Pharmacotherapeutic considerations in anesthesia

Heart Disease

Volumn 5, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 34-48

  Goldstein, Sheldon ^a,b   Amar, David ^a,b  

^a RUTGERS ROBERT WOOD JOHNSON MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^b WEILL CORNELL MEDICAL COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ABCIXIMAB; ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ALPHA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; AMINOCAPROIC ACID; ANESTHETIC AGENT; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANTIFIBRINOLYTIC AGENT; APROTININ; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CAPTOPRIL; CLOPIDOGREL; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIURETIC AGENT; ENALAPRIL; ENFLURANE; EPTIFIBATIDE; ESMOLOL; FUROSEMIDE; HEPARIN; INHALATION ANESTHETIC AGENT; MUSCLE RELAXANT AGENT; NITROPRUSSIDE SODIUM; PROPOFOL; SUFENTANIL; TICLOPIDINE; TIROFIBAN; TRANEXAMIC ACID; UNINDEXED DRUG; VERAPAMIL;

ANESTHESIA INDUCTION; BLEEDING; BRAIN VASOSPASM; CLINICAL TRIAL; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG CHOICE; DRUG CONTRAINDICATION; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG INDICATION; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG POTENTIATION; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; ELECTROLYTE DISTURBANCE; ESOPHAGUS SPASM; ESSENTIAL HYPERTENSION; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HEART FUNCTION; HEART HEMODYNAMICS; HEART MUSCLE ISCHEMIA; HEART OUTPUT; HEART RATE VARIABILITY; HEART SURGERY; HEMODYNAMIC MONITORING; HUMAN; HYPERKALEMIA; HYPOTENSION; HYPOVOLEMIA; INOTROPISM; INTRAOPERATIVE PERIOD; KIDNEY FUNCTION; MEDICAL DECISION MAKING; META ANALYSIS; PATIENT MONITORING; PERIOPERATIVE PERIOD; PREOPERATIVE CARE; PREOPERATIVE EVALUATION; PULMONARY HYPERTENSION; REBOUND; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK MANAGEMENT; SIDE EFFECT; SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE; THROMBOSIS; TREATMENT PLANNING; URINE VOLUME;

EID: 0037262275     PISSN: 1521737X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/01.HDX.0000050410.54258.24     Document Type: Review

References (164)

1. AAC/AHA Guideline update for perioperative cardiovascular evaluation for noncardiac surgery - executive summary. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on practice guidelines (committee to update the 1996 guidelines on perioperative cardiovascular evaluation for noncardiac surgery. Circulation 2002;105:1257-1267.
2. Coriat P, Richer C, Douraki T, et al. Influence of chronic angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition on anesthetic induction. Anesthesiology 1994;81:299-307.
3. a. Licker M. Schweizer A, Höhn L, et al. Cardiovascular responses to anesthetic induction in patients chronically treated with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. Can J Anesth 2000;47:433-440.
4. b. Smith MS, Muir H, Hall R. Perioperative management of drug therapy. Clinical considerations. Drugs 1996;51:238-259.
5. Colson P, Saussine M, Seguin JR, et al. Hemodynamic effects of anesthesia in patients chronically treated with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. Anesth Analg. 1992;74:805-808.
6. Tuman KJ, McCarthy RJ, O'Connor CJ, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors increase vasoconstrictor requirements after cardiopulmonary bypass. Anesth Analg 1995;80:473-479.
7. Boldt J, Schindler E, Harter K, et al. Influence ofintravenous administration of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor enalaprilat on cardiovascular mediators in cardiac surgery. Anesth Analg 1995;80:480-485.
8. Woodside J, Garner L, Bedford RF, et al. Captopril reduces the dose requirements for sodium nitroprusside induced hypotension. Anesthesiology 1984;60:413-417.
9. Reves JG, Kissin I, Lell WA, et al. Calcium entry blockers: uses and implications for anesthesiologists. Anesthesioloy 1982;57:504-518.
10. Merin RG, Kumazawa T, Luka NL. Myocardial function and metabolism in the conscious dog and during halothane anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1976;44:402-415.
11. Merin RG, Kumazawa T, Luka NL. Enflurane depresses myocardial function, perfusion and metabolism the dog. Anesthesiology 1976;45:501-507.
12. Bosnjak ZJ, Kampine JP. Effects of halothane, enflurane and isoflurance on the SA node. Anesthesiology 1983;58:314-321.
13. Kares RA, Kaplan JA, Guyton ILS, et al. Hemodynamic interactions of verapamil and isoflurane. Anesthesiology 1983;59:132-138.
14. Pagel PS, Farber NE, Warltier DC. Cardiovascular Pharmacology. In: Miller KD (ed). Anesthesia, 5th ed. Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone, 2000:96-124.
15. Brichard G, Zimmermann PE. Verapamil in cardiac dysrhythmias during anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1970;42:1005-1012.
16. Merin RG. Calcium channel blocking drugs and anesthetics: is the drug interaction beneficial or detrimental? Anesthesiology 1987;66:111-113.
17. Schulte-Sasse U, Hess W, Markschies-Hornung A, et al. Combined effects of halothane anesthesia and verapamil on systemic hemodynamics and left ventricular myocardial contractility in patients with ischemic heart disease. Anesth Analg 1984;63:791-798.
18. Schulte-Sasse U, Hess W, Markschies-Hornung A, et al. Cardiovascular interactions of halothane anesthesia and nifedipine in patients subjected to elective coronary artery bypass surgery. Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1983;31:261-265.
19. Durant NN, Nguyen N, Katz RL. Potentiation of neuromuscular blockade by verapamil. Anesthesiology 1984;60:298-303.
20. Bikhazi GB, Leung I, Flores C, et al. Potentiation of neuromuscular blocking agents by calcium channel blockers in rats. Anesth Analg 1988;67:1-8.
21. Saltzman LS, Kates RA, Corke BC, et al. Hyperkalemia and cardiovascular collapse after verapamil and dantrolene administration in swine. Anesth Analg 1984;63:473-478.
22. Rubin AS, Zablocki AD. Hyperkalemia, verapamil and dantrolene. Anesthesiology 1987;66:246-249.
23. Iwatsuki N, Katoh M, Ono K, et al. Antiarrhythmic effect of diltiazem during halothane anesthesia in dogs and in humans. Anesth Analg 1985;64:964-970.
24. Bernard JM, Pinaud M, Cartcau S, et al. Hypotensivc actions of diltiazem and nitroprusside compared during fentanyl anaesthesia for total hip arthroplasty. Can Anaesth Soc J 1986;33:308-314.
25. Humphrey LS, Blanck TJ. Intraoperative use of verapamil for nitroglycerin-refractory myocardial ischemia. Anesth Analg 1985;64:68-71.
26. Nussmeier N, Slogoff S. Verapamil treatment of intraoperative coronary artery spasm. Anesthesiology 1985;62:539-541.
27. Chung F, Houston PL, Cheng DC, et al. Calcium channel blockade does not offer adequate protection from perioperative myocardial ischemia. Anesthesiology 1988;69:343-347.
28. Slogoff S, Keats AS. Does chronic treatment with calcium entry blocking drugs reduce perioperativc myocardial ischemia? Anesthesiology 1988;68:676-680.
29. Reid D, Aylmer A. Hypertension in anaesthesia. Can Anaesth Soc J 1984;31:222-231.
30. Mangano DT, Layug EL, Wallace AW, et al. Effect of atenolol on mortality and cardiovascular morbidity after noncardiac surgery. N Engl J Med 1996;335:1713-1720.
31. a. Poldermans D, Boersma E, Bax JJ, et al. The effect of bisoprolol on perioperative mortality and myocardial infarction in high-risk patients undergoing vascular surgery. N Engl Med 1999;341:1789-1794.
32. Ponten J, Biber B, Bjuro T, et al. B-receptor blocker withdrawal. A perioperative problem in general surgery? Acta Anaesth Scand (Suppl) 1982;76:32-37.
33. Boudoulas H, Lewis RP, Kates RE, et al. Hypersensitivity to adrenergic stimulation after propranolol withdrawal in normal subjects. Ann Intern Med 1977;87:433-436.
34. Slogoff S, Keats AS, Ott E. Perioperative propranolol therapy and aortocoronary bypass operation. JAMA 1978;240:1487-1490.
35. a. Salazar C, Frishman WH, Friedman S, et al. Supraventricular tachyarrhythmias post coronary surgery: a propranolol withdrawal syndrome. Angiology 1979;30:816-819.
36. Ponten J, Biber B, Bjuro T, ct al. β-receptor blockade and spinal anaesthesia. Withdrawal versus continuation of long-term therapy. Acta Annaesthesiol Scand (Suppl) 1982;76:62-69.
37. Stone JG, Foex P, Sear JW, et al. Myocardial ischaemia in untreated hypertensive patients: Effects of a small oral dose of a beta-adrenergic block agent. Anesthesiology 1988;68:495-500.
38. Roizen MF. Should we all have a sympathectomy at birth? Or at least preoperatively? Anesthesiology 1988;68:482-484.
39. Stone JG, Foex P, Sear JW, et al. Risk of myocardial ischaemia during anesthesia in treated and untreated hypertensive patients. Br J Anaesth 1988;61:675-679.
40. Oxorn D, Knox JW, Hill J. Bolus doses of esmolol for the prevention of perioperative hypertension and tachycardia. Can J Anaesth 1990;37:206-209.
41. Bedford RF, Berry FA, Longnecker DE. Impact of propranolol on hemodynamic responses and blood cyanide levels during nitroprusside irfusion: a prospective study in anesthetized man. Anesth Analg 1979;58:466-469.
42. Khambatta HJ, Stone JG, Kahn E. Propranolol alters renin release during nitroprusside-induced hypotension and prevents hypertension on discontinuation of nitroprusside. Anesth Analg 1981;60:569-573.
43. Marshall WK, Bedford RF, Arnold WP, et al. Effects of propranolol on the cardiovascular and renin-angiotensin systems during hypotension produced by sodium nitroprusside in human. Anesthesiology 1981;55:277-280.
44. Edmondson R, Del Valle O, Shah N, et al. Esmolol for the potentiation of nitroprusside-induced hypotension: impact on the cardiovascular, adrenergic, and renin-angiotensin systems in man. Anesth Analg 1989;69:202-206.
45. Ornstein E, Matteo RS, Weinstein JA, et al. A controlled trial ofesmolol for the induction of deliberate hypotension. J Clin Anaesth 1988;1:31-35.
46. Tarnow J, Komar K. Altered hemodynamic responses to dobutamine in relation to the degree of preoperative beta-adrenoceptor blockade. Anesthesiology 1988;68:912-919.
47. Craig DB, Bose D. Drug interactions in anaesthesia: chronic antihypertensive therapy. Can Anaesh Soc J 1984;31:580-589.
48. Hirsch IA, Tomlinson DL, SlogoffS, et al. The overstated risk of preoperative hypokalemia. Anesth Analg 1988;67:131-136.
49. Miller RD, Sohn Yj, Matteo RS. Enhancement of d-tubocurarine neuromuscular blockade by diuretics in man. Anesthesiology 1976;45:442.
50. Azar I, Cottrell J, Gupta B, et al. Furosemide facilitates recovery of evoked twitch response after pancuronium. Anesth Analg 1980;59:55-57.
51. Matteo RS, Nishitateno K, Pua EK, et al. Pharmacokinetics of d-tubocurarine in man: effect of an osmotic diuretic on urinary excretion. Anesthesiology 1980;52:335-338.
52. 2 adrenoceptor agonists and anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1993;71:108-118.
53. Harker LA. Bleeding after cardiopulmonary bypass. N Engl J Med 1986;314:1446-1448.
54. Woodman RC, Harker LA. Bleeding complications associated with cardiopulmonary bypass. Blood 1990;76:1680-1697.
55. Milam JD, Austin SF, Martin RF, et al. Alteration of coagulation and selected clinical chemistry parameters in patients undergoing open-heart surgery without transfusions. Am Clin Path 1981;76:155-162.
56. Despotis GJ, Filos KS, Zoys TN, et al. Factors associated with excessive postoperative blood loss and hemostatic transfusion requirements. A multivariate analysis in cardiac surgical patients. Anesth Analg. 1996;82:13-21.
57. Aren C, Feddersen K, Radegran K. Effects of prostacyclin infusion on platelet activation and postoperative blood loss in coronary bypass. Ann Thorac Surg 1983;36:49-54.
58. Cosgrove DM, Thurer RL, Lytle BW, et al. Blood conservation during myocardial revascularization. Ann Thorac Surg 1979;28:184-189.
59. Lackritz EM, Satten GA, Aberle-Grasse J, et al. Estimated risk of transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus by screened blood in the United States. N Engl J Med 1995;333:1721-1725.
60. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Public Health Service interagency guidelines for screening donors of blood, plasma, organs, tissues and semen for evidence of hepatitis B and hepatitis C. MMWR 1991;40RR-4:1.
61. Busch MP, Korelitz JJ, Kleinman SH, et al. Declining value ofalanine amino-transferase in screening of blood donors to prevent posttransfusion hepatitis B and C virus infection. Retrovirus Epidemiology Donor Study. Transfusion 1995;35:903-910.
62. Triulzi DJ, Vanek K, Ryan DH, Blumberg N. A clinical and immunologic study of blood transfusion and postoperative bacterial infection in spinal surgery. Transfusion 1992;32:517-524.
63. Houbiers JG, van de Velde CJ, van de Watering LM, et al. Transfusion of red cells is associated with increased incidence of bacterial infection after colorectal surgery: a prospective study. Transfusion 1997;37:126-134.
64. Koval KJ, Rosenberg AD, Zuckerman JD, et al. Does blood transfusion increase the risk of infection after hip fracture? J Orthop Trauma 1997;11:260-265.
65. Carson JL, Altman DG, Duff A, et al. Risk of bacterial infection associated with allogeneic blood transfusion among patients undergoing hip fracture repair. Transfusion 1999;39:694-700.
66. Torchia MG, Danziger RG. Perioperative blood transfusion and albumin administration are independent risk factors for the development of postoperative infections after colorectal surgery. Can J Surg 2000;43:212-216.
67. Vignali A, Braga M, Gianotti L, et al. A single unit of transfused allogeneic blood increases postoperative infections. Vox Sang 1996;71:170-175.
68. Tanaka K, Takao M, Yada I, et al. Alterations in coagulation and fibrinolysis associated with cardiopulmonary bypass during open-heart surgery. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 1989;3:181-188.
69. Blauhut, B, Harringer W, Bettelheim P, et al. Comparison of the effects of aprotinin and tranexamic acid on blood loss and related variables after cardiopulmonary bypass. J Thor Cardiovasc Surg 1994;108:1083-1091.
70. a. Alvarez JM, Jackson LR, Chatwin C, Smolich JJ. Low-dose postoperative aprotinin reduces mediastinal drainage and blood product use in patients undergoing primary coronary artery bypass grafting who are taking aspirin. A prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled trial.J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2001;122:457-463.
71. Bennett-Guerrero E, Sorohan JG, Gurevich ML, et al. Cost-benefit and efficacy of aprotinin compared with EACA acid in patients having repeated cardiac operations: a randomized, blinded clinical trial. Anesthesiology 1997;87:1373-1380.
72. Anderer FA, Hornle S. The disulfide linkages in kallikrein inactivator of bovine lung. J Biol Chem 1966;241:1568-1572.
73. Emerson TE. Pharmacology of aprotinin and efficacy during cardiopulmonary bypass. Drug Rev 1989;7:127.
74. Van Oeveren W, Jansen NJ, Bidstrup BP, et al. Effects of aprotinin on hemostatic mechanisms during cardiopulmonary bypass. Ann Thorac Surg 1987;44:640-645.
75. Van Oeveren W, Harder MP, Roozendaal KJ, et al. Aprotinin protects platelets against thc initial effect of cardiopulmonary bypass. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1990;99:788-796.
76. Bidstrup BP, Harrison J, Royston D, et al. Aprotinin therapy in cardiac operations: a report on use in 41 cardiac centers in the United Kingdom. Ann Thorac Surg 1993;55:971-976.
77. Dietrich W, Barnankay A, Hahnel C, et al. High-dose aprotinin in cardiac surgery: Three years experience in 1784 patients. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 1992;6:324-327.
78. Levy JH, Pifarre R, Schaff HV, et al. A multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of aprotinin for reducing blood loss and the requirement for donor-blood transfusions in patients undergoing repeat coronary artery bypass grafting. Circulation 1995;92:2236-2244.
79. Munoz JJ, Birkmeyer NJO, Birkmeyer JD, et al. Is epsilon- aminocaproic acid as effective as aprotinin in reducing bleeding with cardiac surgery? A meta-analysis. Circulation 1999;99:81-89.
80. Cosgrove DMD, Heric B, Lytle BW, et al. Aprotinin therapy for reoperative myocardial revascularization: a placebo controlled study. Ann Thorac Surg 1992;54:1031-1036.
81. Hardy IF, Desroches J, Belisle S, et al. Low-dose aprotinin infusion is not clinically useful to reduce bleeding and transfusion of homologous blood products in high-risk cardiac surgical patients. Can J Anaesth 1993;40:625-631.
82. Boldt J, Zickmann B, Czeke A, et al. Blood conservation techniques and platelet function in cardiac surgery. Anesthesiology 1991;75:426-432.
83. Westaby S. Aprotinin in perspective. Ann Thorac Surg 1993;55:1033-1041.
84. Royston D, Bidstrup BP, Taylor KM, et al. Effect of aprotinin on the need for blood transfusion after repeat open-heart surgery. Lancet 1987;2:1289-1291.
85. Bidstrup BP, Royston D, Taylor KM, et al. Effect of aprotinin on the need for blood transfusion in patients with septic endocarditis having open-heart surgery. Lancet 1988;1:366-367.
86. Cosgrove DM, Loop FD, Lytle BW, et al. Determinants of blood utilization during myocardial revascularization. Ann Thorac Surg 1985;40:380-384.
87. Young JA, Kisker CT, Doty DB. Adequate anticoagulation during cardiopulmonary bypass determined by activated clotting time and the appearance of fibrin monomer. Ann Thorac Surg 1978;26:231-240.
88. Bull BS, Huse WM, Brauer FS, et al. Heparin therapy during extracorporeal circulation II. The use of a dose-response curve to individualize heparin and protamine dosage. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1975;69:685-689.
89. Royston D. High-dose aprotinin therapy: a review of the first five years' experience. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 1992;6:76-100.
90. Just M. In vivo interaction of the Kunitz protease inhibitor and of insulin with subcellular structures from the rat renal cortex. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 1075;287:85-95.
91. Fischer JH, Mulpfer P. High dose aprotinin (Trasylol) therapy: harmless to the kidney. Ann Thorac Surg 1995;60:1076.
92. Feindt PR, Walcher S, Volkmer I, et al. Effects of high dose aprotinin on renal function in aortocoronary bypass grafting. Ann Thorac Surg 1995;60:1076-1080.
93. Lemmer JH Jr, Stanford W, Bonney SL, et al. Aprotinin for coronary artery bypass grafting: effect on postoperative renal function. Ann Thorac Surg 1995;59:132-136.
94. Goldstein DJ, Seldomridge JA, Chen JM, et al. Use of aprotinin in LVAD recipients reduces blood loss, blood use, and perioperative mortality. Ann Thorac Surg 1995;59:1063-1067.
95. Bidstrup BP, Underwood SK, Sapsford RN. et al. Effect of aprofinin (Trasylol) on aorta-coronary bypass graft patency. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1993;105:147-152.
96. Lemmer JH Jr, Stanford W, Bonney SL, ct al. Aprotinin for coronary bypass operations: efficacy, safety, and influence on early saphenous vein graft patency: a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1994;107:543-551.
97. Havel M, Grabenwoger F, Schneider J, et al. Aprotinin does not decrease early graft patency after coronary, artery bypass grafting despite reducing postoperative bleeding and use of donated blood. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1994;107:807-810.
98. Lass M, Welz A, Kochs M, et al. Aprotinin in elective primary bypass surgery: graft patency and clinical efficacy. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 1995;9:206-210.
99. Diefenbach C, Abel M, Limpers B, et al. Fatal anaphylactic shock after aprotinin reexposure in cardiac surgery. Anesth Analg 1995;80:830-831.
100. Yanagihara Y, Shida T. Immunological studies on patients who received aprotinin therapy. Arerugi 1985;34:899-904.
101. Dietrich W, Spath P, Ebell A, et al. Prevalence of anaphylactic reactions to aprotinin: analysis of two hundred forty-eight reexposures to aprotinin in heart operations. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1997;113:194-201.
102. Kesten S, Hoyas A, Chaparro C, et al. Aprotinin reduces blood loss in lung transplant recipients. Ann Thorac Surg 1995;59:877-879.
103. Soilleux H, Gillon MC, Mirand A, et al. Comparative effects of small and large aprotinin doses on bleeding during orthotopic liver transplantation. Anesth Analg 1995;80:349-352.
104. Murkin JM, Shannon NA, Bourne KB, et al. Aprotinin decreases blood loss in patients undergoing revision or bilateral total hip arthroplasty. Anesth Analg 1995;80:343-348.
105. Valentine S, Williamson P, Sutton D. Reduction of acute haemorrhage with aprotinin. Anaesthesia 1993;48:405-406.
106. Horrow JC. Desmopressin and antifibrinolytics. Int Anesthesiol Clin 1990;28:230-236.
107. Horrow JC, Hlavacek J, Strong MD, et al. Prophylactic tranexamic acid decreases bleeding after cardiac operations. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1990;99:70-74.
108. Rousou IA, Engelman RM, Flack JE III, et al. Tranexamic acid significantly reduces blood loss associated with coronary revascularization. Ann Thorac Surg 1995;59:671-675.
109. Horrow JC, Van Riper DF, Strong MD, et al. Hemostatic effects of tranexamic acid and desmopressin during cardiac surgery. Circulation 1991;84:2063-2070.
110. Murkin JM, Con Tranexamic acid is not better than aprotinin in decreasing bleeding cardiac surgery. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 1994;8:474-476.
111. Ovrum E, Am Holen E, Abdelnoor M, et al. Tranexamic acid (Cyklokapron) is not necessary to reduce blood loss after coronary artery bypass operations. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1993;105:78-83.
112. Horrow J, Strong MD, Van Riper DF. Tranexamic acid after bypass: too late to help? J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1994;107:1375-1377.
113. Ali IM, Landymore RW. The use of tranexamic acid in cardiac operations. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1994;107:1377.
114. Speekenbrink RG, Vonk AB, Wildevuur CR, et al. Hemostatic efficacy of dipyridamole, tranexamic acid, and aprotinin in coronary bypass grafting. Ann Thorac Surg 1995;59:438-442.
115. Pugh SC, Wielogorski AK. A comparison of the effects of tranexamic acid and low-dose aprotinin on blood loss and homologous blood usage in patients undergoing cardiac surgery, J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 1995;9:240-244.
116. DelRossi AJ, Cernaianu AC, Botros S, et al. Prophylactic treatment of postperfusion bleeding using EACA. Chest 1989;96:27-30.
117. Vander Salm TI, Kaur S, Lancey RA, et al. Reduction of bleeding after heart operations through the use of epsilon-aminocaproic acid. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1996;112:1098-1107.
118. Montesano RM, Gustafson PA, Manley NJ, et et al. The effect of low-dose epsilon-aminocaproic acid on patients following coronary artery bypass surgery. Perfusion 1996;11:53-56
119. Andersson L, Nilson I, Colleen S, et al. Role of urokinase and tissue activator in sustaining bleeding and the management thereof with EACA and AMCA. Ann NY Acad Sci 1968;146:642-658.
120. Second International Study of Infarct Survival Collaborative Group. Randomised trial of intravenous streptokinase, oral aspirin, both, or neither among 17,187 cases of suspected acute myocardial infarction. ISIS-2. Lancet 1988;2:349-360.
121. Antiplatelet Trialist's Collaboration. Collaborative overview of randomized trials of antiplatelet therapy-1. Prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke by prolonged antiplatelet therapy in various categories of patients. BMJ 1994;308:81-106.
122. Reich DL, Patel GC, Vela-Cantos F, et al. Aspirin does not increase homologous blood requirements in elective coronary bypass surgery. Anesth Analg 1994;79:4-8.
123. Ferraris VA, Ferraris SP. Preoperative aspirin ingestion increases operative blood loss after coronary artery bypass grafting. Ann Thorac Surg 1995;59:10336-1037.
124. Goldman S, Copeland J, Moriotz T, et al. Improvement in early saphenous vein graft patency after coronary artery bypass surgery with antiplatelet therapy: results of a Veterans Administration Cooperative Study. Circulation 1988;77:1324-1332.
125. Vorchheimer DA, Badimon JJ, Fuster V. Platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor antagonists in cardiovascular disease. JAMA 1999;281:1407-1414.
126. The EPIC Investigators. Use of a monoclonal antibody directed against the platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor in high-risk coronary angioplasty. N Engl J Med 1994;330:956-961.
127. The EPILOG Investigators. Platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor blockade and low-close heparin during percutaneous coronary revascularization. N Engl J Med 1997;336:1689-1696.
128. Randomised placebo-controlled trial of abciximab before and during coronary intervention in refractory unstable angina: the CAPTURE study. Lancet 1997;349:1429-1434.
129. Tcheng JE. Differences among the parenteral glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors and implications for treatment. Am J Card 1999;83:7E.
130. Gammie JS, Zenati M, Kormos RL, et al. Abciximab and excessive bleeding in patients undergoing emergency cardiac operations. Ann Thorac Surg 1998;65:465-469.
131. Boehrer JD, Kereiakes DJ, Navetta FI, et al for thc EPIC investigators. Effects of profound platelet inhibition with c7E3 before coronary angioplasty on complications of coronary bypass surgery. Am J Cardiol 1994;74:1166-1170.
132. Tcheng J, Ellis SG, George BS, ct al. Pharmacodynamics of chimeric glycoprotein IIb/IIIa integrin antiplatelet antibody Fab 7E in high-risk coronary angioplasty. Circulation 1994;90:1757-1764.
133. Simoons ML, de Boer MJ, van den Brand MJBM, et al. Randomized trial of a GPIIb/IIIa platelet receptor blocker in refractory unstable angina. European Cooperative Study Group. Circulation 1994;89:596-603.
134. Frishman WH, Burns B, Atac B, et al. Novel antiplatelet therapies for treatment of patients with ischemic heart disease: inhibitors ofthe platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa integrin receptor. Am Heart J 1995;130:877-892.
135. Juergens CP, Yeung AC, Oesterle S. Routine platelet transfusion in patients undergoing emergency coronary bypass surgery after receiving abciximab. Am J Cardiol 1997;80:74-75.
136. Lemmer JH Jr. Clinical experience in coronary bypass surgery for abciximab-treated patients. Ann Thorac Surg 2000;70(2 Suppl):S33-S37.
137. Dyke CM, Bhatia D, Lorenz TJ, Et al. Immediate coronary artery bypass surgery after platelet inhibition with eptifibatide: results from PURSUIT. Ann Thorac Surg 2000;70:866-871.
138. Bhatt DL, Chew DP, Hirsch AT, et al. Superiority of clopidogrel versus aspirin in patients with prior cardiac surgery. Circulation 2001;103:363.
139. David JL, Limet R. Antiplatelet activity of clopidogrel in coronary artery bypass graft surgery patients. Thromb Haemost 1999;82:1417-1421.
140. Criado A, Juffe A, Carmona J, et al. Ticlopidine as a hemorrhagic risk factor in coronary surgery. Drug Intel Clin Pharm 1985;19:673-676.
141. Quinn MJ, Fitzgerald DJ. Ticlopidine and clopidogrel. Circulation 1999;100:1667-1672.
142. Di Minno G, Cerbone AM, Mattiolo PL, et al. Functionally thrombasthenic state in normal platelets following the administration of ticlopidine. J Clin Invest 1985;75:328-338.
143. Speekenbrink RG, Vonk AB, Wildevuur CR, et al. Hemostatic efficacy of dipyridamole, tranexamic acid, and aprotinin in coronary bypass grafting. Ann Thorac Surg 1995;59:438.
144. Atlee JL. Perioperative cardiac dysrhythmias. Diagnosis and management. Anesthesiology 1997;86:1397-1424.
145. Segerdahl M, Persson E, Ekblom A, et al. Perioperative adenosine infusion reduces isoflurane concentrations during general anesthesia for shoulder surgery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1996;40:792-797.
146. Zarate E, Sa Rego MM, White PF, et al. Comparison of adenosine and remifentanil infusions as adjuvants to desflurane anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1999;90:956-963.
147. Fullerton DA, Jones SD, Grover FL, et al. Adenosine effectively controls pulmonary hypertension after cardiac operations. Ann Thorac Surg 1996;61:1118-1123.
148. Cohen G, Borger MA, Weisel RD, Rao V. Intraoperative myocardial protection: current trends and future perspectives. Ann Thorac Surg 1999;68:1995-2001.
149. Aggarwal A, Farber NE, Warltier DC. Intraoperative bronchospasm caused by adenosine. Anesthesiology 1993;79:1132-1135.
150. Navalgund A, Alifimoff J, Jakymec A, et al. Amiodarone induced sinus arrest successfully treated with ephedrine and isoproterenol. Anesth Analg 1986;65:414-416.
151. Shieh JP, Chu CC, Chen JY, et al. Acute fatal vasoplegia and asystolc induced by intravenous amiodarone after cardiopulmonary bypass in a patient with preoperative cardiogenic shock. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1999;37:205-210.
152. Gallagher J, Lieberman R, Meranze J, et al. Amiodarone induced complications during coronary surgery. Anesthesiology 1981;55:186-188.
153. Dimopoulou I, Marathias K, Daganou M, et al. Low-dose amiodarone related complications after cardiac operations. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1997;114:31.
154. Van Mieghem W, Coolen L, Malysse I, et al. Amiodarone and the development of ARDS after lung surgery. Chest 1994;105:1642-1645.
155. White CM, Dunn A, Tsikouris J, et al. An assessment of the safety of short-term amiodarone therapy in cardiac surgical patients with fental-isoflurane anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1999;89:585-589.
156. Daoud EG, Strickberger SA, Man KC, et al. Preoperative amiodarone as prophylaxis against atrial fibrillation after heart surgery. N Engl J Med 1997;337:1785.
157. Guarnieri T, Nolan S, Gottlieb SO, et al. Intravenous amiodarone for the prevention of atrial fibrillation after open-heart surgery. The Amiodarone Reduction in Coronary Heart (ARCH) Trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999;34:343-347.
158. Lee SH, Chang CM, Lu MJ, et al Intravenous amiodarone for prevention of atrial fibrillation after coronary artery bypass grafting. Ann Thorac Surg 2000;70:157-161.
159. Seitelberger R, Hannes W, Gleichauf M, et al. Effects of diltiazeni on perioperative ischemia, arrhythmias and myocardial function in patients undergoing elective coronary bypass grafting. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1994;107:811-821.
160. Amar D, Roistacher N, Rusch VW, et al. Effects of diltiazem prophylaxis on the incidence and clinical outcome of atrial arrhythmias after thoracic surgery. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2000;120:790-798.
161. Gomes JA, Ip J, Santoni-Rugiu F, et al. Oral d, l Sotalol reduces the incidence of postoperative atrial fibrillation in coronary artery bypass surgery patients: a randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled study. J Am Coll Cardio11999;34:334 -339.
162. Gavaghan TP, Koegh AM, Kelly RP, et al. Flecainide compared with a combination of digoxin and disopyramide for acute atrial arrhythmias after cardiopulmonary bypass. Br Heart J 1988;60:497-501.
163. Gentili C, Giordano F, Alois A, et al. Efficacy of intravenous propafenone in acute atrial fibrillation complicating open-heart surgery. Am Heart J 1992;123:1225-1228.
164. Vanderlugt JT, Mattioni T, Denker S, et al. Efficacy and safety of ibutilide funtarate for the conversion of atrial arrhythmias after cardiac surgery. Circulation 1999;100:369-375.