, E. 1966. Latitudinal gradients in species diversity: a review of the concepts. American Naturalist 100:33-46.
84. Pimm, S. L., H. L. Jones, and J. Diamond. 1988. On the risk of extinction. American Naturalist 132:757-785.
85. Porter, S. D. 1988. Impact of temperature on colony growth and developmental rates of the ant, Solenopsis invicta. Journal of Insect Physiology 34:1127-1133.
86. Porter, S. D., H. G. Fowler, S. Campiolo, and M. A. Pesquero. 1995. Host specificity of several Pseudacteon (Diptera: Phoridae) parasites of fire ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in South America. Florida Entomologist 78:70-75.
87. Preston, F. 1962. The canonical distribution of commonness and rarity. I. Ecology 43:410-432.
88. Pulliam, H., and B. Danielson. 1991. Sources, sinks, and habitat selection: a landscape perspective on population dynamics. American Naturalist 137(suppl.):S50-S66.
89. Qian, H., and R. E. Ricklefs. 2000. Large-scale processes and the Asian bias in species diversity of temperate plants. Nature 407:180-182.
90. Rahbek, C. 1997. The relationship among area, elevation, and regional species richness in Neotropical birds. American Naturalist 149:875-902.
91. Rhode, K. 1992. Latitudinal gradients in species diversity: the search for the primary cause. Oikos 65:514-527.
92. Ricklefs, R. E. 1987. Community diversity: relative roles of local and regional processes. Science (Washington, D.C.) 235:167-171.
93. _. 1989. Speciation and diversity: the integration of local and regional processes. Pages 599-622 in D. Otte and J. Endler, eds. Speciation and its consequences. Sinauer, Sunderland, Mass.
94. Ricklefs, R. E., and R. E. Latham. 1993. Global patterns of diversity in mangrove floras. Pages 215-229 in R. E. Ricklefs and D. Schluter, eds. Species diversity in ecological communities. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
95. Ricklefs, R. E., and D. Schluter, eds. 1993. Species diversity in ecological communities: historical and geographical perspectives. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
96. Rosenzweig, M. 1968. Net primary productivity of terrestrial environments: predictions from climatological data. American Naturalist 102:67-74.
97. Rosenzweig, M. L. 1995. Species diversity in space and time. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
98. Rosenzweig, M. L., and E. A. Sandlin. 1997. Species diversity and latitudes: listening to area's signal. Oikos 80:172-176.
99. Rosenzweig, M. L., and Y. Ziv. 1999. The echo pattern of species diversity: pattern and processes. Ecography 22:614-628.
100. Roy, K., D. Jablonski, J. Valentine, and G. Rosenberg. 1998. Marine latitudinal diversity gradients: tests of causal hypotheses. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 95:3699-3702.
101. Scharf, F. S., F. Juanes, and M. Sutherland. 1998. Inferring ecological relationships from the edges of scatter diagrams: comparisons of regression techniques. Ecology 79:448-460.
102. Scheiner, S. M., S. B. Cox, M, Willig, G. G. Mittlebach, C. Osenberg, and M. Kaspari. 2000. Species richness, species area curves, and Simpson's paradox. Evolutionary Ecology Research 2:791-802.
103. Schmida, A., and R. H. Whittaker. 1981. Pattern and biological microsite effects in two shrub communities, southern California. Ecology 62:234-351.
104. Schmida, A., and M. V. Wilson. 1985. Biological determinants of species diversity. Journal of Biogeography 12:1-20.
105. Slauson, W. L., B. S. Cade, and J. D. Richards. 1994. User manual for BLOSSOM statistical software. Midcontinent Ecological Science Center, Fort Collins, Colo.
106. Srivastava, D. S., and J. H. Lawton. 1998. Why more productive sites have more species: an experimental test of theory using tree-hole communities. American Naturalist 152:510-529.
107. Stevens, G. 1992. The elevational gradient in altitude range: an extension of Rapoport's latitudinal rule to altitude. American Naturalist 140:893-911.
108. Terborgh, J. 1973. On the notion of favorableness in plant ecology. American Naturalist 107:481-501.
109. Tilman, D. 1978. Cherries, ants and tent caterpillars: timing of nectar production in relation to susceptibility of caterpillars to ant predation. Ecology 59:686-692.
110. _. 1997. Community invasibility, recruitment limitation, and grassland biodiversity. Ecology 78:81-92.
111. Turner, J., C. Gatehouse, and C. Corey. 1987. Does solar energy control organic diversity? butterflies, moths and the British climate. Oikos 48:195-205.
112. van Rensburg, B. J., S. L. Chown, and K. J. Gaston. 2002. Species richness, environmental correlates, and spatial scale: a test using South African birds. American Naturalist 159:566-577.
113. Waide, R. B., M. R. Willig, F. G. Steiner, G. Mittelbach, L. Gough, S. I. Dodson, G. P. Juday, and R. Parmenter. 1999. The relationship between productivity and species richness. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 30:257-300.
114. Ward, P. S. 1987. Distribution of the introduced Argentine ant (Iridomyrmex humilis) in natural habitats of the Lower Sacramento Valley and its effects on the indigenous ant fauna. Hilgardia 55(2):1-16.
115. Whittaker, R. H. 1952. A study of summer foliage insect communities in the Great Smoky Mountains. Ecological Monographs 22:1-44.
116. _. 1956. Vegetation of the Great Smoky Mountains. Ecological Monographs 26:1-80.
117. Willig, M. R., and S. K. Lyons. 1998. An analytical model of latitudinal gradients of species richness with an empirical test for marsupials and bats in the New World. Oikos 81:93-98.
118. Wright, D. H. 1983. Species-energy theory: an extension of species-area theory. Oikos 41:496-506.
119. Wright, D. H., D. J. Currie, and B. A. Maurer. 1993. Energy supply and patterns of species richness on local and regional scales. Pages 66-74 in R. E. Ricklefs and D. Schluter, eds. Species diversity in ecological communities: historical and geographical perspectives. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
120. Yanoviak, S. P., and M. Kaspari. 2000. Community structure and the habitat templet: ants in the tropical forest canopy and litter. Oikos 89:256-266.