The health care experiments at many farms: The navajo, tuberculosis, and the limits of modern medicine, 1952-1962

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 76, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 749-790

  Jones, David S ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Antibiotics; Compliance; Efficacy; Indian Health Service; Many Farms; Navajo; Research; Tuberculosis; Walsh McDermott

Indexed keywords

TUBERCULOSTATIC AGENT;

AMERICAN INDIAN; ARTICLE; HISTORY; HUMAN; PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE; TUBERCULOSIS; UNITED STATES;

ANTIBIOTICS, ANTITUBERCULAR; ARIZONA; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN; TUBERCULOSIS; UNITED STATES; UNITED STATES INDIAN HEALTH SERVICE;

EID: 0036885162     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/bhm.2002.0186     Document Type: Review

References (377)

1. [Walsh McDermott], "Interim Report on Indian Health, Committee on American Indians, 6/30/59," p. 68 (emphasis in the original), Walsh McDermott Papers, box 10, folder 2 (henceforth cited in the form WMP/10/2), NewYork Weill Cornell Medical Center Archives, New York, N.Y. (henceforth MCA).
2. Walsh McDermott, "Early Days of Antimicrobial Therapy," Antimicr. Agents & Chemother., 1968, 8: 1-6, quotation on p. 2.
3. John Adair and Kurt Deuschle, The People's Health: Medicine and Anthropology in a Navajo Community (New York: Meredith, 1970), pp. 50, 95.
4. Walsh McDermott, "Conversation with Jane K. Zaidi (archivist), 7 February 1972," WMP/11/5: "Navajo, Oral History Tape, Transcript 1951-52," p. 12. For overviews of the project, see Walsh McDermott, Kurt Deuschle, John Adair, Hugh Fulmer, and Bernice Loughlin, "Introducing Modern Medicine in a Navajo Community: Physicians and Anthropologists Are Cooperating in This Study of Changing Patterns of Culture and Disease," Science, 1960, 131: 197-205, 280-87; Walsh McDermott, Kurt W. Deuschle, and Clifford R. Barnett, "Health Care Experiment at Many Farms: A Technological Misfit of Health Care and Disease Pattern Existed in This Navajo Community," Science, 1972, 175:23-31.
5. Walsh McDermott, "Conversation with Jane K. Zaidi (archivist), 7 February 1972," WMP/11/5: "Navajo, Oral History Tape, Transcript 1951-52," p. 12. For overviews of the project, see Walsh McDermott, Kurt Deuschle, John Adair, Hugh Fulmer, and Bernice Loughlin, "Introducing Modern Medicine in a Navajo Community: Physicians and Anthropologists Are Cooperating in This Study of Changing Patterns of Culture and Disease," Science, 1960, 131: 197-205, 280-87; Walsh McDermott, Kurt W. Deuschle, and Clifford R. Barnett, "Health Care Experiment at Many Farms: A Technological Misfit of Health Care and Disease Pattern Existed in This Navajo Community," Science, 1972, 175:23-31.
6. Walsh McDermott, "Conversation with Jane K. Zaidi (archivist), 7 February 1972," WMP/11/5: "Navajo, Oral History Tape, Transcript 1951-52," p. 12. For overviews of the project, see Walsh McDermott, Kurt Deuschle, John Adair, Hugh Fulmer, and Bernice Loughlin, "Introducing Modern Medicine in a Navajo Community: Physicians and Anthropologists Are Cooperating in This Study of Changing Patterns of Culture and Disease," Science, 1960, 131: 197-205, 280-87; Walsh McDermott, Kurt W. Deuschle, and Clifford R. Barnett, "Health Care Experiment at Many Farms: A Technological Misfit of Health Care and Disease Pattern Existed in This Navajo Community," Science, 1972, 175:23-31.
7. Walsh McDermott, "Conversation with Jane K. Zaidi (archivist), 7 February 1972," WMP/11/5: "Navajo, Oral History Tape, Transcript 1951-52," p. 12. For overviews of the project, see Walsh McDermott, Kurt Deuschle, John Adair, Hugh Fulmer, and Bernice Loughlin, "Introducing Modern Medicine in a Navajo Community: Physicians and Anthropologists Are Cooperating in This Study of Changing Patterns of Culture and Disease," Science, 1960, 131: 197-205, 280-87; Walsh McDermott, Kurt W. Deuschle, and Clifford R. Barnett, "Health Care Experiment at Many Farms: A Technological Misfit of Health Care and Disease Pattern Existed in This Navajo Community," Science, 1972, 175:23-31.
8. For examples of early campaigns for rural health, see C. C. Ch'en, "The Rural Public Health Experiment in Ting Hsien, China," Milbank Mem. Fund Quart. Bull., 1936, 14:66-80; John Etling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthrop and the Public Health in the New South (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981); Shula Marks, "South Africa's Early Experiment in Social Medicine: Its Pioneers and Politics," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1997, 87: 452-59. Western medicine in colonial contexts has received vast attention from historians. For examples of this excellent literature, see David Arnold, Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Andrew Cunningham and Bridie Andrews, eds., Western Medicine as Contested Knowledge (Manchester, U.K.: Manchester University Press, 1997); Mary-Ellen Kelm, Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health and Healing in British Columbia, 1900-50 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1998); Warwick Anderson, "The Possession of Kuru: Medical Science and Biocolonial Exchange," Comp. Stud. Soc. & Hist., 2000, 42: 713-44.
9. For examples of early campaigns for rural health, see C. C. Ch'en, "The Rural Public Health Experiment in Ting Hsien, China," Milbank Mem. Fund Quart. Bull., 1936, 14:66-80; John Etling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthrop and the Public Health in the New South (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981); Shula Marks, "South Africa's Early Experiment in Social Medicine: Its Pioneers and Politics," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1997, 87: 452-59. Western medicine in colonial contexts has received vast attention from historians. For examples of this excellent literature, see David Arnold, Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Andrew Cunningham and Bridie Andrews, eds., Western Medicine as Contested Knowledge (Manchester, U.K.: Manchester University Press, 1997); Mary-Ellen Kelm, Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health and Healing in British Columbia, 1900-50 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1998); Warwick Anderson, "The Possession of Kuru: Medical Science and Biocolonial Exchange," Comp. Stud. Soc. & Hist., 2000, 42: 713-44.
10. For examples of early campaigns for rural health, see C. C. Ch'en, "The Rural Public Health Experiment in Ting Hsien, China," Milbank Mem. Fund Quart. Bull., 1936, 14:66-80; John Etling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthrop and the Public Health in the New South (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981); Shula Marks, "South Africa's Early Experiment in Social Medicine: Its Pioneers and Politics," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1997, 87: 452-59. Western medicine in colonial contexts has received vast attention from historians. For examples of this excellent literature, see David Arnold, Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Andrew Cunningham and Bridie Andrews, eds., Western Medicine as Contested Knowledge (Manchester, U.K.: Manchester University Press, 1997); Mary-Ellen Kelm, Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health and Healing in British Columbia, 1900-50 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1998); Warwick Anderson, "The Possession of Kuru: Medical Science and Biocolonial Exchange," Comp. Stud. Soc. & Hist., 2000, 42: 713-44.
11. For examples of early campaigns for rural health, see C. C. Ch'en, "The Rural Public Health Experiment in Ting Hsien, China," Milbank Mem. Fund Quart. Bull., 1936, 14:66-80; John Etling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthrop and the Public Health in the New South (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981); Shula Marks, "South Africa's Early Experiment in Social Medicine: Its Pioneers and Politics," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1997, 87: 452-59. Western medicine in colonial contexts has received vast attention from historians. For examples of this excellent literature, see David Arnold, Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Andrew Cunningham and Bridie Andrews, eds., Western Medicine as Contested Knowledge (Manchester, U.K.: Manchester University Press, 1997); Mary-Ellen Kelm, Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health and Healing in British Columbia, 1900-50 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1998); Warwick Anderson, "The Possession of Kuru: Medical Science and Biocolonial Exchange," Comp. Stud. Soc. & Hist., 2000, 42: 713-44.
12. For examples of early campaigns for rural health, see C. C. Ch'en, "The Rural Public Health Experiment in Ting Hsien, China," Milbank Mem. Fund Quart. Bull., 1936, 14:66-80; John Etling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthrop and the Public Health in the New South (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981); Shula Marks, "South Africa's Early Experiment in Social Medicine: Its Pioneers and Politics," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1997, 87: 452-59. Western medicine in colonial contexts has received vast attention from historians. For examples of this excellent literature, see David Arnold, Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Andrew Cunningham and Bridie Andrews, eds., Western Medicine as Contested Knowledge (Manchester, U.K.: Manchester University Press, 1997); Mary-Ellen Kelm, Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health and Healing in British Columbia, 1900-50 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1998); Warwick Anderson, "The Possession of Kuru: Medical Science and Biocolonial Exchange," Comp. Stud. Soc. & Hist., 2000, 42: 713-44.
13. For examples of early campaigns for rural health, see C. C. Ch'en, "The Rural Public Health Experiment in Ting Hsien, China," Milbank Mem. Fund Quart. Bull., 1936, 14:66-80; John Etling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthrop and the Public Health in the New South (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981); Shula Marks, "South Africa's Early Experiment in Social Medicine: Its Pioneers and Politics," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1997, 87: 452-59. Western medicine in colonial contexts has received vast attention from historians. For examples of this excellent literature, see David Arnold, Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Andrew Cunningham and Bridie Andrews, eds., Western Medicine as Contested Knowledge (Manchester, U.K.: Manchester University Press, 1997); Mary-Ellen Kelm, Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health and Healing in British Columbia, 1900-50 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1998); Warwick Anderson, "The Possession of Kuru: Medical Science and Biocolonial Exchange," Comp. Stud. Soc. & Hist., 2000, 42: 713-44.
14. For examples of early campaigns for rural health, see C. C. Ch'en, "The Rural Public Health Experiment in Ting Hsien, China," Milbank Mem. Fund Quart. Bull., 1936, 14:66-80; John Etling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthrop and the Public Health in the New South (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981); Shula Marks, "South Africa's Early Experiment in Social Medicine: Its Pioneers and Politics," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1997, 87: 452-59. Western medicine in colonial contexts has received vast attention from historians. For examples of this excellent literature, see David Arnold, Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Andrew Cunningham and Bridie Andrews, eds., Western Medicine as Contested Knowledge (Manchester, U.K.: Manchester University Press, 1997); Mary-Ellen Kelm, Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health and Healing in British Columbia, 1900-50 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1998); Warwick Anderson, "The Possession of Kuru: Medical Science and Biocolonial Exchange," Comp. Stud. Soc. & Hist., 2000, 42: 713-44.
15. Robert A. Trennert discussed Many Farms briefly in his history of health care on the Navajo reservation, White Man's Medicine: Government Doctors and the Navajo, 1863-1955 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1998), pp. 215-17, and cited several unpublished papers by Wade M. Davies. Stephen J. Kunitz described the limited impact of the project on the Indian Health Service in Disease Change and the Role of Medicine: The Navajo Experience (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), p. 201 n. 1. I have found no sustained historical discussions of the project, and no analyses that use McDermott's archive at New York Hospital. McDermott himself has received some attention. Paul B. Beeson has provided a helpful biography in "Walsh McDermott, October 24,1909-October 17, 1981," Biographical Memoirs, National Academy of Sciences, vol. 59 (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1990), pp. 283-307. David E. Rogers, who worked closely for McDermott for several decades, wrote two reflections on McDermott's career: see Walsh McDermott, with David E. Rogers, "Social Ramifications of Control of Microbial Disease," Johns Hopkins Med. J., 1982, 151: 302-12; David E. Rogers, "The Early Years: The Medical World in Which Walsh McDermott Trained," Daedalus, 1986, 115: 1-18. My analysis of the meanings and impacts of Many Farms is adapted from David S. Jones, "Rationalizing Epidemics: Historical Accounts of American Indian Health Disparities" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 2001).
16. Robert A. Trennert discussed Many Farms briefly in his history of health care on the Navajo reservation, White Man's Medicine: Government Doctors and the Navajo, 1863-1955 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1998), pp. 215-17, and cited several unpublished papers by Wade M. Davies. Stephen J. Kunitz described the limited impact of the project on the Indian Health Service in Disease Change and the Role of Medicine: The Navajo Experience (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), p. 201 n. 1. I have found no sustained historical discussions of the project, and no analyses that use McDermott's archive at New York Hospital. McDermott himself has received some attention. Paul B. Beeson has provided a helpful biography in "Walsh McDermott, October 24,1909-October 17, 1981," Biographical Memoirs, National Academy of Sciences, vol. 59 (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1990), pp. 283-307. David E. Rogers, who worked closely for McDermott for several decades, wrote two reflections on McDermott's career: see Walsh McDermott, with David E. Rogers, "Social Ramifications of Control of Microbial Disease," Johns Hopkins Med. J., 1982, 151: 302-12; David E. Rogers, "The Early Years: The Medical World in Which Walsh McDermott Trained," Daedalus, 1986, 115: 1-18. My analysis of the meanings and impacts of Many Farms is adapted from David S. Jones, "Rationalizing Epidemics: Historical Accounts of American Indian Health Disparities" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 2001).
17. Robert A. Trennert discussed Many Farms briefly in his history of health care on the Navajo reservation, White Man's Medicine: Government Doctors and the Navajo, 1863-1955 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1998), pp. 215-17, and cited several unpublished papers by Wade M. Davies. Stephen J. Kunitz described the limited impact of the project on the Indian Health Service in Disease Change and the Role of Medicine: The Navajo Experience (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), p. 201 n. 1. I have found no sustained historical discussions of the project, and no analyses that use McDermott's archive at New York Hospital. McDermott himself has received some attention. Paul B. Beeson has provided a helpful biography in "Walsh McDermott, October 24,1909-October 17, 1981," Biographical Memoirs, National Academy of Sciences, vol. 59 (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1990), pp. 283-307. David E. Rogers, who worked closely for McDermott for several decades, wrote two reflections on McDermott's career: see Walsh McDermott, with David E. Rogers, "Social Ramifications of Control of Microbial Disease," Johns Hopkins Med. J., 1982, 151: 302-12; David E. Rogers, "The Early Years: The Medical World in Which Walsh McDermott Trained," Daedalus, 1986, 115: 1-18. My analysis of the meanings and impacts of Many Farms is adapted from David S. Jones, "Rationalizing Epidemics: Historical Accounts of American Indian Health Disparities" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 2001).
18. Robert A. Trennert discussed Many Farms briefly in his history of health care on the Navajo reservation, White Man's Medicine: Government Doctors and the Navajo, 1863-1955 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1998), pp. 215-17, and cited several unpublished papers by Wade M. Davies. Stephen J. Kunitz described the limited impact of the project on the Indian Health Service in Disease Change and the Role of Medicine: The Navajo Experience (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), p. 201 n. 1. I have found no sustained historical discussions of the project, and no analyses that use McDermott's archive at New York Hospital. McDermott himself has received some attention. Paul B. Beeson has provided a helpful biography in "Walsh McDermott, October 24,1909-October 17, 1981," Biographical Memoirs, National Academy of Sciences, vol. 59 (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1990), pp. 283-307. David E. Rogers, who worked closely for McDermott for several decades, wrote two reflections on McDermott's career: see Walsh McDermott, with David E. Rogers, "Social Ramifications of Control of Microbial Disease," Johns Hopkins Med. J., 1982, 151: 302-12; David E. Rogers, "The Early Years: The Medical World in Which Walsh McDermott Trained," Daedalus, 1986, 115: 1-18. My analysis of the meanings and impacts of Many Farms is adapted from David S. Jones, "Rationalizing Epidemics: Historical Accounts of American Indian Health Disparities" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 2001).
19. Robert A. Trennert discussed Many Farms briefly in his history of health care on the Navajo reservation, White Man's Medicine: Government Doctors and the Navajo, 1863-1955 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1998), pp. 215-17, and cited several unpublished papers by Wade M. Davies. Stephen J. Kunitz described the limited impact of the project on the Indian Health Service in Disease Change and the Role of Medicine: The Navajo Experience (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), p. 201 n. 1. I have found no sustained historical discussions of the project, and no analyses that use McDermott's archive at New York Hospital. McDermott himself has received some attention. Paul B. Beeson has provided a helpful biography in "Walsh McDermott, October 24,1909-October 17, 1981," Biographical Memoirs, National Academy of Sciences, vol. 59 (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1990), pp. 283-307. David E. Rogers, who worked closely for McDermott for several decades, wrote two reflections on McDermott's career: see Walsh McDermott, with David E. Rogers, "Social Ramifications of Control of Microbial Disease," Johns Hopkins Med. J., 1982, 151: 302-12; David E. Rogers, "The Early Years: The Medical World in Which Walsh McDermott Trained," Daedalus, 1986, 115: 1-18. My analysis of the meanings and impacts of Many Farms is adapted from David S. Jones, "Rationalizing Epidemics: Historical Accounts of American Indian Health Disparities" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 2001).
20. Robert A. Trennert discussed Many Farms briefly in his history of health care on the Navajo reservation, White Man's Medicine: Government Doctors and the Navajo, 1863-1955 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1998), pp. 215-17, and cited several unpublished papers by Wade M. Davies. Stephen J. Kunitz described the limited impact of the project on the Indian Health Service in Disease Change and the Role of Medicine: The Navajo Experience (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), p. 201 n. 1. I have found no sustained historical discussions of the project, and no analyses that use McDermott's archive at New York Hospital. McDermott himself has received some attention. Paul B. Beeson has provided a helpful biography in "Walsh McDermott, October 24,1909-October 17, 1981," Biographical Memoirs, National Academy of Sciences, vol. 59 (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1990), pp. 283-307. David E. Rogers, who worked closely for McDermott for several decades, wrote two reflections on McDermott's career: see Walsh McDermott, with David E. Rogers, "Social Ramifications of Control of Microbial Disease," Johns Hopkins Med. J., 1982, 151: 302-12; David E. Rogers, "The Early Years: The Medical World in Which Walsh McDermott Trained," Daedalus, 1986, 115: 1-18. My analysis of the meanings and impacts of Many Farms is adapted from David S. Jones, "Rationalizing Epidemics: Historical Accounts of American Indian Health Disparities" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 2001).
21. For a discussion of the enthusiasm of postwar American society, see James T. Patterson, Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945-1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996). For the impact of this optimism on medicine, see Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine: The Rise of a Sovereign Profession and the Making of a Vast Industry (New York: Basic Books, 1982), pp. 335-51; Allan M. Brandt and Martha Gardner, "The Golden Age of Medicine?" in Medicine in the Twentieth Century, ed. Roger Cooter and John Pickstone (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000), pp. 21-37. For changes in the structure of medical research after World War II, see Harry M. Marks, The Progress of Experiment: Science and Therapeutic Reform in the United States, 1900-1990 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
22. For a discussion of the enthusiasm of postwar American society, see James T. Patterson, Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945-1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996). For the impact of this optimism on medicine, see Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine: The Rise of a Sovereign Profession and the Making of a Vast Industry (New York: Basic Books, 1982), pp. 335-51; Allan M. Brandt and Martha Gardner, "The Golden Age of Medicine?" in Medicine in the Twentieth Century, ed. Roger Cooter and John Pickstone (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000), pp. 21-37. For changes in the structure of medical research after World War II, see Harry M. Marks, The Progress of Experiment: Science and Therapeutic Reform in the United States, 1900-1990 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
23. For a discussion of the enthusiasm of postwar American society, see James T. Patterson, Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945-1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996). For the impact of this optimism on medicine, see Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine: The Rise of a Sovereign Profession and the Making of a Vast Industry (New York: Basic Books, 1982), pp. 335-51; Allan M. Brandt and Martha Gardner, "The Golden Age of Medicine?" in Medicine in the Twentieth Century, ed. Roger Cooter and John Pickstone (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000), pp. 21-37. For changes in the structure of medical research after World War II, see Harry M. Marks, The Progress of Experiment: Science and Therapeutic Reform in the United States, 1900-1990 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
24. For a discussion of the enthusiasm of postwar American society, see James T. Patterson, Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945-1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996). For the impact of this optimism on medicine, see Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine: The Rise of a Sovereign Profession and the Making of a Vast Industry (New York: Basic Books, 1982), pp. 335-51; Allan M. Brandt and Martha Gardner, "The Golden Age of Medicine?" in Medicine in the Twentieth Century, ed. Roger Cooter and John Pickstone (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000), pp. 21-37. For changes in the structure of medical research after World War II, see Harry M. Marks, The Progress of Experiment: Science and Therapeutic Reform in the United States, 1900-1990 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
25. For recent reviews of the impact of European pathogens on New World populations, see John W. Verano and Douglas H. Ubelaker, eds., Disease and Demography in the American (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992); David S. Jones, "Virgin Soils Revisited," William & Mary Q., forthcoming. For early Navajo health, see Stephen J. Kunitz, "Underdevelopment, Demographic Change, and Health Care on the Navajo Indian Reservation," Sor. Sci. & Med., 1981, 15A: 175-92; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 4-5.
26. For recent reviews of the impact of European pathogens on New World populations, see John W. Verano and Douglas H. Ubelaker, eds., Disease and Demography in the American (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992); David S. Jones, "Virgin Soils Revisited," William & Mary Q., forthcoming. For early Navajo health, see Stephen J. Kunitz, "Underdevelopment, Demographic Change, and Health Care on the Navajo Indian Reservation," Sor. Sci. & Med., 1981, 15A: 175-92; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 4-5.
27. For recent reviews of the impact of European pathogens on New World populations, see John W. Verano and Douglas H. Ubelaker, eds., Disease and Demography in the American (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992); David S. Jones, "Virgin Soils Revisited," William & Mary Q., forthcoming. For early Navajo health, see Stephen J. Kunitz, "Underdevelopment, Demographic Change, and Health Care on the Navajo Indian Reservation," Sor. Sci. & Med., 1981, 15A: 175-92; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 4-5.
28. For recent reviews of the impact of European pathogens on New World populations, see John W. Verano and Douglas H. Ubelaker, eds., Disease and Demography in the American (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992); David S. Jones, "Virgin Soils Revisited," William & Mary Q., forthcoming. For early Navajo health, see Stephen J. Kunitz, "Underdevelopment, Demographic Change, and Health Care on the Navajo Indian Reservation," Sor. Sci. & Med., 1981, 15A: 175-92; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 4-5.
29. Many authors review this history: Alexander H. Leighton and Dorothea C. Leighton, The Navaho Door: An Introduction to Navajo Life (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1945), pp. 5-9; John Adair, The Navajo and Pueblo Silversmiths (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1946), pp. 24-25; Clyde Kluckhohn and Dorothea Leighton, The Navajo (1946; rev. ed., Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974), p. 23; Frank S. French, James R. Shaw, and Joseph O. Dean, "The Navajo Health Problem, Its Genesis, Proportions and a Plan for Its Solution," Mil. Med., 1955, 116: 451-54, on p. 452; J. Nixon Hadley, "Health Conditions among Navajo Indians," Pub. Health Rep., 1955, 70: 831-36, on p. 831; Ruth M. Underhill, The Navajos (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1956); René Dubos, Mirage of Health: Utopias, Progress, and Biological Change (New York: Harper, 1959), p. 3; Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), pp. 175-77; Stephen J. Kunitz and Jerrold E. Levy, "Dances with Doctors: Navajo Encounters with the Indian Health Service," in Cunningham and Andrews, Western Medicine (n. 5), pp. 95-105; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 4-5, 19-37.
30. Many authors review this history: Alexander H. Leighton and Dorothea C. Leighton, The Navaho Door: An Introduction to Navajo Life (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1945), pp. 5-9; John Adair, The Navajo and Pueblo Silversmiths (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1946), pp. 24-25; Clyde Kluckhohn and Dorothea Leighton, The Navajo (1946; rev. ed., Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974), p. 23; Frank S. French, James R. Shaw, and Joseph O. Dean, "The Navajo Health Problem, Its Genesis, Proportions and a Plan for Its Solution," Mil. Med., 1955, 116: 451-54, on p. 452; J. Nixon Hadley, "Health Conditions among Navajo Indians," Pub. Health Rep., 1955, 70: 831-36, on p. 831; Ruth M. Underhill, The Navajos (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1956); René Dubos, Mirage of Health: Utopias, Progress, and Biological Change (New York: Harper, 1959), p. 3; Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), pp. 175-77; Stephen J. Kunitz and Jerrold E. Levy, "Dances with Doctors: Navajo Encounters with the Indian Health Service," in Cunningham and Andrews, Western Medicine (n. 5), pp. 95-105; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 4-5, 19-37.
31. Many authors review this history: Alexander H. Leighton and Dorothea C. Leighton, The Navaho Door: An Introduction to Navajo Life (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1945), pp. 5-9; John Adair, The Navajo and Pueblo Silversmiths (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1946), pp. 24-25; Clyde Kluckhohn and Dorothea Leighton, The Navajo (1946; rev. ed., Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974), p. 23; Frank S. French, James R. Shaw, and Joseph O. Dean, "The Navajo Health Problem, Its Genesis, Proportions and a Plan for Its Solution," Mil. Med., 1955, 116: 451-54, on p. 452; J. Nixon Hadley, "Health Conditions among Navajo Indians," Pub. Health Rep., 1955, 70: 831-36, on p. 831; Ruth M. Underhill, The Navajos (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1956); René Dubos, Mirage of Health: Utopias, Progress, and Biological Change (New York: Harper, 1959), p. 3; Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), pp. 175-77; Stephen J. Kunitz and Jerrold E. Levy, "Dances with Doctors: Navajo Encounters with the Indian Health Service," in Cunningham and Andrews, Western Medicine (n. 5), pp. 95-105; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 4-5, 19-37.
32. Many authors review this history: Alexander H. Leighton and Dorothea C. Leighton, The Navaho Door: An Introduction to Navajo Life (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1945), pp. 5-9; John Adair, The Navajo and Pueblo Silversmiths (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1946), pp. 24-25; Clyde Kluckhohn and Dorothea Leighton, The Navajo (1946; rev. ed., Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974), p. 23; Frank S. French, James R. Shaw, and Joseph O. Dean, "The Navajo Health Problem, Its Genesis, Proportions and a Plan for Its Solution," Mil. Med., 1955, 116: 451-54, on p. 452; J. Nixon Hadley, "Health Conditions among Navajo Indians," Pub. Health Rep., 1955, 70: 831-36, on p. 831; Ruth M. Underhill, The Navajos (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1956); René Dubos, Mirage of Health: Utopias, Progress, and Biological Change (New York: Harper, 1959), p. 3; Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), pp. 175-77; Stephen J. Kunitz and Jerrold E. Levy, "Dances with Doctors: Navajo Encounters with the Indian Health Service," in Cunningham and Andrews, Western Medicine (n. 5), pp. 95-105; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 4-5, 19-37.
33. Many authors review this history: Alexander H. Leighton and Dorothea C. Leighton, The Navaho Door: An Introduction to Navajo Life (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1945), pp. 5-9; John Adair, The Navajo and Pueblo Silversmiths (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1946), pp. 24-25; Clyde Kluckhohn and Dorothea Leighton, The Navajo (1946; rev. ed., Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974), p. 23; Frank S. French, James R. Shaw, and Joseph O. Dean, "The Navajo Health Problem, Its Genesis, Proportions and a Plan for Its Solution," Mil. Med., 1955, 116: 451-54, on p. 452; J. Nixon Hadley, "Health Conditions among Navajo Indians," Pub. Health Rep., 1955, 70: 831-36, on p. 831; Ruth M. Underhill, The Navajos (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1956); René Dubos, Mirage of Health: Utopias, Progress, and Biological Change (New York: Harper, 1959), p. 3; Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), pp. 175-77; Stephen J. Kunitz and Jerrold E. Levy, "Dances with Doctors: Navajo Encounters with the Indian Health Service," in Cunningham and Andrews, Western Medicine (n. 5), pp. 95-105; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 4-5, 19-37.
34. Many authors review this history: Alexander H. Leighton and Dorothea C. Leighton, The Navaho Door: An Introduction to Navajo Life (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1945), pp. 5-9; John Adair, The Navajo and Pueblo Silversmiths (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1946), pp. 24-25; Clyde Kluckhohn and Dorothea Leighton, The Navajo (1946; rev. ed., Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974), p. 23; Frank S. French, James R. Shaw, and Joseph O. Dean, "The Navajo Health Problem, Its Genesis, Proportions and a Plan for Its Solution," Mil. Med., 1955, 116: 451-54, on p. 452; J. Nixon Hadley, "Health Conditions among Navajo Indians," Pub. Health Rep., 1955, 70: 831-36, on p. 831; Ruth M. Underhill, The Navajos (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1956); René Dubos, Mirage of Health: Utopias, Progress, and Biological Change (New York: Harper, 1959), p. 3; Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), pp. 175-77; Stephen J. Kunitz and Jerrold E. Levy, "Dances with Doctors: Navajo Encounters with the Indian Health Service," in Cunningham and Andrews, Western Medicine (n. 5), pp. 95-105; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 4-5, 19-37.
35. Many authors review this history: Alexander H. Leighton and Dorothea C. Leighton, The Navaho Door: An Introduction to Navajo Life (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1945), pp. 5-9; John Adair, The Navajo and Pueblo Silversmiths (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1946), pp. 24-25; Clyde Kluckhohn and Dorothea Leighton, The Navajo (1946; rev. ed., Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974), p. 23; Frank S. French, James R. Shaw, and Joseph O. Dean, "The Navajo Health Problem, Its Genesis, Proportions and a Plan for Its Solution," Mil. Med., 1955, 116: 451-54, on p. 452; J. Nixon Hadley, "Health Conditions among Navajo Indians," Pub. Health Rep., 1955, 70: 831-36, on p. 831; Ruth M. Underhill, The Navajos (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1956); René Dubos, Mirage of Health: Utopias, Progress, and Biological Change (New York: Harper, 1959), p. 3; Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), pp. 175-77; Stephen J. Kunitz and Jerrold E. Levy, "Dances with Doctors: Navajo Encounters with the Indian Health Service," in Cunningham and Andrews, Western Medicine (n. 5), pp. 95-105; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 4-5, 19-37.
36. Many authors review this history: Alexander H. Leighton and Dorothea C. Leighton, The Navaho Door: An Introduction to Navajo Life (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1945), pp. 5-9; John Adair, The Navajo and Pueblo Silversmiths (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1946), pp. 24-25; Clyde Kluckhohn and Dorothea Leighton, The Navajo (1946; rev. ed., Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974), p. 23; Frank S. French, James R. Shaw, and Joseph O. Dean, "The Navajo Health Problem, Its Genesis, Proportions and a Plan for Its Solution," Mil. Med., 1955, 116: 451-54, on p. 452; J. Nixon Hadley, "Health Conditions among Navajo Indians," Pub. Health Rep., 1955, 70: 831-36, on p. 831; Ruth M. Underhill, The Navajos (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1956); René Dubos, Mirage of Health: Utopias, Progress, and Biological Change (New York: Harper, 1959), p. 3; Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), pp. 175-77; Stephen J. Kunitz and Jerrold E. Levy, "Dances with Doctors: Navajo Encounters with the Indian Health Service," in Cunningham and Andrews, Western Medicine (n. 5), pp. 95-105; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 4-5, 19-37.
37. Many authors review this history: Alexander H. Leighton and Dorothea C. Leighton, The Navaho Door: An Introduction to Navajo Life (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1945), pp. 5-9; John Adair, The Navajo and Pueblo Silversmiths (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1946), pp. 24-25; Clyde Kluckhohn and Dorothea Leighton, The Navajo (1946; rev. ed., Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974), p. 23; Frank S. French, James R. Shaw, and Joseph O. Dean, "The Navajo Health Problem, Its Genesis, Proportions and a Plan for Its Solution," Mil. Med., 1955, 116: 451-54, on p. 452; J. Nixon Hadley, "Health Conditions among Navajo Indians," Pub. Health Rep., 1955, 70: 831-36, on p. 831; Ruth M. Underhill, The Navajos (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1956); René Dubos, Mirage of Health: Utopias, Progress, and Biological Change (New York: Harper, 1959), p. 3; Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), pp. 175-77; Stephen J. Kunitz and Jerrold E. Levy, "Dances with Doctors: Navajo Encounters with the Indian Health Service," in Cunningham and Andrews, Western Medicine (n. 5), pp. 95-105; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 4-5, 19-37.
38. Many authors review this history: Alexander H. Leighton and Dorothea C. Leighton, The Navaho Door: An Introduction to Navajo Life (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1945), pp. 5-9; John Adair, The Navajo and Pueblo Silversmiths (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1946), pp. 24-25; Clyde Kluckhohn and Dorothea Leighton, The Navajo (1946; rev. ed., Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974), p. 23; Frank S. French, James R. Shaw, and Joseph O. Dean, "The Navajo Health Problem, Its Genesis, Proportions and a Plan for Its Solution," Mil. Med., 1955, 116: 451-54, on p. 452; J. Nixon Hadley, "Health Conditions among Navajo Indians," Pub. Health Rep., 1955, 70: 831-36, on p. 831; Ruth M. Underhill, The Navajos (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1956); René Dubos, Mirage of Health: Utopias, Progress, and Biological Change (New York: Harper, 1959), p. 3; Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), pp. 175-77; Stephen J. Kunitz and Jerrold E. Levy, "Dances with Doctors: Navajo Encounters with the Indian Health Service," in Cunningham and Andrews, Western Medicine (n. 5), pp. 95-105; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 4-5, 19-37.
39. Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 21, 43, 69-73. For a discussion of parallel troubles on other reservations, see Virginia R. Allen, "Agency Physicians to the Southern Plains Indians, 1868-1900," Bull. Hist. Med., 1975, 49: 318-30.
40. Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 21, 43, 69-73. For a discussion of parallel troubles on other reservations, see Virginia R. Allen, "Agency Physicians to the Southern Plains Indians, 1868-1900," Bull. Hist. Med., 1975, 49: 318-30.
41. Adair, Navajo and Pueblo Silversmiths (n. 9), p. 117.
42. Aleš Hrdlička, Physiological and Medical Observations among the Indians of Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1908), pp. 187, 210-11. See also Herbert A. Burns, "Tuberculosis in the Indian," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1932, 26: 498-506; "Contagious and Infectious Diseases among the Indians," 1913, excerpted in U.S. Public Health Service, Health Services for American Indians, Public Health Service Publication no. 531 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1957), p. 282. For a review of early Navajo health, see Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 96-99.
43. Aleš Hrdlička, Physiological and Medical Observations among the Indians of Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1908), pp. 187, 210-11. See also Herbert A. Burns, "Tuberculosis in the Indian," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1932, 26: 498-506; "Contagious and Infectious Diseases among the Indians," 1913, excerpted in U.S. Public Health Service, Health Services for American Indians, Public Health Service Publication no. 531 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1957), p. 282. For a review of early Navajo health, see Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 96-99.
44. Aleš Hrdlička, Physiological and Medical Observations among the Indians of Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1908), pp. 187, 210-11. See also Herbert A. Burns, "Tuberculosis in the Indian," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1932, 26: 498-506; "Contagious and Infectious Diseases among the Indians," 1913, excerpted in U.S. Public Health Service, Health Services for American Indians, Public Health Service Publication no. 531 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1957), p. 282. For a review of early Navajo health, see Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 96-99.
45. Aleš Hrdlička, Physiological and Medical Observations among the Indians of Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1908), pp. 187, 210-11. See also Herbert A. Burns, "Tuberculosis in the Indian," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1932, 26: 498-506; "Contagious and Infectious Diseases among the Indians," 1913, excerpted in U.S. Public Health Service, Health Services for American Indians, Public Health Service Publication no. 531 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1957), p. 282. For a review of early Navajo health, see Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 96-99.
46. Aleš Hrdlička, Physiological and Medical Observations among the Indians of Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1908), pp. 187, 210-11. See also Herbert A. Burns, "Tuberculosis in the Indian," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1932, 26: 498-506; "Contagious and Infectious Diseases among the Indians," 1913, excerpted in U.S. Public Health Service, Health Services for American Indians, Public Health Service Publication no. 531 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1957), p. 282. For a review of early Navajo health, see Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 96-99.
47. Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), p. 177. See also Stephen J. Kunitz, "The Social Philosophy of John Collier," Ethnohistory, 1971, 18: 213-29; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), p. 177.
48. Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), p. 177. See also Stephen J. Kunitz, "The Social Philosophy of John Collier," Ethnohistory, 1971, 18: 213-29; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), p. 177.
49. Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), p. 177. See also Stephen J. Kunitz, "The Social Philosophy of John Collier," Ethnohistory, 1971, 18: 213-29; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), p. 177.
50. For the 1925 data, see Burns, "Tuberculosis in the Indian" (n. 12), pp. 498-99. For the 1947 data, see Fred T. Foard, "Health Services for the North American Indians," Med. Woman's J., 1950, 57:9-16, on p. 12. For the 1955 data, see Hadley, "Health Conditions" (n. 9), p. 835.
51. For the 1925 data, see Burns, "Tuberculosis in the Indian" (n. 12), pp. 498-99. For the 1947 data, see Fred T. Foard, "Health Services for the North American Indians," Med. Woman's J., 1950, 57:9-16, on p. 12. For the 1955 data, see Hadley, "Health Conditions" (n. 9), p. 835.
52. For the 1925 data, see Burns, "Tuberculosis in the Indian" (n. 12), pp. 498-99. For the 1947 data, see Fred T. Foard, "Health Services for the North American Indians," Med. Woman's J., 1950, 57:9-16, on p. 12. For the 1955 data, see Hadley, "Health Conditions" (n. 9), p. 835.
53. Joseph A. Murphy, "The Prevention of Tuberculosis in the Indian Schools," Addr. & Proc., Nat. Educ. Assoc. United States, 1909, 919-24, quotation on p. 919.
54. For histories of federal health services provided to American Indians, see George M. Kober, George E. Bushnell, Joseph A. Murphy, et al., Tuberculosis among the North American Indians: Report of a Committee of the National Tuberculosis Association Appointed on October 28, 1921 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1923), p. 10; Lawrence W. White, Robert E. L. Newberne, and Joseph A. Murphy, "Historical Sketch of the United States Indian Medical Service," in idem, pp. 97-100; USPHS, Health Services (n. 12), p. 92; U.S. Public Health Service, The Indian Health Program of the U.S. Public Health Service (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1966), pp. 18-19; Diane Therese Putney, "Fighting the Scourge: American Indian Morbidity and Federal Policy, 1897-1928" (Ph.D. diss., Marquette University, 1980), pp. 104, 108-9, 170-85; Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), p. 177; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 117-21. The period of hospital construction lagged behind the surge of hospital construction among the general population of the United States between 1870 and 1910: see Starr, Social Transformation (n. 7), pp. 145-79; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), pp. 5, 97-121. For an overview of the Progressive Era, and its impact on public health policy, see Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967), esp: pp. 114-16.
55. For histories of federal health services provided to American Indians, see George M. Kober, George E. Bushnell, Joseph A. Murphy, et al., Tuberculosis among the North American Indians: Report of a Committee of the National Tuberculosis Association Appointed on October 28, 1921 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1923), p. 10; Lawrence W. White, Robert E. L. Newberne, and Joseph A. Murphy, "Historical Sketch of the United States Indian Medical Service," in idem, pp. 97-100; USPHS, Health Services (n. 12), p. 92; U.S. Public Health Service, The Indian Health Program of the U.S. Public Health Service (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1966), pp. 18-19; Diane Therese Putney, "Fighting the Scourge: American Indian Morbidity and Federal Policy, 1897-1928" (Ph.D. diss., Marquette University, 1980), pp. 104, 108-9, 170-85; Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), p. 177; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 117-21. The period of hospital construction lagged behind the surge of hospital construction among the general population of the United States between 1870 and 1910: see Starr, Social Transformation (n. 7), pp. 145-79; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), pp. 5, 97-121. For an overview of the Progressive Era, and its impact on public health policy, see Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967), esp: pp. 114-16.
56. For histories of federal health services provided to American Indians, see George M. Kober, George E. Bushnell, Joseph A. Murphy, et al., Tuberculosis among the North American Indians: Report of a Committee of the National Tuberculosis Association Appointed on October 28, 1921 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1923), p. 10; Lawrence W. White, Robert E. L. Newberne, and Joseph A. Murphy, "Historical Sketch of the United States Indian Medical Service," in idem, pp. 97-100; USPHS, Health Services (n. 12), p. 92; U.S. Public Health Service, The Indian Health Program of the U.S. Public Health Service (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1966), pp. 18-19; Diane Therese Putney, "Fighting the Scourge: American Indian Morbidity and Federal Policy, 1897-1928" (Ph.D. diss., Marquette University, 1980), pp. 104, 108-9, 170-85; Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), p. 177; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 117-21. The period of hospital construction lagged behind the surge of hospital construction among the general population of the United States between 1870 and 1910: see Starr, Social Transformation (n. 7), pp. 145-79; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), pp. 5, 97-121. For an overview of the Progressive Era, and its impact on public health policy, see Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967), esp: pp. 114-16.
57. For histories of federal health services provided to American Indians, see George M. Kober, George E. Bushnell, Joseph A. Murphy, et al., Tuberculosis among the North American Indians: Report of a Committee of the National Tuberculosis Association Appointed on October 28, 1921 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1923), p. 10; Lawrence W. White, Robert E. L. Newberne, and Joseph A. Murphy, "Historical Sketch of the United States Indian Medical Service," in idem, pp. 97-100; USPHS, Health Services (n. 12), p. 92; U.S. Public Health Service, The Indian Health Program of the U.S. Public Health Service (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1966), pp. 18-19; Diane Therese Putney, "Fighting the Scourge: American Indian Morbidity and Federal Policy, 1897-1928" (Ph.D. diss., Marquette University, 1980), pp. 104, 108-9, 170-85; Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), p. 177; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 117-21. The period of hospital construction lagged behind the surge of hospital construction among the general population of the United States between 1870 and 1910: see Starr, Social Transformation (n. 7), pp. 145-79; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), pp. 5, 97-121. For an overview of the Progressive Era, and its impact on public health policy, see Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967), esp: pp. 114-16.
58. For histories of federal health services provided to American Indians, see George M. Kober, George E. Bushnell, Joseph A. Murphy, et al., Tuberculosis among the North American Indians: Report of a Committee of the National Tuberculosis Association Appointed on October 28, 1921 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1923), p. 10; Lawrence W. White, Robert E. L. Newberne, and Joseph A. Murphy, "Historical Sketch of the United States Indian Medical Service," in idem, pp. 97-100; USPHS, Health Services (n. 12), p. 92; U.S. Public Health Service, The Indian Health Program of the U.S. Public Health Service (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1966), pp. 18-19; Diane Therese Putney, "Fighting the Scourge: American Indian Morbidity and Federal Policy, 1897-1928" (Ph.D. diss., Marquette University, 1980), pp. 104, 108-9, 170-85; Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), p. 177; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 117-21. The period of hospital construction lagged behind the surge of hospital construction among the general population of the United States between 1870 and 1910: see Starr, Social Transformation (n. 7), pp. 145-79; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), pp. 5, 97-121. For an overview of the Progressive Era, and its impact on public health policy, see Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967), esp: pp. 114-16.
59. For histories of federal health services provided to American Indians, see George M. Kober, George E. Bushnell, Joseph A. Murphy, et al., Tuberculosis among the North American Indians: Report of a Committee of the National Tuberculosis Association Appointed on October 28, 1921 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1923), p. 10; Lawrence W. White, Robert E. L. Newberne, and Joseph A. Murphy, "Historical Sketch of the United States Indian Medical Service," in idem, pp. 97-100; USPHS, Health Services (n. 12), p. 92; U.S. Public Health Service, The Indian Health Program of the U.S. Public Health Service (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1966), pp. 18-19; Diane Therese Putney, "Fighting the Scourge: American Indian Morbidity and Federal Policy, 1897-1928" (Ph.D. diss., Marquette University, 1980), pp. 104, 108-9, 170-85; Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), p. 177; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 117-21. The period of hospital construction lagged behind the surge of hospital construction among the general population of the United States between 1870 and 1910: see Starr, Social Transformation (n. 7), pp. 145-79; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), pp. 5, 97-121. For an overview of the Progressive Era, and its impact on public health policy, see Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967), esp: pp. 114-16.
60. For histories of federal health services provided to American Indians, see George M. Kober, George E. Bushnell, Joseph A. Murphy, et al., Tuberculosis among the North American Indians: Report of a Committee of the National Tuberculosis Association Appointed on October 28, 1921 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1923), p. 10; Lawrence W. White, Robert E. L. Newberne, and Joseph A. Murphy, "Historical Sketch of the United States Indian Medical Service," in idem, pp. 97-100; USPHS, Health Services (n. 12), p. 92; U.S. Public Health Service, The Indian Health Program of the U.S. Public Health Service (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1966), pp. 18-19; Diane Therese Putney, "Fighting the Scourge: American Indian Morbidity and Federal Policy, 1897-1928" (Ph.D. diss., Marquette University, 1980), pp. 104, 108-9, 170-85; Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), p. 177; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 117-21. The period of hospital construction lagged behind the surge of hospital construction among the general population of the United States between 1870 and 1910: see Starr, Social Transformation (n. 7), pp. 145-79; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), pp. 5, 97-121. For an overview of the Progressive Era, and its impact on public health policy, see Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967), esp: pp. 114-16.
61. For histories of federal health services provided to American Indians, see George M. Kober, George E. Bushnell, Joseph A. Murphy, et al., Tuberculosis among the North American Indians: Report of a Committee of the National Tuberculosis Association Appointed on October 28, 1921 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1923), p. 10; Lawrence W. White, Robert E. L. Newberne, and Joseph A. Murphy, "Historical Sketch of the United States Indian Medical Service," in idem, pp. 97-100; USPHS, Health Services (n. 12), p. 92; U.S. Public Health Service, The Indian Health Program of the U.S. Public Health Service (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1966), pp. 18-19; Diane Therese Putney, "Fighting the Scourge: American Indian Morbidity and Federal Policy, 1897-1928" (Ph.D. diss., Marquette University, 1980), pp. 104, 108-9, 170-85; Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), p. 177; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 117-21. The period of hospital construction lagged behind the surge of hospital construction among the general population of the United States between 1870 and 1910: see Starr, Social Transformation (n. 7), pp. 145-79; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), pp. 5, 97-121. For an overview of the Progressive Era, and its impact on public health policy, see Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967), esp: pp. 114-16.
62. For histories of federal health services provided to American Indians, see George M. Kober, George E. Bushnell, Joseph A. Murphy, et al., Tuberculosis among the North American Indians: Report of a Committee of the National Tuberculosis Association Appointed on October 28, 1921 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1923), p. 10; Lawrence W. White, Robert E. L. Newberne, and Joseph A. Murphy, "Historical Sketch of the United States Indian Medical Service," in idem, pp. 97-100; USPHS, Health Services (n. 12), p. 92; U.S. Public Health Service, The Indian Health Program of the U.S. Public Health Service (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1966), pp. 18-19; Diane Therese Putney, "Fighting the Scourge: American Indian Morbidity and Federal Policy, 1897-1928" (Ph.D. diss., Marquette University, 1980), pp. 104, 108-9, 170-85; Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), p. 177; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 117-21. The period of hospital construction lagged behind the surge of hospital construction among the general population of the United States between 1870 and 1910: see Starr, Social Transformation (n. 7), pp. 145-79; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), pp. 5, 97-121. For an overview of the Progressive Era, and its impact on public health policy, see Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967), esp: pp. 114-16.
63. For histories of federal health services provided to American Indians, see George M. Kober, George E. Bushnell, Joseph A. Murphy, et al., Tuberculosis among the North American Indians: Report of a Committee of the National Tuberculosis Association Appointed on October 28, 1921 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1923), p. 10; Lawrence W. White, Robert E. L. Newberne, and Joseph A. Murphy, "Historical Sketch of the United States Indian Medical Service," in idem, pp. 97-100; USPHS, Health Services (n. 12), p. 92; U.S. Public Health Service, The Indian Health Program of the U.S. Public Health Service (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1966), pp. 18-19; Diane Therese Putney, "Fighting the Scourge: American Indian Morbidity and Federal Policy, 1897-1928" (Ph.D. diss., Marquette University, 1980), pp. 104, 108-9, 170-85; Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), p. 177; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 117-21. The period of hospital construction lagged behind the surge of hospital construction among the general population of the United States between 1870 and 1910: see Starr, Social Transformation (n. 7), pp. 145-79; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), pp. 5, 97-121. For an overview of the Progressive Era, and its impact on public health policy, see Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967), esp: pp. 114-16.
64. "Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 1920," quoted in Kober et al., Tuberculosis (n. 16), p. 88.
65. Elinor D. Gregg, The Indians and the Nurse (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1965), p. 24. See also White, Newberne, and Murphy, "Historical Sketch" (n. 16), p. 100; Putney, "Fighting the Scourge" (n. 16), p. 198; Francis Paul Prucha, Indian Policy in the United States: Historical Essays (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1981), pp. 854-55; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 74-75, 161, 195-99.
66. Elinor D. Gregg, The Indians and the Nurse (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1965), p. 24. See also White, Newberne, and Murphy, "Historical Sketch" (n. 16), p. 100; Putney, "Fighting the Scourge" (n. 16), p. 198; Francis Paul Prucha, Indian Policy in the United States: Historical Essays (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1981), pp. 854-55; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 74-75, 161, 195-99.
67. Elinor D. Gregg, The Indians and the Nurse (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1965), p. 24. See also White, Newberne, and Murphy, "Historical Sketch" (n. 16), p. 100; Putney, "Fighting the Scourge" (n. 16), p. 198; Francis Paul Prucha, Indian Policy in the United States: Historical Essays (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1981), pp. 854-55; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 74-75, 161, 195-99.
68. Elinor D. Gregg, The Indians and the Nurse (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1965), p. 24. See also White, Newberne, and Murphy, "Historical Sketch" (n. 16), p. 100; Putney, "Fighting the Scourge" (n. 16), p. 198; Francis Paul Prucha, Indian Policy in the United States: Historical Essays (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1981), pp. 854-55; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 74-75, 161, 195-99.
69. Elinor D. Gregg, The Indians and the Nurse (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1965), p. 24. See also White, Newberne, and Murphy, "Historical Sketch" (n. 16), p. 100; Putney, "Fighting the Scourge" (n. 16), p. 198; Francis Paul Prucha, Indian Policy in the United States: Historical Essays (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1981), pp. 854-55; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 74-75, 161, 195-99.
70. For the Rockefeller Commission report, see Lewis Meriam, Ray A. Brown, Henry-Roe Cloud, et al., for the Institute for Government Research, The Problem of Indian Administration (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1928), pp. 3, 204. For the history and impact of this report, see Putney, "Fighting the Scourge" (n. 16), p. 309; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 136-38.
71. For the Rockefeller Commission report, see Lewis Meriam, Ray A. Brown, Henry-Roe Cloud, et al., for the Institute for Government Research, The Problem of Indian Administration (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1928), pp. 3, 204. For the history and impact of this report, see Putney, "Fighting the Scourge" (n. 16), p. 309; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 136-38.
72. For the Rockefeller Commission report, see Lewis Meriam, Ray A. Brown, Henry-Roe Cloud, et al., for the Institute for Government Research, The Problem of Indian Administration (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1928), pp. 3, 204. For the history and impact of this report, see Putney, "Fighting the Scourge" (n. 16), p. 309; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), pp. 136-38.
73. For expressions of such New Deal sensitivity, see Joseph W. Mountin and J. S. Townsend, Observations on Indian Health Problems and Facilities, Public Health Service, Public Health Bulletin #223 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1936), p. 41; Leighton and Leighton, Navaho Door (n. 9). For discussions of this, see Putney, "Fighting the Scourge" (n. 16), p. 328; Kunitz, "Social Philosophy" (n. 13).
74. For expressions of such New Deal sensitivity, see Joseph W. Mountin and J. S. Townsend, Observations on Indian Health Problems and Facilities, Public Health Service, Public Health Bulletin #223 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1936), p. 41; Leighton and Leighton, Navaho Door (n. 9). For discussions of this, see Putney, "Fighting the Scourge" (n. 16), p. 328; Kunitz, "Social Philosophy" (n. 13).
75. For expressions of such New Deal sensitivity, see Joseph W. Mountin and J. S. Townsend, Observations on Indian Health Problems and Facilities, Public Health Service, Public Health Bulletin #223 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1936), p. 41; Leighton and Leighton, Navaho Door (n. 9). For discussions of this, see Putney, "Fighting the Scourge" (n. 16), p. 328; Kunitz, "Social Philosophy" (n. 13).
76. For expressions of such New Deal sensitivity, see Joseph W. Mountin and J. S. Townsend, Observations on Indian Health Problems and Facilities, Public Health Service, Public Health Bulletin #223 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1936), p. 41; Leighton and Leighton, Navaho Door (n. 9). For discussions of this, see Putney, "Fighting the Scourge" (n. 16), p. 328; Kunitz, "Social Philosophy" (n. 13).
77. J. A. Krug, The Navajo: A Long Range Program for Navajo Rehabilitation (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1948), p. vii.
78. Ibid., p. 6, and see pp. 1-9. See also Underbill, Navajos (n. 9), pp. 252-59; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 176. The postwar period was not entirely bleak for the Navajo and other American Indians. Peter Iverson has shown how the growth of Indian identity and nationalism during this time gradually increased Indian institutions and associations, which would fuel the activism of the 1960s and 1970s. An influx of federal money, for instance, facilitated the consolidation of the Navajo economy and identity. See Peter Iverson, "Building Toward Self-Determination: Plains and Southwestern Indians in the 1940s and 1950s," Western Hist. Rev., 1985, 16: 163-73.
79. Ibid., p. 6, and see pp. 1-9. See also Underbill, Navajos (n. 9), pp. 252-59; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 176. The postwar period was not entirely bleak for the Navajo and other American Indians. Peter Iverson has shown how the growth of Indian identity and nationalism during this time gradually increased Indian institutions and associations, which would fuel the activism of the 1960s and 1970s. An influx of federal money, for instance, facilitated the consolidation of the Navajo economy and identity. See Peter Iverson, "Building Toward Self-Determination: Plains and Southwestern Indians in the 1940s and 1950s," Western Hist. Rev., 1985, 16: 163-73.
80. Ibid., p. 6, and see pp. 1-9. See also Underbill, Navajos (n. 9), pp. 252-59; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 176. The postwar period was not entirely bleak for the Navajo and other American Indians. Peter Iverson has shown how the growth of Indian identity and nationalism during this time gradually increased Indian institutions and associations, which would fuel the activism of the 1960s and 1970s. An influx of federal money, for instance, facilitated the consolidation of the Navajo economy and identity. See Peter Iverson, "Building Toward Self-Determination: Plains and Southwestern Indians in the 1940s and 1950s," Western Hist. Rev., 1985, 16: 163-73.
81. Ibid., p. 6, and see pp. 1-9. See also Underbill, Navajos (n. 9), pp. 252-59; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 176. The postwar period was not entirely bleak for the Navajo and other American Indians. Peter Iverson has shown how the growth of Indian identity and nationalism during this time gradually increased Indian institutions and associations, which would fuel the activism of the 1960s and 1970s. An influx of federal money, for instance, facilitated the consolidation of the Navajo economy and identity. See Peter Iverson, "Building Toward Self-Determination: Plains and Southwestern Indians in the 1940s and 1950s," Western Hist. Rev., 1985, 16: 163-73.
82. Krug, Navajo (n. 21), p. 6.
83. Robert W. Young, The Navajo Yearbook, vol. 8: 1951-1961, A Decade of Progress (Window Rock, Ariz.: Navajo Agency, 1961), p. 67.
84. House Committee on Public Lands, Report to Accompany H.R. 4627: Authorizing an Appropriation for the Immediate Relief of the Navajo and Hopi Indians, 5 December 1947, 80th Cong., 1st sess., H. Rept. 1156, ser. 11123, p. 1.
85. William E. Warne, quoted in Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Report to Accompany S. 1407: Rehabilitation of the Navajo and Ilopi Tribes, 2 June 1949, 81st Cong., 1st sess., S. Rept. 550, ser. 11293, p. 5.
86. For the background to the act, see Krug, Navajo (n. 21), pp. v-x; Bureau of Indian Affairs, "Summary of Navajo Development," 8 April 1949, in Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Report to accompany S. 1407 (n. 26), p. 9. For the act itself, see An Act to Promote the Rehabilitation of the Navajo and Hopi Tribes of Indians and a Better Utilization of the Resources of the Navajo and Hopi Indian Reservations, and for Other Purposes, Public Law 474, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., 1950, pp. 44-45. For discussions of the Krug Report and Long Range Rehabilitation Act, see Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), pp. 178-79; Kunitz, Disease Change (n. 6), pp. 26-43; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), p. 210.
87. For the background to the act, see Krug, Navajo (n. 21), pp. v-x; Bureau of Indian Affairs, "Summary of Navajo Development," 8 April 1949, in Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Report to accompany S. 1407 (n. 26), p. 9. For the act itself, see An Act to Promote the Rehabilitation of the Navajo and Hopi Tribes of Indians and a Better Utilization of the Resources of the Navajo and Hopi Indian Reservations, and for Other Purposes, Public Law 474, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., 1950, pp. 44-45. For discussions of the Krug Report and Long Range Rehabilitation Act, see Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), pp. 178-79; Kunitz, Disease Change (n. 6), pp. 26-43; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), p. 210.
88. For the background to the act, see Krug, Navajo (n. 21), pp. v-x; Bureau of Indian Affairs, "Summary of Navajo Development," 8 April 1949, in Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Report to accompany S. 1407 (n. 26), p. 9. For the act itself, see An Act to Promote the Rehabilitation of the Navajo and Hopi Tribes of Indians and a Better Utilization of the Resources of the Navajo and Hopi Indian Reservations, and for Other Purposes, Public Law 474, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., 1950, pp. 44-45. For discussions of the Krug Report and Long Range Rehabilitation Act, see Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), pp. 178-79; Kunitz, Disease Change (n. 6), pp. 26-43; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), p. 210.
89. For the background to the act, see Krug, Navajo (n. 21), pp. v-x; Bureau of Indian Affairs, "Summary of Navajo Development," 8 April 1949, in Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Report to accompany S. 1407 (n. 26), p. 9. For the act itself, see An Act to Promote the Rehabilitation of the Navajo and Hopi Tribes of Indians and a Better Utilization of the Resources of the Navajo and Hopi Indian Reservations, and for Other Purposes, Public Law 474, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., 1950, pp. 44-45. For discussions of the Krug Report and Long Range Rehabilitation Act, see Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), pp. 178-79; Kunitz, Disease Change (n. 6), pp. 26-43; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), p. 210.
90. For the background to the act, see Krug, Navajo (n. 21), pp. v-x; Bureau of Indian Affairs, "Summary of Navajo Development," 8 April 1949, in Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Report to accompany S. 1407 (n. 26), p. 9. For the act itself, see An Act to Promote the Rehabilitation of the Navajo and Hopi Tribes of Indians and a Better Utilization of the Resources of the Navajo and Hopi Indian Reservations, and for Other Purposes, Public Law 474, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., 1950, pp. 44-45. For discussions of the Krug Report and Long Range Rehabilitation Act, see Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), pp. 178-79; Kunitz, Disease Change (n. 6), pp. 26-43; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), p. 210.
91. For the background to the act, see Krug, Navajo (n. 21), pp. v-x; Bureau of Indian Affairs, "Summary of Navajo Development," 8 April 1949, in Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Report to accompany S. 1407 (n. 26), p. 9. For the act itself, see An Act to Promote the Rehabilitation of the Navajo and Hopi Tribes of Indians and a Better Utilization of the Resources of the Navajo and Hopi Indian Reservations, and for Other Purposes, Public Law 474, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., 1950, pp. 44-45. For discussions of the Krug Report and Long Range Rehabilitation Act, see Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" (n. 8), pp. 178-79; Kunitz, Disease Change (n. 6), pp. 26-43; Trennert, White Man's Medicine (n. 6), p. 210.
92. USPHS, Health Services (n. 12), pp. 39-57, 230-32.
93. Steven M. Spencer, "They're Saving Lives in Navajo-Land," Saturday Evening Post, 23 April 1955, p. 92.
94. Ibid. See also Frederick Woltman, "The Medicine Men Accept Our Healing," World-Telegram & Sun Saturday Mag., 22 January 1955, p. 4.
95. Ibid. See also Frederick Woltman, "The Medicine Men Accept Our Healing," World-Telegram & Sun Saturday Mag., 22 January 1955, p. 4.
96. Elizabeth W. Etheridge, Sentinel for Health: A History of the Centers for Disease Control (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), pp. 17-44. The EIS was also designed as the front line of defense against biological warfare.
97. [McDermott], "Annual Report of the Division [of Infectious Disease, NYH], 1952," WMP/11/5.
98. "Mickey" [Charles LeMaistre] to McDermott, 31 December 1951, WMP/11/5; McDermott, "Conversation" (n. 4), p. 1; Walsh McDermott, "Oral History Transcript," p. 16, Oral History Transcripts, MCA, 54 F box 2.
99. "Mickey" [Charles LeMaistre] to McDermott, 31 December 1951, WMP/11/5; McDermott, "Conversation" (n. 4), p. 1; Walsh McDermott, "Oral History Transcript," p. 16, Oral History Transcripts, MCA, 54 F box 2.
100. "Mickey" [Charles LeMaistre] to McDermott, 31 December 1951, WMP/11/5; McDermott, "Conversation" (n. 4), p. 1; Walsh McDermott, "Oral History Transcript," p. 16, Oral History Transcripts, MCA, 54 F box 2.
101. Charles A. LeMaistre, Ralph Thompsett, Carl Muschenheim, James A. Moore, and Walsh McDermott, "Effects of Adrenocorticotropic Hormone and Cortisone in Patients with Tuberculosis," J. Clin. Invest., 1951, 30: 445-56.
102. "Ethnic": McDermott, "Conversation" (n. 4), p. 1; "ethical": McDermott, "Early Days" (n. 2), p. 2.
103. "Ethnic": McDermott, "Conversation" (n. 4), p. 1; "ethical": McDermott, "Early Days" (n. 2), p. 2.
104. McDermott, "Conversation" (n. 4), p. 1.
105. McDermott, in "Minutes of the Navajo Tribal Council," 2 June 1959, p. 2, WMP/11/ 7: "Navajo Tribal Council Excerpts."
106. McDermott, in "Minutes of the Navajo Tribal Council," 2 June 1959, p. 2, WMP/11/ 7: "Navajo Tribal Council Excerpts."
107. McDermott, Oral History Transcript" (n. 33), pp. 3, 8-9; "Finding Aid," pp. 1-3, WMP; Beeson, "Wakh McDermott" (n. 6), pp. 284-86.
108. McDermott, Oral History Transcript" (n. 33), pp. 3, 8-9; "Finding Aid," pp. 1-3, WMP; Beeson, "Wakh McDermott" (n. 6), pp. 284-86.
109. McDermott, Oral History Transcript" (n. 33), pp. 3, 8-9; "Finding Aid," pp. 1-3, WMP; Beeson, "Wakh McDermott" (n. 6), pp. 284-86.
110. For the expansion in federal research spending, see NIH Factbook, 1st ed. (Chicago: Marquis Academic Media, 1976); Starr, Social Transformation (n. 7), p. 347; Marks, Progress of Experiment (n. 7), pp. 98-126.
111. For the expansion in federal research spending, see NIH Factbook, 1st ed. (Chicago: Marquis Academic Media, 1976); Starr, Social Transformation (n. 7), p. 347; Marks, Progress of Experiment (n. 7), pp. 98-126.
112. For the expansion in federal research spending, see NIH Factbook, 1st ed. (Chicago: Marquis Academic Media, 1976); Starr, Social Transformation (n. 7), p. 347; Marks, Progress of Experiment (n. 7), pp. 98-126.
113. McDermott, "Oral History Transcript" (n. 33), p. 11.
114. "Medicine: War Booty," Time, 21 November 1949, pp. 98-99; H. Corwin Hinshaw and Walsh McDermott, "Thiosemicarbazone Therapy of Tuberculosis in Humans," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1950, 61: 145-57; McDermott, "Early Days" (n. 2), pp. 1-2; McDermott, "Oral History Transcript" (n. 33), p. 11.
115. "Medicine: War Booty," Time, 21 November 1949, pp. 98-99; H. Corwin Hinshaw and Walsh McDermott, "Thiosemicarbazone Therapy of Tuberculosis in Humans," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1950, 61: 145-57; McDermott, "Early Days" (n. 2), pp. 1-2; McDermott, "Oral History Transcript" (n. 33), p. 11.
116. "Medicine: War Booty," Time, 21 November 1949, pp. 98-99; H. Corwin Hinshaw and Walsh McDermott, "Thiosemicarbazone Therapy of Tuberculosis in Humans," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1950, 61: 145-57; McDermott, "Early Days" (n. 2), pp. 1-2; McDermott, "Oral History Transcript" (n. 33), p. 11.
117. "Medicine: War Booty," Time, 21 November 1949, pp. 98-99; H. Corwin Hinshaw and Walsh McDermott, "Thiosemicarbazone Therapy of Tuberculosis in Humans," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1950, 61: 145-57; McDermott, "Early Days" (n. 2), pp. 1-2; McDermott, "Oral History Transcript" (n. 33), p. 11.
118. Walsh McDermott, "Antimicrobial Therapy," Proc. Inst. Med. Chicago, 1950, 18: 2-12; Carl Muschenheim, Walsh McDermott, and Richard B. Maxwell, "The Therapy of Miliary and Meningeal Tuberculosis: Review of a Five Year Experience," Trans. Amer. Clin. & Climat. Assoc., 1951, 63: 257-65.
119. Walsh McDermott, "Antimicrobial Therapy," Proc. Inst. Med. Chicago, 1950, 18: 2-12; Carl Muschenheim, Walsh McDermott, and Richard B. Maxwell, "The Therapy of Miliary and Meningeal Tuberculosis: Review of a Five Year Experience," Trans. Amer. Clin. & Climat. Assoc., 1951, 63: 257-65.
120. National Tuberculosis Association, "Press Conference," 21 February 1952, Carl Muschenheim Papers (CMP), box 2, folder 6, "Conferences, 1950-55," MCA; McDermott, "Early Days" (n. 2), pp. 1-2. See also Frank Ryan, The Forgotten Plague: How the Battle against Tuberculosis Was Won - and Lost (Boston: Little, Brown, 1992), pp. 351-59.
121. National Tuberculosis Association, "Press Conference," 21 February 1952, Carl Muschenheim Papers (CMP), box 2, folder 6, "Conferences, 1950-55," MCA; McDermott, "Early Days" (n. 2), pp. 1-2. See also Frank Ryan, The Forgotten Plague: How the Battle against Tuberculosis Was Won - and Lost (Boston: Little, Brown, 1992), pp. 351-59.
122. National Tuberculosis Association, "Press Conference," 21 February 1952, Carl Muschenheim Papers (CMP), box 2, folder 6, "Conferences, 1950-55," MCA; McDermott, "Early Days" (n. 2), pp. 1-2. See also Frank Ryan, The Forgotten Plague: How the Battle against Tuberculosis Was Won - and Lost (Boston: Little, Brown, 1992), pp. 351-59.
123. Lawrence B. Hobson and Walsh McDermott, "Criteria for the Clinical Evaluation of Antituberculous Agents," Ann. New York Acad. Sci., 1949, 52: 782-87, quotation on p. 783. For the unreliability of X-ray interpretation in pulmonary tuberculosis, see J. Yerushalmy, L. H. Garland, J. T. Harkness, et al., "An Evaluation of the Role of Serial Chest Roentgenograms in Estimating the Progress of Disease in Patients with Pulmonary Tuberculosis," Chest, 1951, 64: 225-48.
124. Lawrence B. Hobson and Walsh McDermott, "Criteria for the Clinical Evaluation of Antituberculous Agents," Ann. New York Acad. Sci., 1949, 52: 782-87, quotation on p. 783. For the unreliability of X-ray interpretation in pulmonary tuberculosis, see J. Yerushalmy, L. H. Garland, J. T. Harkness, et al., "An Evaluation of the Role of Serial Chest Roentgenograms in Estimating the Progress of Disease in Patients with Pulmonary Tuberculosis," Chest, 1951, 64: 225-48.
125. Charles M. Clark, DuMont F. Elmendorf Jr., William U. Cawthon, Carl Muschenheim, and Walsh McDermott, "Isoniazid (Isonicotinic Acid Hydrazide) in the Treatment of Miliary and Meningeal Tuberculosis," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1952, 66: 391-405, 406-7, quotation on p. 407. Despite his support for randomization, McDermott rarely used it; he believed that the fatal outcome of untreated miliary tuberculosis allowed the use of case series and historical controls. See, e.g., Kurt Deuschle, Louise Ormond, Dumont F. Elmendorf Jr., Carl Muschenheim, and Walsh McDermott, with the technical assistance of Kurt Stern, "The Course of Pulmonary Tuberculosis during Long-Term Single-Drug (Isoniazid) Therapy," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1954, 70: 228-265, on p. 237. For the clinical trial of streptomycin, see British Medical Research Council, "Streptomycin Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis," Brit. Med. J., 1948, 2: 769-82. Harry M. Marks has provided the authoritative history of debates over research methodologies in the mid-twentieth century. He shows how postwar antibiotic research led to the contested acceptance of randomized clinical trials as the ideal method of clinical research: see Marks, Progress of Experiment (n. 7), pp. 141-62.
126. Charles M. Clark, DuMont F. Elmendorf Jr., William U. Cawthon, Carl Muschenheim, and Walsh McDermott, "Isoniazid (Isonicotinic Acid Hydrazide) in the Treatment of Miliary and Meningeal Tuberculosis," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1952, 66: 391-405, 406-7, quotation on p. 407. Despite his support for randomization, McDermott rarely used it; he believed that the fatal outcome of untreated miliary tuberculosis allowed the use of case series and historical controls. See, e.g., Kurt Deuschle, Louise Ormond, Dumont F. Elmendorf Jr., Carl Muschenheim, and Walsh McDermott, with the technical assistance of Kurt Stern, "The Course of Pulmonary Tuberculosis during Long-Term Single-Drug (Isoniazid) Therapy," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1954, 70: 228-265, on p. 237. For the clinical trial of streptomycin, see British Medical Research Council, "Streptomycin Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis," Brit. Med. J., 1948, 2: 769-82. Harry M. Marks has provided the authoritative history of debates over research methodologies in the mid-twentieth century. He shows how postwar antibiotic research led to the contested acceptance of randomized clinical trials as the ideal method of clinical research: see Marks, Progress of Experiment (n. 7), pp. 141-62.
127. Charles M. Clark, DuMont F. Elmendorf Jr., William U. Cawthon, Carl Muschenheim, and Walsh McDermott, "Isoniazid (Isonicotinic Acid Hydrazide) in the Treatment of Miliary and Meningeal Tuberculosis," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1952, 66: 391-405, 406-7, quotation on p. 407. Despite his support for randomization, McDermott rarely used it; he believed that the fatal outcome of untreated miliary tuberculosis allowed the use of case series and historical controls. See, e.g., Kurt Deuschle, Louise Ormond, Dumont F. Elmendorf Jr., Carl Muschenheim, and Walsh McDermott, with the technical assistance of Kurt Stern, "The Course of Pulmonary Tuberculosis during Long-Term Single-Drug (Isoniazid) Therapy," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1954, 70: 228-265, on p. 237. For the clinical trial of streptomycin, see British Medical Research Council, "Streptomycin Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis," Brit. Med. J., 1948, 2: 769-82. Harry M. Marks has provided the authoritative history of debates over research methodologies in the mid-twentieth century. He shows how postwar antibiotic research led to the contested acceptance of randomized clinical trials as the ideal method of clinical research: see Marks, Progress of Experiment (n. 7), pp. 141-62.
128. Charles M. Clark, DuMont F. Elmendorf Jr., William U. Cawthon, Carl Muschenheim, and Walsh McDermott, "Isoniazid (Isonicotinic Acid Hydrazide) in the Treatment of Miliary and Meningeal Tuberculosis," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1952, 66: 391-405, 406-7, quotation on p. 407. Despite his support for randomization, McDermott rarely used it; he believed that the fatal outcome of untreated miliary tuberculosis allowed the use of case series and historical controls. See, e.g., Kurt Deuschle, Louise Ormond, Dumont F. Elmendorf Jr., Carl Muschenheim, and Walsh McDermott, with the technical assistance of Kurt Stern, "The Course of Pulmonary Tuberculosis during Long-Term Single-Drug (Isoniazid) Therapy," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1954, 70: 228-265, on p. 237. For the clinical trial of streptomycin, see British Medical Research Council, "Streptomycin Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis," Brit. Med. J., 1948, 2: 769-82. Harry M. Marks has provided the authoritative history of debates over research methodologies in the mid-twentieth century. He shows how postwar antibiotic research led to the contested acceptance of randomized clinical trials as the ideal method of clinical research: see Marks, Progress of Experiment (n. 7), pp. 141-62.
129. Hobson and McDermott, "Criteria" (n. 44), p. 782.
130. See Charles A. Werner, Ralph Tompsett, Carl Muschenheim, and Walsh McDermott, "The Toxicity of Viomycin in Humans," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1951, 63: 49-61.
131. [McDermott], "Annual Report" (1952) (n. 32). For the limitations of New York Hospital, see Dumont F. Elmendorf Jr., William U. Cawthon, Carl Muschenheim, and Walsh McDermott, with the technical assistance of Rebeckah Du Bois, "The Absorption, Distribution, Excretion and Short-Term Toxicity of Isonicotinic Acid Hydrazide (Nydrazid) in Man," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1952, 65: 429-42, on pp. 440-41.
132. [McDermott], "Annual Report" (1952) (n. 32). For the limitations of New York Hospital, see Dumont F. Elmendorf Jr., William U. Cawthon, Carl Muschenheim, and Walsh McDermott, with the technical assistance of Rebeckah Du Bois, "The Absorption, Distribution, Excretion and Short-Term Toxicity of Isonicotinic Acid Hydrazide (Nydrazid) in Man," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1952, 65: 429-42, on pp. 440-41.
133. Walsh McDermott, "Draft of Chapter II," [undated], p. 2, WMP/11/6: "Navajo Project, 1957-1962."
134. Kurt Deuschle, "Cross-Cultural Medicine: The Navajo Indians as Case Exemplar," Daedalus, 1986, 115: 175-84, quotation on p. 176. Kunitz has described the Navajo reservation as an "internal colony" of the United States (Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" [n. 8], p. 175).
135. Kurt Deuschle, "Cross-Cultural Medicine: The Navajo Indians as Case Exemplar," Daedalus, 1986, 115: 175-84, quotation on p. 176. Kunitz has described the Navajo reservation as an "internal colony" of the United States (Kunitz, "Underdevelopment" [n. 8], p. 175).
136. McDermott, "Oral History Transcript" (n. 33), p. 3.
137. "Medicine: Good News from the West," Time, 21 July 1952, p. 55.
138. [McDermott], "Annual Report" (1952) (n. 32).
139. Woltman, "Medicine Men" (n. 30), p. 4. Historians have examined many similar cases of researchers utilizing marginalized, ethnic populations for medical research. In each case, the unusually high burden of disease provided the justification for research that the researchers believed might have been ethically difficult among the general population. The extent to which the research subjects suffered from the research has varied tremendously. For examples, see Allan M. Brandt, "Racism and Research: The Case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study," Hastings Cent. Rep., 1978, 8: 21-29; Marcia Angell, "The Ethics of Clinical Research in the Third World," New England J. Med., 1997, 337: 847-49; Lara Marks, "Human Guinea Pigs? The History of the Early Oral Contraceptive Clinical Trials," Hist. & Technol., 1999, 15: 263-88; David J. Rothman, "The Shame of Medical Research," New York Rev. Books, 30 November 2000, pp. 60-64.
140. Woltman, "Medicine Men" (n. 30), p. 4. Historians have examined many similar cases of researchers utilizing marginalized, ethnic populations for medical research. In each case, the unusually high burden of disease provided the justification for research that the researchers believed might have been ethically difficult among the general population. The extent to which the research subjects suffered from the research has varied tremendously. For examples, see Allan M. Brandt, "Racism and Research: The Case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study," Hastings Cent. Rep., 1978, 8: 21-29; Marcia Angell, "The Ethics of Clinical Research in the Third World," New England J. Med., 1997, 337: 847-49; Lara Marks, "Human Guinea Pigs? The History of the Early Oral Contraceptive Clinical Trials," Hist. & Technol., 1999, 15: 263-88; David J. Rothman, "The Shame of Medical Research," New York Rev. Books, 30 November 2000, pp. 60-64.
141. Woltman, "Medicine Men" (n. 30), p. 4. Historians have examined many similar cases of researchers utilizing marginalized, ethnic populations for medical research. In each case, the unusually high burden of disease provided the justification for research that the researchers believed might have been ethically difficult among the general population. The extent to which the research subjects suffered from the research has varied tremendously. For examples, see Allan M. Brandt, "Racism and Research: The Case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study," Hastings Cent. Rep., 1978, 8: 21-29; Marcia Angell, "The Ethics of Clinical Research in the Third World," New England J. Med., 1997, 337: 847-49; Lara Marks, "Human Guinea Pigs? The History of the Early Oral Contraceptive Clinical Trials," Hist. & Technol., 1999, 15: 263-88; David J. Rothman, "The Shame of Medical Research," New York Rev. Books, 30 November 2000, pp. 60-64.
142. Woltman, "Medicine Men" (n. 30), p. 4. Historians have examined many similar cases of researchers utilizing marginalized, ethnic populations for medical research. In each case, the unusually high burden of disease provided the justification for research that the researchers believed might have been ethically difficult among the general population. The extent to which the research subjects suffered from the research has varied tremendously. For examples, see Allan M. Brandt, "Racism and Research: The Case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study," Hastings Cent. Rep., 1978, 8: 21-29; Marcia Angell, "The Ethics of Clinical Research in the Third World," New England J. Med., 1997, 337: 847-49; Lara Marks, "Human Guinea Pigs? The History of the Early Oral Contraceptive Clinical Trials," Hist. & Technol., 1999, 15: 263-88; David J. Rothman, "The Shame of Medical Research," New York Rev. Books, 30 November 2000, pp. 60-64.
143. Woltman, "Medicine Men" (n. 30), p. 4. Historians have examined many similar cases of researchers utilizing marginalized, ethnic populations for medical research. In each case, the unusually high burden of disease provided the justification for research that the researchers believed might have been ethically difficult among the general population. The extent to which the research subjects suffered from the research has varied tremendously. For examples, see Allan M. Brandt, "Racism and Research: The Case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study," Hastings Cent. Rep., 1978, 8: 21-29; Marcia Angell, "The Ethics of Clinical Research in the Third World," New England J. Med., 1997, 337: 847-49; Lara Marks, "Human Guinea Pigs? The History of the Early Oral Contraceptive Clinical Trials," Hist. & Technol., 1999, 15: 263-88; David J. Rothman, "The Shame of Medical Research," New York Rev. Books, 30 November 2000, pp. 60-64.
144. Spencer, "They're Saving Lives" (n. 29), p. 92. See also McDermott, "Oral History Transcript" (n. 33), p. 16.
145. Spencer, "They're Saving Lives" (n. 29), p. 92. See also McDermott, "Oral History Transcript" (n. 33), p. 16.
146. "Medicine: Good News" (n. 52), p. 55.
147. National Tuberculosis Association, "Press Conference" (n. 43); "Medicine: TB - and Hope," Time, 3 March 1952, p. 44; "Medicine: Good News" (n. 52), p. 55; McDermott, "Oral History Transcript" (n. 33), p. 16.
148. National Tuberculosis Association, "Press Conference" (n. 43); "Medicine: TB - and Hope," Time, 3 March 1952, p. 44; "Medicine: Good News" (n. 52), p. 55; McDermott, "Oral History Transcript" (n. 33), p. 16.
149. National Tuberculosis Association, "Press Conference" (n. 43); "Medicine: TB - and Hope," Time, 3 March 1952, p. 44; "Medicine: Good News" (n. 52), p. 55; McDermott, "Oral History Transcript" (n. 33), p. 16.
150. National Tuberculosis Association, "Press Conference" (n. 43); "Medicine: TB - and Hope," Time, 3 March 1952, p. 44; "Medicine: Good News" (n. 52), p. 55; McDermott, "Oral History Transcript" (n. 33), p. 16.
151. McDermott, "Oral History Transcript" (n. 33), p. 17.
152. McDermott, "Conversation" (n. 4), p. 2.
153. "Minutes of the Navajo Tribal Council," 25 April 1952, WMP/11/7; "Medicine: Good News" (n. 52), p. 55; Clark et al., "Isoniazid" (n. 45), pp. 392-93; Woltman, "Medicine Men" (n. 30), p. 4; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 36-37.
154. "Minutes of the Navajo Tribal Council," 25 April 1952, WMP/11/7; "Medicine: Good News" (n. 52), p. 55; Clark et al., "Isoniazid" (n. 45), pp. 392-93; Woltman, "Medicine Men" (n. 30), p. 4; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 36-37.
155. "Minutes of the Navajo Tribal Council," 25 April 1952, WMP/11/7; "Medicine: Good News" (n. 52), p. 55; Clark et al., "Isoniazid" (n. 45), pp. 392-93; Woltman, "Medicine Men" (n. 30), p. 4; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 36-37.
156. "Minutes of the Navajo Tribal Council," 25 April 1952, WMP/11/7; "Medicine: Good News" (n. 52), p. 55; Clark et al., "Isoniazid" (n. 45), pp. 392-93; Woltman, "Medicine Men" (n. 30), p. 4; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 36-37.
157. "Minutes of the Navajo Tribal Council," 25 April 1952, WMP/11/7; "Medicine: Good News" (n. 52), p. 55; Clark et al., "Isoniazid" (n. 45), pp. 392-93; Woltman, "Medicine Men" (n. 30), p. 4; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 36-37.
158. Underhill, Navajos (n. 9), pp. 252, 259.
159. Billy Bicenti, in "Minutes of the Navajo Tribal Council," 12 February 1954, p. 19, WMP/11/7.
160. McDermott and Muschenheim, for instance, both remained committed to advocacy for American Indian health for decades after their research among the Navajo had ended. Muschenheim, outraged by the injustices he observed, served as chairman of the health committee of the Association of American Indian Affairs and frequently testified before Congress: see Walsh McDermott, "Memorial to Muschenheim," 8 February 1978, p. 4, WMP/39/7: "Muschenheim, Carl, 8/74-4/77, 8/80"; Carl Muschenheim, "Statement before Subcommittee on Appropriations for Department of the Interior, U.S. Senate," 26 March 1976, CMP/1/19: "Association on American Indian Affairs." McDermott chaired President Lyndon Johnson's task force on American Indians and reviewed health programs for the Association of American Indian Affairs: see Walsh McDermott (chairman), "A Free Choice Program for American Indians: Report of the President's Task Force on American Indians," December 1966, pp. 4-9, WMP/11/9: "Program for American Indian Presidential Task Force, 1966"; "Finding Aid" (n. 38), p. 3; "Walsh McDermott, M.D.: A Need for 'Amenities and Human Support,'" Mod. Med., 1973, 41 (22): 46; Alfred E. Clark, "Walsh McDermott, Medical Researcher, Dies," New York Times, 19 October 1981, D15.
161. McDermott and Muschenheim, for instance, both remained committed to advocacy for American Indian health for decades after their research among the Navajo had ended. Muschenheim, outraged by the injustices he observed, served as chairman of the health committee of the Association of American Indian Affairs and frequently testified before Congress: see Walsh McDermott, "Memorial to Muschenheim," 8 February 1978, p. 4, WMP/39/7: "Muschenheim, Carl, 8/74-4/77, 8/80"; Carl Muschenheim, "Statement before Subcommittee on Appropriations for Department of the Interior, U.S. Senate," 26 March 1976, CMP/1/19: "Association on American Indian Affairs." McDermott chaired President Lyndon Johnson's task force on American Indians and reviewed health programs for the Association of American Indian Affairs: see Walsh McDermott (chairman), "A Free Choice Program for American Indians: Report of the President's Task Force on American Indians," December 1966, pp. 4-9, WMP/11/9: "Program for American Indian Presidential Task Force, 1966"; "Finding Aid" (n. 38), p. 3; "Walsh McDermott, M.D.: A Need for 'Amenities and Human Support,'" Mod. Med., 1973, 41 (22): 46; Alfred E. Clark, "Walsh McDermott, Medical Researcher, Dies," New York Times, 19 October 1981, D15.
162. McDermott and Muschenheim, for instance, both remained committed to advocacy for American Indian health for decades after their research among the Navajo had ended. Muschenheim, outraged by the injustices he observed, served as chairman of the health committee of the Association of American Indian Affairs and frequently testified before Congress: see Walsh McDermott, "Memorial to Muschenheim," 8 February 1978, p. 4, WMP/39/7: "Muschenheim, Carl, 8/74-4/77, 8/80"; Carl Muschenheim, "Statement before Subcommittee on Appropriations for Department of the Interior, U.S. Senate," 26 March 1976, CMP/1/19: "Association on American Indian Affairs." McDermott chaired President Lyndon Johnson's task force on American Indians and reviewed health programs for the Association of American Indian Affairs: see Walsh McDermott (chairman), "A Free Choice Program for American Indians: Report of the President's Task Force on American Indians," December 1966, pp. 4-9, WMP/11/9: "Program for American Indian Presidential Task Force, 1966"; "Finding Aid" (n. 38), p. 3; "Walsh McDermott, M.D.: A Need for 'Amenities and Human Support,'" Mod. Med., 1973, 41 (22): 46; Alfred E. Clark, "Walsh McDermott, Medical Researcher, Dies," New York Times, 19 October 1981, D15.
163. McDermott and Muschenheim, for instance, both remained committed to advocacy for American Indian health for decades after their research among the Navajo had ended. Muschenheim, outraged by the injustices he observed, served as chairman of the health committee of the Association of American Indian Affairs and frequently testified before Congress: see Walsh McDermott, "Memorial to Muschenheim," 8 February 1978, p. 4, WMP/39/7: "Muschenheim, Carl, 8/74-4/77, 8/80"; Carl Muschenheim, "Statement before Subcommittee on Appropriations for Department of the Interior, U.S. Senate," 26 March 1976, CMP/1/19: "Association on American Indian Affairs." McDermott chaired President Lyndon Johnson's task force on American Indians and reviewed health programs for the Association of American Indian Affairs: see Walsh McDermott (chairman), "A Free Choice Program for American Indians: Report of the President's Task Force on American Indians," December 1966, pp. 4-9, WMP/11/9: "Program for American Indian Presidential Task Force, 1966"; "Finding Aid" (n. 38), p. 3; "Walsh McDermott, M.D.: A Need for 'Amenities and Human Support,'" Mod. Med., 1973, 41 (22): 46; Alfred E. Clark, "Walsh McDermott, Medical Researcher, Dies," New York Times, 19 October 1981, D15.
164. McDermott and Muschenheim, for instance, both remained committed to advocacy for American Indian health for decades after their research among the Navajo had ended. Muschenheim, outraged by the injustices he observed, served as chairman of the health committee of the Association of American Indian Affairs and frequently testified before Congress: see Walsh McDermott, "Memorial to Muschenheim," 8 February 1978, p. 4, WMP/39/7: "Muschenheim, Carl, 8/74-4/77, 8/80"; Carl Muschenheim, "Statement before Subcommittee on Appropriations for Department of the Interior, U.S. Senate," 26 March 1976, CMP/1/19: "Association on American Indian Affairs." McDermott chaired President Lyndon Johnson's task force on American Indians and reviewed health programs for the Association of American Indian Affairs: see Walsh McDermott (chairman), "A Free Choice Program for American Indians: Report of the President's Task Force on American Indians," December 1966, pp. 4-9, WMP/11/9: "Program for American Indian Presidential Task Force, 1966"; "Finding Aid" (n. 38), p. 3; "Walsh McDermott, M.D.: A Need for 'Amenities and Human Support,'" Mod. Med., 1973, 41 (22): 46; Alfred E. Clark, "Walsh McDermott, Medical Researcher, Dies," New York Times, 19 October 1981, D15.
165. McDermott and Muschenheim, for instance, both remained committed to advocacy for American Indian health for decades after their research among the Navajo had ended. Muschenheim, outraged by the injustices he observed, served as chairman of the health committee of the Association of American Indian Affairs and frequently testified before Congress: see Walsh McDermott, "Memorial to Muschenheim," 8 February 1978, p. 4, WMP/39/7: "Muschenheim, Carl, 8/74-4/77, 8/80"; Carl Muschenheim, "Statement before Subcommittee on Appropriations for Department of the Interior, U.S. Senate," 26 March 1976, CMP/1/19: "Association on American Indian Affairs." McDermott chaired President Lyndon Johnson's task force on American Indians and reviewed health programs for the Association of American Indian Affairs: see Walsh McDermott (chairman), "A Free Choice Program for American Indians: Report of the President's Task Force on American Indians," December 1966, pp. 4-9, WMP/11/9: "Program for American Indian Presidential Task Force, 1966"; "Finding Aid" (n. 38), p. 3; "Walsh McDermott, M.D.: A Need for 'Amenities and Human Support,'" Mod. Med., 1973, 41 (22): 46; Alfred E. Clark, "Walsh McDermott, Medical Researcher, Dies," New York Times, 19 October 1981, D15.
166. McDermott, in "Minutes of the Navajo Tribal Council," 5 January 1953, p. 1, WMP/ 11/7. This strategy is described in Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 38-40.
167. McDermott, in "Minutes of the Navajo Tribal Council," 5 January 1953, p. 1, WMP/ 11/7. This strategy is described in Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 38-40.
168. "Minutes" (1954) (n. 62), p. 14.
169. Ibid., p. 12.
170. Billy Bicenti, in ibid., p. 19. See also ibid., p. 18; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 42, 47.
171. Billy Bicenti, in ibid., p. 19. See also ibid., p. 18; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 42, 47.
172. Billy Bicenti, in ibid., p. 19. See also ibid., p. 18; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 42, 47.
173. Sam Akeah, in "Minutes of the Navajo Tribal Council," 13 January 1955, p. 7, WMP/ 11/7.
174. Annie D. Wauneka, "Helping a People to Understand: A Navajo Leader Taught Herself and Then Others How to Fight Tuberculosis," Amer. J. Nursing, 1962, 62: 88-90, quotation on p. 88.
175. Ibid.
176. Kurt Deuschle, "Tuberculosis among the Navajo: Research in Cross-Cultural Technological Developments in Health," Amer. Rev. Resp. Dis., 1959, 80: 200-206, quotation on p. 201.
177. Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 64.
178. Clark et al., "Isoniazid" (n. 45), p. 411.
179. For McDermott's review of his work, see Walsh McDermott, "Antimicrobial Therapy of Pulmonary Tuberculosis," Bull. World Health Org., 1960, 23: 427-61. For McDermott's faith in the quality of his evidence, see Deuschle et al., "Course of Pulmonary Tuberculosis" (n. 45), p. 237.
180. For McDermott's review of his work, see Walsh McDermott, "Antimicrobial Therapy of Pulmonary Tuberculosis," Bull. World Health Org., 1960, 23: 427-61. For McDermott's faith in the quality of his evidence, see Deuschle et al., "Course of Pulmonary Tuberculosis" (n. 45), p. 237.
181. Carl Muschenheim, "Albert Lasker Award, Draft of Acceptance Speech," 1955, CMP/2/13. See also "Walsh McDermott, M.D.: A Need for 'Amenities'" (n. 63), p. 481; Beeson, "Walsh McDermott" (n. 6), p. 297.
182. Carl Muschenheim, "Albert Lasker Award, Draft of Acceptance Speech," 1955, CMP/2/13. See also "Walsh McDermott, M.D.: A Need for 'Amenities'" (n. 63), p. 481; Beeson, "Walsh McDermott" (n. 6), p. 297.
183. Carl Muschenheim, "Albert Lasker Award, Draft of Acceptance Speech," 1955, CMP/2/13. See also "Walsh McDermott, M.D.: A Need for 'Amenities'" (n. 63), p. 481; Beeson, "Walsh McDermott" (n. 6), p. 297.
184. Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. xiv. See also Deuschle et al., "Course of Pulmonary Tuberculosis" (n. 45), p. 251.
185. Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. xiv. See also Deuschle et al., "Course of Pulmonary Tuberculosis" (n. 45), p. 251.
186. [McDermott], "Annual Report of the Division [of Infectious Disease, NYH], 1953," WMP/11/5.
187. "Minutes" (1954) (n. 62), pp. 13, 23.
188. "Navajo-Cornell Field Health Research Project at Many Farms: Syllabus for Teachers in Navajo Health," p. 102b, WMP/10/10.
189. Kurt W. Deuschle, Clarence Jordahl, and Gladys L. Hobby, "Clinical Usefulness of Riboflavin-Tagged Isoniazid for Self-Medication in Tuberculous Patients," Amer. Rev. Respir. Dis., 1960, 82: 1-10, quotation on p. 9.
190. For an early review of the problem of noncompliance, see R. Brian Haynes, D. Wayne Taylor, and David L. Sackett, eds., Compliance in Health Care (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). For the study of strep throat, see Daniel N. Mohler, David G. Wallin, and Edward G. Dreyfus, "Studies in the Home Treatment of Streptococcal Disease: I. Failure of Patients to Take Penicillin by Mouth as Prescribed," New England J. Med., 1955, 252: 1116-18. I have discussed the concerns with compliance and the efforts to measure and improve self-administration at Many Farms in more detail elsewhere: see David S.Jones, "Technologies of Compliance: Surveillance of Self-Administration of Tuberculosis Treatment, 1956-1966," Hist. &Technol., 2001, 17: 279-318.
191. For an early review of the problem of noncompliance, see R. Brian Haynes, D. Wayne Taylor, and David L. Sackett, eds., Compliance in Health Care (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). For the study of strep throat, see Daniel N. Mohler, David G. Wallin, and Edward G. Dreyfus, "Studies in the Home Treatment of Streptococcal Disease: I. Failure of Patients to Take Penicillin by Mouth as Prescribed," New England J. Med., 1955, 252: 1116-18. I have discussed the concerns with compliance and the efforts to measure and improve self-administration at Many Farms in more detail elsewhere: see David S.Jones, "Technologies of Compliance: Surveillance of Self-Administration of Tuberculosis Treatment, 1956-1966," Hist. &Technol., 2001, 17: 279-318.
192. For an early review of the problem of noncompliance, see R. Brian Haynes, D. Wayne Taylor, and David L. Sackett, eds., Compliance in Health Care (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). For the study of strep throat, see Daniel N. Mohler, David G. Wallin, and Edward G. Dreyfus, "Studies in the Home Treatment of Streptococcal Disease: I. Failure of Patients to Take Penicillin by Mouth as Prescribed," New England J. Med., 1955, 252: 1116-18. I have discussed the concerns with compliance and the efforts to measure and improve self-administration at Many Farms in more detail elsewhere: see David S.Jones, "Technologies of Compliance: Surveillance of Self-Administration of Tuberculosis Treatment, 1956-1966," Hist. &Technol., 2001, 17: 279-318.
193. McDermott et al., "Introducing Modern Medicine" (n. 4), p. 283.
194. Richard W. Roberts and Kurt Deuschle, "Comparative Study of Urine Tests for the Detection of Isoniazid," Amer. Rev. Respir. Dis., 1959, 80: 904-8, quotation on p. 904.
195. Physicians had long worried about Navajo adherence to prescriptions. For an early analysis of Navajo nonadherence, see Sydney J. Tillim, "Medical Annals of Arizona: Health among the Navajos," Southwestern Med., 1936, 20: 273, 276-77, 310-13, 317-19, 355, 388-91, 432-33, on p. 432. Even as McDermott struggled among the Navajo, British researchers in India worked to improve adherence to outpatient tuberculosis treatment programs: see Wallace Fox, "The Problem of Self-administration of Drugs; with Particular Reference to Pulmonary Tuberculosis," Tubercle, 1958, 39: 269-74. For general discussions of physicians' perceptions of colonized populations as disease-ridden, unruly, and difficult to treat, see Arnold, Colonizing the Body (n. 5); Warwick Anderson, "Immunities of Empire: Race, Disease, and the New Tropical Medicine, 1900-1920," Bull. Hist. Med., 1996, 70: 94-118. The concerns with adherence were not limited to colonial populations: see Peter Stradling and Graham Poole, "Self-medication in Tuberculosis," Lancet, 1958, 2: 1066-67, on p. 1066. As Paul Farmer has argued quite convincingly, physicians' attributions of noncompliance to cultural difference obscure the more fundamental contributions of poverty: see Paul Farmer, "Social Scientists and the New Tuberculosis," Soc. Sci. & Med., 1997, 44: 347-58.
196. Physicians had long worried about Navajo adherence to prescriptions. For an early analysis of Navajo nonadherence, see Sydney J. Tillim, "Medical Annals of Arizona: Health among the Navajos," Southwestern Med., 1936, 20: 273, 276-77, 310-13, 317-19, 355, 388-91, 432-33, on p. 432. Even as McDermott struggled among the Navajo, British researchers in India worked to improve adherence to outpatient tuberculosis treatment programs: see Wallace Fox, "The Problem of Self-administration of Drugs; with Particular Reference to Pulmonary Tuberculosis," Tubercle, 1958, 39: 269-74. For general discussions of physicians' perceptions of colonized populations as disease-ridden, unruly, and difficult to treat, see Arnold, Colonizing the Body (n. 5); Warwick Anderson, "Immunities of Empire: Race, Disease, and the New Tropical Medicine, 1900-1920," Bull. Hist. Med., 1996, 70: 94-118. The concerns with adherence were not limited to colonial populations: see Peter Stradling and Graham Poole, "Self-medication in Tuberculosis," Lancet, 1958, 2: 1066-67, on p. 1066. As Paul Farmer has argued quite convincingly, physicians' attributions of noncompliance to cultural difference obscure the more fundamental contributions of poverty: see Paul Farmer, "Social Scientists and the New Tuberculosis," Soc. Sci. & Med., 1997, 44: 347-58.
197. Physicians had long worried about Navajo adherence to prescriptions. For an early analysis of Navajo nonadherence, see Sydney J. Tillim, "Medical Annals of Arizona: Health among the Navajos," Southwestern Med., 1936, 20: 273, 276-77, 310-13, 317-19, 355, 388-91, 432-33, on p. 432. Even as McDermott struggled among the Navajo, British researchers in India worked to improve adherence to outpatient tuberculosis treatment programs: see Wallace Fox, "The Problem of Self-administration of Drugs; with Particular Reference to Pulmonary Tuberculosis," Tubercle, 1958, 39: 269-74. For general discussions of physicians' perceptions of colonized populations as disease-ridden, unruly, and difficult to treat, see Arnold, Colonizing the Body (n. 5); Warwick Anderson, "Immunities of Empire: Race, Disease, and the New Tropical Medicine, 1900-1920," Bull. Hist. Med., 1996, 70: 94-118. The concerns with adherence were not limited to colonial populations: see Peter Stradling and Graham Poole, "Self-medication in Tuberculosis," Lancet, 1958, 2: 1066-67, on p. 1066. As Paul Farmer has argued quite convincingly, physicians' attributions of noncompliance to cultural difference obscure the more fundamental contributions of poverty: see Paul Farmer, "Social Scientists and the New Tuberculosis," Soc. Sci. & Med., 1997, 44: 347-58.
198. Physicians had long worried about Navajo adherence to prescriptions. For
199. Physicians had long worried about Navajo adherence to prescriptions. For an early analysis of Navajo nonadherence, see Sydney J. Tillim, "Medical Annals of Arizona: Health among the Navajos," Southwestern Med., 1936, 20: 273, 276-77, 310-13, 317-19, 355, 388-91, 432-33, on p. 432. Even as McDermott struggled among the Navajo, British researchers in India worked to improve adherence to outpatient tuberculosis treatment programs: see Wallace Fox, "The Problem of Self-administration of Drugs; with Particular Reference to Pulmonary Tuberculosis," Tubercle, 1958, 39: 269-74. For general discussions of physicians' perceptions of colonized populations as disease-ridden, unruly, and difficult to treat, see Arnold, Colonizing the Body (n. 5); Warwick Anderson, "Immunities of Empire: Race, Disease, and the New Tropical Medicine, 1900-1920," Bull. Hist. Med., 1996, 70: 94-118. The concerns with adherence were not limited to colonial populations: see Peter Stradling and Graham Poole, "Self-medication in Tuberculosis," Lancet, 1958, 2: 1066-67, on p. 1066. As Paul Farmer has argued quite convincingly, physicians' attributions of noncompliance to cultural difference obscure the more fundamental contributions of poverty: see Paul Farmer, "Social Scientists and the New Tuberculosis," Soc. Sci. & Med., 1997, 44: 347-58.
200. Physicians had long worried about Navajo adherence to prescriptions. For an early analysis of Navajo nonadherence, see Sydney J. Tillim, "Medical Annals of Arizona: Health among the Navajos," Southwestern Med., 1936, 20: 273, 276-77, 310-13, 317-19, 355, 388-91, 432-33, on p. 432. Even as McDermott struggled among the Navajo, British researchers in India worked to improve adherence to outpatient tuberculosis treatment programs: see Wallace Fox, "The Problem of Self-administration of Drugs; with Particular Reference to Pulmonary Tuberculosis," Tubercle, 1958, 39: 269-74. For general discussions of physicians' perceptions of colonized populations as disease-ridden, unruly, and difficult to treat, see Arnold, Colonizing the Body (n. 5); Warwick Anderson, "Immunities of Empire: Race, Disease, and the New Tropical Medicine, 1900-1920," Bull. Hist. Med., 1996, 70: 94-118. The concerns with adherence were not limited to colonial populations: see Peter Stradling and Graham Poole, "Self-medication in Tuberculosis," Lancet, 1958, 2: 1066-67, on p. 1066. As Paul Farmer has argued quite convincingly, physicians' attributions of noncompliance to cultural difference obscure the more fundamental contributions of poverty: see Paul Farmer, "Social Scientists and the New Tuberculosis," Soc. Sci. & Med., 1997, 44: 347-58.
201. Roberts and Deuschle, "Comparative Study" (n. 83), p. 904; McDermott et al., "Introducing Modern Medicine" (n. 4), p. 282.
202. Roberts and Deuschle, "Comparative Study" (n. 83), p. 904; McDermott et al., "Introducing Modern Medicine" (n. 4), p. 282.
203. Gladys L. Hobby and Kurt W. Deuschle, "The Use of Riboflavin as an Indicator of Isoniazid Ingestion in Self-Medicated Patients," Amer. Rev. Respir. Dis., 1959, 80: 415-23, quotation on p. 415.
204. Ibid.
205. Irving Kenneth Zola, "Structural Constraints in the Doctor-Patient Relationship: The Case of Non-compliance," in The Relevance of Social Science for Medicine, ed. Leon Eisenberg and Arthur Kleinman (Boston: Reidel, 1981), pp. 241-55, quotation on p. 242.
206. Leonard G. Wilson, "The Rise and Fall of Tuberculosis in Minnesota: The Role of Infection," Bull. Hist. Med., 1992, 66: 16-52; Barron H. Lerner, "New York City's Tuberculosis Control Efforts: The Historical Limitations of the 'War on Consumption,'" Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1993, 83: 758-66; Sheila M. Rothman, "Seek and Hide: Public Health Departments and Persons with Tuberculosis, 1890-1940," J. Law, Med. & Ethics, 1993, 21: 289-95; Ronald Bayer and Laurence Dupuis, "Tuberculosis, Public Health, and Civil Liberties," Ann. Rev. Pub. Health, 1995, 16: 307-26; Barron H. Lerner, "Temporarily Detained: Tuberculous Alcoholics in Seattle, 1949 through 1960," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1996, 86: 257-65, on p. 262; idem, Contagion and Confinement: Controlling Tuberculosis along the Skid Road (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998).
207. Leonard G. Wilson, "The Rise and Fall of Tuberculosis in Minnesota: The Role of Infection," Bull. Hist. Med., 1992, 66: 16-52; Barron H. Lerner, "New York City's Tuberculosis Control Efforts: The Historical Limitations of the 'War on Consumption,'" Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1993, 83: 758-66; Sheila M. Rothman, "Seek and Hide: Public Health Departments and Persons with Tuberculosis, 1890-1940," J. Law, Med. & Ethics, 1993, 21: 289-95; Ronald Bayer and Laurence Dupuis, "Tuberculosis, Public Health, and Civil Liberties," Ann. Rev. Pub. Health, 1995, 16: 307-26; Barron H. Lerner, "Temporarily Detained: Tuberculous Alcoholics in Seattle, 1949 through 1960," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1996, 86: 257-65, on p. 262; idem, Contagion and Confinement: Controlling Tuberculosis along the Skid Road (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998).
208. Leonard G. Wilson, "The Rise and Fall of Tuberculosis in Minnesota: The Role of Infection," Bull. Hist. Med., 1992, 66: 16-52; Barron H. Lerner, "New York City's Tuberculosis Control Efforts: The Historical Limitations of the 'War on Consumption,'" Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1993, 83: 758-66; Sheila M. Rothman, "Seek and Hide: Public Health Departments and Persons with Tuberculosis, 1890-1940," J. Law, Med. & Ethics, 1993, 21: 289-95; Ronald Bayer and Laurence Dupuis, "Tuberculosis, Public Health, and Civil Liberties," Ann. Rev. Pub. Health, 1995, 16: 307-26; Barron H. Lerner, "Temporarily Detained: Tuberculous Alcoholics in Seattle, 1949 through 1960," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1996, 86: 257-65, on p. 262; idem, Contagion and Confinement: Controlling Tuberculosis along the Skid Road (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998).
209. Leonard G. Wilson, "The Rise and Fall of Tuberculosis in Minnesota: The Role of Infection," Bull. Hist. Med., 1992, 66: 16-52; Barron H. Lerner, "New York City's Tuberculosis Control Efforts: The Historical Limitations of the 'War on Consumption,'" Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1993, 83: 758-66; Sheila M. Rothman, "Seek and Hide: Public Health Departments and Persons with Tuberculosis, 1890-1940," J. Law, Med. & Ethics, 1993, 21: 289-95; Ronald Bayer and Laurence Dupuis, "Tuberculosis, Public Health, and Civil Liberties," Ann. Rev. Pub. Health, 1995, 16: 307-26; Barron H. Lerner, "Temporarily Detained: Tuberculous Alcoholics in Seattle, 1949 through 1960," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1996, 86: 257-65, on p. 262; idem, Contagion and Confinement: Controlling Tuberculosis along the Skid Road (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998).
210. Leonard G. Wilson, "The Rise and Fall of Tuberculosis in Minnesota: The Role of Infection," Bull. Hist. Med., 1992, 66: 16-52; Barron H. Lerner, "New York City's Tuberculosis Control Efforts: The Historical Limitations of the 'War on Consumption,'" Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1993, 83: 758-66; Sheila M. Rothman, "Seek and Hide: Public Health Departments and Persons with Tuberculosis, 1890-1940," J. Law, Med. & Ethics, 1993, 21: 289-95; Ronald Bayer and Laurence Dupuis, "Tuberculosis, Public Health, and Civil Liberties," Ann. Rev. Pub. Health, 1995, 16: 307-26; Barron H. Lerner, "Temporarily Detained: Tuberculous Alcoholics in Seattle, 1949 through 1960," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1996, 86: 257-65, on p. 262; idem, Contagion and Confinement: Controlling Tuberculosis along the Skid Road (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998).
211. Leonard G. Wilson, "The Rise and Fall of Tuberculosis in Minnesota: The Role of Infection," Bull. Hist. Med., 1992, 66: 16-52; Barron H. Lerner, "New York City's Tuberculosis Control Efforts: The Historical Limitations of the 'War on Consumption,'" Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1993, 83: 758-66; Sheila M. Rothman, "Seek and Hide: Public Health Departments and Persons with Tuberculosis, 1890-1940," J. Law, Med. & Ethics, 1993, 21: 289-95; Ronald Bayer and Laurence Dupuis, "Tuberculosis, Public Health, and Civil Liberties," Ann. Rev. Pub. Health, 1995, 16: 307-26; Barron H. Lerner, "Temporarily Detained: Tuberculous Alcoholics in Seattle, 1949 through 1960," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1996, 86: 257-65, on p. 262; idem, Contagion and Confinement: Controlling Tuberculosis along the Skid Road (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998).
212. Stradling and Poole, "Self-medication in Tuberculosis" (n. 84), p. 1066. See also Fox, "Problem of Self-administration of Drugs" (n. 84), p. 274; Ronald Bayer and David Wilkinson, "Directly Observed Therapy for Tuberculosis: History of an Idea," Lancet, 1995, 345: 1545-48.
213. Stradling and Poole, "Self-medication in Tuberculosis" (n. 84), p. 1066. See also Fox, "Problem of Self-administration of Drugs" (n. 84), p. 274; Ronald Bayer and David Wilkinson, "Directly Observed Therapy for Tuberculosis: History of an Idea," Lancet, 1995, 345: 1545-48.
214. Stradling and Poole, "Self-medication in Tuberculosis" (n. 84), p. 1066. See also Fox, "Problem of Self-administration of Drugs" (n. 84), p. 274; Ronald Bayer and David Wilkinson, "Directly Observed Therapy for Tuberculosis: History of an Idea," Lancet, 1995, 345: 1545-48.
215. Deuschle, "Tuberculosis" (n. 71), p. 204; "Research Grant Report," p. 35, WMP/10/ 9: "Navajo-Cornell Field Health Research Project, 3/1/59."
216. Deuschle, "Tuberculosis" (n. 71), p. 204; "Research Grant Report," p. 35, WMP/10/ 9: "Navajo-Cornell Field Health Research Project, 3/1/59."
217. Hobby and Deuschle, "Use of Riboflavin" (n. 86), p. 415.
218. Roberts and Deuschle, "Comparative Study" (n. 83), p. 904.
219. "Research Grant Report" (n. 91), p. 36.
220. Hobby and Deuschle, "Use of Riboflavin" (n. 86), p. 415.
221. Ibid., pp. 415-23; Deuschle, Jordahl, and Hobby, "Clinical Usefulness" (n. 80), p. 7.
222. Ibid., pp. 415-23; Deuschle, Jordahl, and Hobby, "Clinical Usefulness" (n. 80), p. 7.
223. Thomas Moulding, "Preliminary Study of the Pill Calendar as a Method of Improving the Self-Administration of Drugs," Amer. Rev. Respir. Dis., 1961, 84: 284-87, quotation on p. 284.
224. Thomas Moulding, "Proposal for a Time-Recording Pill Dispenser as a Method for Studying and Supervising the Self-Administration of Drugs," Amer. Rev. Respir. Dis., 1962, 85: 754-57, quotation on p. 754.
225. Ibid., p. 756.
226. This regime of distrust and surveillance emerged during the height of the Cold War. The initial blush of postwar victory of antibiotics over infectious disease gave way to recognition that the battle would continue against an indolent enemy, tuberculosis. Mutual distrust between patients and doctors required constant surveillance (pill calendars and urine testing). Some even found a solution in radioactivity (as in Moulding's pill clock).
227. McDermott et al., "Introducing Modern Medicine" (n. 4), p. 283.
228. Ibid., pp. 283-84. See also Deuschle,Jordahl, and Hobby, "Clinical Usefulness" (n. 80), p. 5. While the researchers clearly had tremendous fear that surveillance would alienate patients, it is not clear whether most Navajo shared this fear, or were even aware of the surveillance. The extent to which Navajo patients cooperated with the project (dis-cussed below) suggests that the surveillance actually had few adverse effects. Deciphering Navajo responses to surveillance in more detail would likely require ethnographic work, something beyond the scope of this paper.
229. Ibid., pp. 283-84. See also Deuschle,Jordahl, and Hobby, "Clinical Usefulness" (n. 80), p. 5. While the researchers clearly had tremendous fear that surveillance would alienate patients, it is not clear whether most Navajo shared this fear, or were even aware of the surveillance. The extent to which Navajo patients cooperated with the project (dis-cussed below) suggests that the surveillance actually had few adverse effects. Deciphering Navajo responses to surveillance in more detail would likely require ethnographic work, something beyond the scope of this paper.
230. Moulding, "Proposal" (n. 98), p. 750.
231. McDermott et al., "Introducing Modern Medicine" (n. 4), p. 283.
232. Moulding, "Proposal" (n. 98), p. 756.
233. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (1975), trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage Books, 1995).
234. McDermott et al., "Introducing Modern Medicine" (n. 4), p. 203. See also ibid., pp. 189-99; McDermott, Deuschle, and Barnett, "Health Care Experiment" (n. 4), p. 24.
235. McDermott et al., "Introducing Modern Medicine" (n. 4), p. 203. See also ibid., pp. 189-99; McDermott, Deuschle, and Barnett, "Health Care Experiment" (n. 4), p. 24.
236. McDermott et al., "Introducing Modern Medicine" (n. 4), p. 203. See also ibid., pp. 189-99; McDermott, Deuschle, and Barnett, "Health Care Experiment" (n. 4), p. 24.
237. John Adair, Kurt Deuschle, and Walsh McDermott, "Patterns of Health and Disease among the Navahos," Ann. Amer. Acad. Polit. & Soc. Sci., May 1957, 311: 88-90, quotation on p. 88.
238. Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 15.
239. McDermott, Deuschle, and Barnett, "Health Care Experiment" (n. 4), p. 24.
240. Adair, Deuschle, and McDermott, "Patterns of Health and Disease" (n. 108), p. 85. See also [McDermott], "Interim Report" (n. 1), p. 83.
241. Adair, Deuschle, and McDermott, "Patterns of Health and Disease" (n. 108), p. 85. See also [McDermott], "Interim Report" (n. 1), p. 83.
242. The idea of a "hospital without walls" came from René Dubos: see Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 50, 144, 168.
243. [McDermott], "Annual Report" (1953) (n. 77); Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 95.
244. [McDermott], "Annual Report" (1953) (n. 77); Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 95.
245. McDermott, "Conversation" (n. 4), p. 12.
246. For a review of such programs, see Sidney L. Kark, Emily Kark, and J. H. Abramson, "Commentary: In Search of Innovative Approaches to International Health," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1993, 83: 1533-36. For hookworm campaigns in the United States, see Etling, Germ of Laziness (n. 5). For China, see C. C. Ch'en, "Scientific Medicine as Applied in Ting Hsien," Milbank Mem. Fund Quart. Bull., 1933, 11: 97-129; idem, "An Experiment in Health Education in Chinese Country Schools," ibid., 1934, 12: 232-47; idem, "Public Health in Rural Reconstruction at Ting Hsien," ibid., pp. 370-78; idem, "Rural Public Health Experiment" (n. 5). For South Africa, see Marks, "South Africa's Early Experiment" (n. 5), pp. 452-59.
247. For a review of such programs, see Sidney L. Kark, Emily Kark, and J. H. Abramson, "Commentary: In Search of Innovative Approaches to International Health," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1993, 83: 1533-36. For hookworm campaigns in the United States, see Etling, Germ of Laziness (n. 5). For China, see C. C. Ch'en, "Scientific Medicine as Applied in Ting Hsien," Milbank Mem. Fund Quart. Bull., 1933, 11: 97-129; idem, "An Experiment in Health Education in Chinese Country Schools," ibid., 1934, 12: 232-47; idem, "Public Health in Rural Reconstruction at Ting Hsien," ibid., pp. 370-78; idem, "Rural Public Health Experiment" (n. 5). For South Africa, see Marks, "South Africa's Early Experiment" (n. 5), pp. 452-59.
248. For a review of such programs, see Sidney L. Kark, Emily Kark, and J. H. Abramson, "Commentary: In Search of Innovative Approaches to International Health," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1993, 83: 1533-36. For hookworm campaigns in the United States, see Etling, Germ of Laziness (n. 5). For China, see C. C. Ch'en, "Scientific Medicine as Applied in Ting Hsien," Milbank Mem. Fund Quart. Bull., 1933, 11: 97-129; idem, "An Experiment in Health Education in Chinese Country Schools," ibid., 1934, 12: 232-47; idem, "Public Health in Rural Reconstruction at Ting Hsien," ibid., pp. 370-78; idem, "Rural Public Health Experiment" (n. 5). For South Africa, see Marks, "South Africa's Early Experiment" (n. 5), pp. 452-59.
249. For a review of such programs, see Sidney L. Kark, Emily Kark, and J. H. Abramson, "Commentary: In Search of Innovative Approaches to International Health," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1993, 83: 1533-36. For hookworm campaigns in the United States, see Etling, Germ of Laziness (n. 5). For China, see C. C. Ch'en, "Scientific Medicine as Applied in Ting Hsien," Milbank Mem. Fund Quart. Bull., 1933, 11: 97-129; idem, "An Experiment in Health Education in Chinese Country Schools," ibid., 1934, 12: 232-47; idem, "Public Health in Rural Reconstruction at Ting Hsien," ibid., pp. 370-78; idem, "Rural Public Health Experiment" (n. 5). For South Africa, see Marks, "South Africa's Early Experiment" (n. 5), pp. 452-59.
250. For a review of such programs, see Sidney L. Kark, Emily Kark, and J. H. Abramson, "Commentary: In Search of Innovative Approaches to International Health," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1993, 83: 1533-36. For hookworm campaigns in the United States, see Etling, Germ of Laziness (n. 5). For China, see C. C. Ch'en, "Scientific Medicine as Applied in Ting Hsien," Milbank Mem. Fund Quart. Bull., 1933, 11: 97-129; idem, "An Experiment in Health Education in Chinese Country Schools," ibid., 1934, 12: 232-47; idem, "Public Health in Rural Reconstruction at Ting Hsien," ibid., pp. 370-78; idem, "Rural Public Health Experiment" (n. 5). For South Africa, see Marks, "South Africa's Early Experiment" (n. 5), pp. 452-59.
251. For a review of such programs, see Sidney L. Kark, Emily Kark, and J. H. Abramson, "Commentary: In Search of Innovative Approaches to International Health," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1993, 83: 1533-36. For hookworm campaigns in the United States, see Etling, Germ of Laziness (n. 5). For China, see C. C. Ch'en, "Scientific Medicine as Applied in Ting Hsien," Milbank Mem. Fund Quart. Bull., 1933, 11: 97-129; idem, "An Experiment in Health Education in Chinese Country Schools," ibid., 1934, 12: 232-47; idem, "Public Health in Rural Reconstruction at Ting Hsien," ibid., pp. 370-78; idem, "Rural Public Health Experiment" (n. 5). For South Africa, see Marks, "South Africa's Early Experiment" (n. 5), pp. 452-59.
252. For a review of such programs, see Sidney L. Kark, Emily Kark, and J. H. Abramson, "Commentary: In Search of Innovative Approaches to International Health," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1993, 83: 1533-36. For hookworm campaigns in the United States, see Etling, Germ of Laziness (n. 5). For China, see C. C. Ch'en, "Scientific Medicine as Applied in Ting Hsien," Milbank Mem. Fund Quart. Bull., 1933, 11: 97-129; idem, "An Experiment in Health Education in Chinese Country Schools," ibid., 1934, 12: 232-47; idem, "Public Health in Rural Reconstruction at Ting Hsien," ibid., pp. 370-78; idem, "Rural Public Health Experiment" (n. 5). For South Africa, see Marks, "South Africa's Early Experiment" (n. 5), pp. 452-59.
253. McDermott, "Conversation" (n. 4), p. 8.
254. Kurt Deuschle and John Adair, "An Interdisciplinary Approach to Public Health on the Navajo Indian Reservation: Medical and Anthropological Aspects," Ann. New York Acad. Sd., 1960, 84: 887-905, quotation on p. 889. See also Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 65.
255. Kurt Deuschle and John Adair, "An Interdisciplinary Approach to Public Health on the Navajo Indian Reservation: Medical and Anthropological Aspects," Ann. New York Acad. Sd., 1960, 84: 887-905, quotation on p. 889. See also Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 65.
256. "Minutes" (1955) (n. 68), p. 7. See also Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 61.
257. "Minutes" (1955) (n. 68), p. 7. See also Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 61.
258. Wauneka, Written Statement, 2 November 1953, read in the Senate Subcommittee of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Hearings on H.R. 303: An Act to Transfer the Maintenance and Operation of Hospital and Health Facilities for Indians to the Public Health Service, 28-29 May 1954, in Congressional Hearings, Senate, Interior and Insular Affairs, 83d Cong., 2d sess., 1953-54, vol. 14, 83 S1085-10, p. 43. For other critiques, see Herbert Hoover, The Hoover Commission Report on Organization of the Executive Branch of Government (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1949), p. 471; Lewis J. Moorman, "Tuberculosis on the Navaho Reservation," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1950, 61: 586-91.
259. Wauneka, Written Statement, 2 November 1953, read in the Senate Subcommittee of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Hearings on H.R. 303: An Act to Transfer the Maintenance and Operation of Hospital and Health Facilities for Indians to the Public Health Service, 28-29 May 1954, in Congressional Hearings, Senate, Interior and Insular Affairs, 83d Cong., 2d sess., 1953-54, vol. 14, 83 S1085-10, p. 43. For other critiques, see Herbert Hoover, The Hoover Commission Report on Organization of the Executive Branch of Government (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1949), p. 471; Lewis J. Moorman, "Tuberculosis on the Navaho Reservation," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1950, 61: 586-91.
260. Wauneka, Written Statement, 2 November 1953, read in the Senate Subcommittee of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Hearings on H.R. 303: An Act to Transfer the Maintenance and Operation of Hospital and Health Facilities for Indians to the Public Health Service, 28-29 May 1954, in Congressional Hearings, Senate, Interior and Insular Affairs, 83d Cong., 2d sess., 1953-54, vol. 14, 83 S1085-10, p. 43. For other critiques, see Herbert Hoover, The Hoover Commission Report on Organization of the Executive Branch of Government (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1949), p. 471; Lewis J. Moorman, "Tuberculosis on the Navaho Reservation," Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1950, 61: 586-91.
261. For reforms of the IHS, see Stephen J. Kunitz, "The History and Politics of U.S. Health Care Policy for American Indians and Alaskan Natives," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1996, 86: 1464-73, on pp. 1464-65. See also Stephen J. Kunitz and Maggie Brady, "Health Care Policy for Aboriginal Australians: The Relevance of the American Indian Experience," Austral. J. Pub. Health, 1995, 19: 549-58. Efforts to abolish the BIA had been unsuccessful as long as Democrats had controlled the White House. Eisenhower's election opened a new opportunity for this old plan. The other pilot projects included a public health education program among the Pueblo, Apache, and Southern Ute (University of North Carolina), a tuberculosis study among the Pueblo (University of Pennsylvania), and a health education and prevention program at Tuba City (University of California). For discussions of the pilot studies, see Robert W. Young, The Navajo Yearbook of Planning in Action, vol. 5 (Window Rock: Navajo Agency, 1955), p. 26; Young, Navajo Yearbook: 1951-1961 (n. 24), pp. 86-87; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 47, 141; McDermott, "Conversation" (n. 4), p. 2.
262. For reforms of the IHS, see Stephen J. Kunitz, "The History and Politics of U.S. Health Care Policy for American Indians and Alaskan Natives," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1996, 86: 1464-73, on pp. 1464-65. See also Stephen J. Kunitz and Maggie Brady, "Health Care Policy for Aboriginal Australians: The Relevance of the American Indian Experience," Austral. J. Pub. Health, 1995, 19: 549-58. Efforts to abolish the BIA had been unsuccessful as long as Democrats had controlled the White House. Eisenhower's election opened a new opportunity for this old plan. The other pilot projects included a public health education program among the Pueblo, Apache, and Southern Ute (University of North Carolina), a tuberculosis study among the Pueblo (University of Pennsylvania), and a health education and prevention program at Tuba City (University of California). For discussions of the pilot studies, see Robert W. Young, The Navajo Yearbook of Planning in Action, vol. 5 (Window Rock: Navajo Agency, 1955), p. 26; Young, Navajo Yearbook: 1951-1961 (n. 24), pp. 86-87; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 47, 141; McDermott, "Conversation" (n. 4), p. 2.
263. For reforms of the IHS, see Stephen J. Kunitz, "The History and Politics of U.S. Health Care Policy for American Indians and Alaskan Natives," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1996, 86: 1464-73, on pp. 1464-65. See also Stephen J. Kunitz and Maggie Brady, "Health Care Policy for Aboriginal Australians: The Relevance of the American Indian Experience," Austral. J. Pub. Health, 1995, 19: 549-58. Efforts to abolish the BIA had been unsuccessful as long as Democrats had controlled the White House. Eisenhower's election opened a new opportunity for this old plan. The other pilot projects included a public health education program among the Pueblo, Apache, and Southern Ute (University of North Carolina), a tuberculosis study among the Pueblo (University of Pennsylvania), and a health education and prevention program at Tuba City (University of California). For discussions of the pilot studies, see Robert W. Young, The Navajo Yearbook of Planning in Action, vol. 5 (Window Rock: Navajo Agency, 1955), p. 26; Young, Navajo Yearbook: 1951-1961 (n. 24), pp. 86-87; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 47, 141; McDermott, "Conversation" (n. 4), p. 2.
264. For reforms of the IHS, see Stephen J. Kunitz, "The History and Politics of U.S. Health Care Policy for American Indians and Alaskan Natives," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1996, 86: 1464-73, on pp. 1464-65. See also Stephen J. Kunitz and Maggie Brady, "Health Care Policy for Aboriginal Australians: The Relevance of the American Indian Experience," Austral. J. Pub. Health, 1995, 19: 549-58. Efforts to abolish the BIA had been unsuccessful as long as Democrats had controlled the White House. Eisenhower's election opened a new opportunity for this old plan. The other pilot projects included a public health education program among the Pueblo, Apache, and Southern Ute (University of North Carolina), a tuberculosis study among the Pueblo (University of Pennsylvania), and a health education and prevention program at Tuba City (University of California). For discussions of the pilot studies, see Robert W. Young, The Navajo Yearbook of Planning in Action, vol. 5 (Window Rock: Navajo Agency, 1955), p. 26; Young, Navajo Yearbook: 1951-1961 (n. 24), pp. 86-87; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 47, 141; McDermott, "Conversation" (n. 4), p. 2.
265. For reforms of the IHS, see Stephen J. Kunitz, "The History and Politics of U.S. Health Care Policy for American Indians and Alaskan Natives," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1996, 86: 1464-73, on pp. 1464-65. See also Stephen J. Kunitz and Maggie Brady, "Health Care Policy for Aboriginal Australians: The Relevance of the American Indian Experience," Austral. J. Pub. Health, 1995, 19: 549-58. Efforts to abolish the BIA had been unsuccessful as long as Democrats had controlled the White House. Eisenhower's election opened a new opportunity for this old plan. The other pilot projects included a public health education program among the Pueblo, Apache, and Southern Ute (University of North Carolina), a tuberculosis study among the Pueblo (University of Pennsylvania), and a health education and prevention program at Tuba City (University of California). For discussions of the pilot studies, see Robert W. Young, The Navajo Yearbook of Planning in Action, vol. 5 (Window Rock: Navajo Agency, 1955), p. 26; Young, Navajo Yearbook: 1951-1961 (n. 24), pp. 86-87; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 47, 141; McDermott, "Conversation" (n. 4), p. 2.
266. For reforms of the IHS, see Stephen J. Kunitz, "The History and Politics of U.S. Health Care Policy for American Indians and Alaskan Natives," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1996, 86: 1464-73, on pp. 1464-65. See also Stephen J. Kunitz and Maggie Brady, "Health Care Policy for Aboriginal Australians: The Relevance of the American Indian Experience," Austral. J. Pub. Health, 1995, 19: 549-58. Efforts to abolish the BIA had been unsuccessful as long as Democrats had controlled the White House. Eisenhower's election opened a new opportunity for this old plan. The other pilot projects included a public health education program among the Pueblo, Apache, and Southern Ute (University of North Carolina), a tuberculosis study among the Pueblo (University of Pennsylvania), and a health education and prevention program at Tuba City (University of California). For discussions of the pilot studies, see Robert W. Young, The Navajo Yearbook of Planning in Action, vol. 5 (Window Rock: Navajo Agency, 1955), p. 26; Young, Navajo Yearbook: 1951-1961 (n. 24), pp. 86-87; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 47, 141; McDermott, "Conversation" (n. 4), p. 2.
267. For Adair's expertise, see Adair, Navajo and Pueblo Silversmiths (n.9). For examples of Alexander Leighton's work, see Leighton and Leighton, Navaho Door (n. 9); Alexander Leighton, My Name Is Legion: Foundations for a Theory of Man in Relation to Culture. The Stirling County Study of Psychiatric Disorder and Sociocultural Environment, vol. 1 (New York: Basic Books, 1959). For the researchers' interest in this expertise, see Deuschle, "Cross-Cultural Medicine" (n. 50), pp. 175-76.
268. For Adair's expertise, see Adair, Navajo and Pueblo Silversmiths (n.9). For examples of Alexander Leighton's work, see Leighton and Leighton, Navaho Door (n. 9); Alexander Leighton, My Name Is Legion: Foundations for a Theory of Man in Relation to Culture. The Stirling County Study of Psychiatric Disorder and Sociocultural Environment, vol. 1 (New York: Basic Books, 1959). For the researchers' interest in this expertise, see Deuschle, "Cross-Cultural Medicine" (n. 50), pp. 175-76.
269. For Adair's expertise, see Adair, Navajo and Pueblo Silversmiths (n.9). For examples of Alexander Leighton's work, see Leighton and Leighton, Navaho Door (n. 9); Alexander Leighton, My Name Is Legion: Foundations for a Theory of Man in Relation to Culture. The Stirling County Study of Psychiatric Disorder and Sociocultural Environment, vol. 1 (New York: Basic Books, 1959). For the researchers' interest in this expertise, see Deuschle, "Cross-Cultural Medicine" (n. 50), pp. 175-76.
270. For Adair's expertise, see Adair, Navajo and Pueblo Silversmiths (n.9). For examples of Alexander Leighton's work, see Leighton and Leighton, Navaho Door (n. 9); Alexander Leighton, My Name Is Legion: Foundations for a Theory of Man in Relation to Culture. The Stirling County Study of Psychiatric Disorder and Sociocultural Environment, vol. 1 (New York: Basic Books, 1959). For the researchers' interest in this expertise, see Deuschle, "Cross-Cultural Medicine" (n. 50), pp. 175-76.
271. Ruth Benedict, Patterns of Culture (1934; Boston: Hough ton Millin, 1989), p. 10, and see p. xiv. Adair had studied under Ruth Benedict in the 1930s, and then worked in Cornell's anthropology department when Leighton was there in the 1950s. Leighton, Benedict, and Tom Sasaki (a sociologist who worked at Many Farms) had advised the military during World War II. See Alexander Leighton, Human Relations in a Changing World: Observations on the Use of the Social Sciences (New York: Dutton, 1949).
272. Ruth Benedict, Patterns of Culture (1934; Boston: Hough ton Millin, 1989), p. 10, and see p. xiv. Adair had studied under Ruth Benedict in the 1930s, and then worked in Cornell's anthropology department when Leighton was there in the 1950s. Leighton, Benedict, and Tom Sasaki (a sociologist who worked at Many Farms) had advised the military during World War II. See Alexander Leighton, Human Relations in a Changing World: Observations on the Use of the Social Sciences (New York: Dutton, 1949).
273. McDermott et al., "Introducing Modern Medicine" (n. 4), p. 287.
274. For postwar interest in international health, see George Rosen, A History of Public Health (1958), expanded ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), pp. 460-61; World Health Organization, The First Ten Years of the World Health Organization (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1958). For the Cold War politics behind such work, see Harry Cleaver, "Malaria and the Political Economy of Public Health," Internat. J. Health Serv., 1977, 7: 557-79; Javed Siddiqi, World Health and World Politics: The World Health Organization and the UN System (London: Hurst, 1995).
275. For postwar interest in international health, see George Rosen, A History of Public Health (1958), expanded ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), pp. 460-61; World Health Organization, The First Ten Years of the World Health Organization (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1958). For the Cold War politics behind such work, see Harry Cleaver, "Malaria and the Political Economy of Public Health," Internat. J. Health Serv., 1977, 7: 557-79; Javed Siddiqi, World Health and World Politics: The World Health Organization and the UN System (London: Hurst, 1995).
276. For postwar interest in international health, see George Rosen, A History of Public Health (1958), expanded ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), pp. 460-61; World Health Organization, The First Ten Years of the World Health Organization (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1958). For the Cold War politics behind such work, see Harry Cleaver, "Malaria and the Political Economy of Public Health," Internat. J. Health Serv., 1977, 7: 557-79; Javed Siddiqi, World Health and World Politics: The World Health Organization and the UN System (London: Hurst, 1995).
277. For postwar interest in international health, see George Rosen, A History of Public Health (1958), expanded ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), pp. 460-61; World Health Organization, The First Ten Years of the World Health Organization (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1958). For the Cold War politics behind such work, see Harry Cleaver, "Malaria and the Political Economy of Public Health," Internat. J. Health Serv., 1977, 7: 557-79; Javed Siddiqi, World Health and World Politics: The World Health Organization and the UN System (London: Hurst, 1995).
278. McDermott et al., "Introducing Modern Medicine" (n. 4), p. 197. See also John Adair and Kurt Deuschle, "Some Problems of the Physicians on the Navajo Reservation," Human Org., 1958, 16: 19-23, on p. 19; Deuschle, "Tuberculosis" (n. 71), p. 206; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. xiii, xv.
279. McDermott et al., "Introducing Modern Medicine" (n. 4), p. 197. See also John Adair and Kurt Deuschle, "Some Problems of the Physicians on the Navajo Reservation," Human Org., 1958, 16: 19-23, on p. 19; Deuschle, "Tuberculosis" (n. 71), p. 206; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. xiii, xv.
280. McDermott et al., "Introducing Modern Medicine" (n. 4), p. 197. See also John Adair and Kurt Deuschle, "Some Problems of the Physicians on the Navajo Reservation," Human Org., 1958, 16: 19-23, on p. 19; Deuschle, "Tuberculosis" (n. 71), p. 206; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. xiii, xv.
281. McDermott et al., "Introducing Modern Medicine" (n. 4), p. 197. See also John Adair and Kurt Deuschle, "Some Problems of the Physicians on the Navajo Reservation," Human Org., 1958, 16: 19-23, on p. 19; Deuschle, "Tuberculosis" (n. 71), p. 206; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. xiii, xv.
282. [McDermott], "Interim Report" (n. 1), p. 64.
283. Robert W. Young, "Foreword," in John Adair, Kurt Deuschle, and Clifford R. Barnett, The People's Health: Medicine and Anthropology in a Navajo Community, 2d ed. (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988), p. xii.
284. McDermott, Deuschle, and Barnett, "Health Care Experiment" (n. 4), p. 29. Belief in such an "experiment of Nature" aws crucial to the justification of the Tuskegee Syphilis study; see Brandt, "Racism and Research" (n. 54), pp. 21-29.
285. McDermott, Deuschle, and Barnett, "Health Care Experiment" (n. 4), p. 29. Belief in such an "experiment of Nature" aws crucial to the justification of the Tuskegee Syphilis study; see Brandt, "Racism and Research" (n. 54), pp. 21-29.
286. Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 55.
287. Ibid.
288. Ibid., p. 61.
289. McDermott, "Oral History Transcript" (n. 33), p. 7.
290. Ibid., p. 8.
291. Young, "Foreword" (n. 127), p. xiv. For an analysis of such exchange relationships between researchers and patients in colonial contexts, see Anderson, "Possession of Kuru" (n. 5).
292. Young, "Foreword" (n. 127), p. xiv. For an analysis of such exchange relationships between researchers and patients in colonial contexts, see Anderson, "Possession of Kuru" (n. 5).
293. McDermott noted that this was "not easy to do" (McDermott, "Conversation" [n. 4], p. 7). See also Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 50-52.
294. McDermott noted that this was "not easy to do" (McDermott, "Conversation" [n. 4], p. 7). See also Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 50-52.
295. Edward Taylor, "Transcript of Interview with Jane K. Zaidi," 16 March 1972, p. 2, Oral History Transcripts, MCA, 54 F box 2; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 50-52, 60; Adair, Deuschle, and Barnett, People's Health (n. 127), p. 156.
296. Edward Taylor, "Transcript of Interview with Jane K. Zaidi," 16 March 1972, p. 2, Oral History Transcripts, MCA, 54 F box 2; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 50-52, 60; Adair, Deuschle, and Barnett, People's Health (n. 127), p. 156.
297. Edward Taylor, "Transcript of Interview with Jane K. Zaidi," 16 March 1972, p. 2, Oral History Transcripts, MCA, 54 F box 2; Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 50-52, 60; Adair, Deuschle, and Barnett, People's Health (n. 127), p. 156.
298. Adair, Deuschle, and McDermott, "Patterns of Health and Disease" (n. 108), p. 89.
299. Hadley, "Health Conditions" (n. 9), pp. 832-33.
300. "Research Grant Report" (n. 91), p. 14.
301. Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 94.
302. Ibid.,p. 106. See also Deuschle and Adair, "Interdisciplinary Approach" (n. 117), p. 895.
303. Ibid.,p. 106. See also Deuschle and Adair, "Interdisciplinary Approach" (n. 117), p. 895.
304. The Navajo language lacked, for instance, generic words for "color," for short periods of time, or for subtleties and gradations of pain. See Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 108-27.
305. Adair and Deuschle, "Some Problems" (n. 125), p. 20.
306. Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 125. See also Herbert Landar, "The Language of Pain in Navaho Culture," in Studies in Southwestern Ethnolinguistics: Meaning and History in the Languages of the American Southwest, ed. Dell H. Hymes and William E. Bittle (Paris: Mouton, 1967), pp. 119-44.
307. Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 125. See also Herbert Landar, "The Language of Pain in Navaho Culture," in Studies in Southwestern Ethnolinguistics: Meaning and History in the Languages of the American Southwest, ed. Dell H. Hymes and William E. Bittle (Paris: Mouton, 1967), pp. 119-44.
308. Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 125.
309. "Research Grant Report" (n. 91), p. 22.
310. Ibid.
311. Ibid. See also Dueschlc, "Tuberculosis" (n. 71), p.203.
312. Ibid. See also Dueschlc, "Tuberculosis" (n. 71), p.203.
313. McDermott, Deuschle, and Barnett, "Health Care Experiment" (n. 4), p. 27.
314. Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 12. See also Deuschle, "Tuberculosis" (n. 71), p. 201; Adair, Deuschle, and Barnett, People's Health (n. 127), pp. 161, 166-67.
315. Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 12. See also Deuschle, "Tuberculosis" (n. 71), p. 201; Adair, Deuschle, and Barnett, People's Health (n. 127), pp. 161, 166-67.
316. Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 12. See also Deuschle, "Tuberculosis" (n. 71), p. 201; Adair, Deuschle, and Barnett, People's Health (n. 127), pp. 161, 166-67.
317. Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 67-92, quotation on p. 92. See also "Syllabus for Teachers" (n. 79); Bernice W. Mansell and Ellen Loughlin, "The Navajo Health Visitor," Pract. Nursing, 1958, 8: 13-15; Kurt W. Deuschle, "Training and Use of Medical Auxiliaries in a Navajo Community," Pub. Health Rep., 1963, 78: 461-69.
318. Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 67-92, quotation on p. 92. See also "Syllabus for Teachers" (n. 79); Bernice W. Mansell and Ellen Loughlin, "The Navajo Health Visitor," Pract. Nursing, 1958, 8: 13-15; Kurt W. Deuschle, "Training and Use of Medical Auxiliaries in a Navajo Community," Pub. Health Rep., 1963, 78: 461-69.
319. Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 67-92, quotation on p. 92. See also "Syllabus for Teachers" (n. 79); Bernice W. Mansell and Ellen Loughlin, "The Navajo Health Visitor," Pract. Nursing, 1958, 8: 13-15; Kurt W. Deuschle, "Training and Use of Medical Auxiliaries in a Navajo Community," Pub. Health Rep., 1963, 78: 461-69.
320. Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), pp. 67-92, quotation on p. 92. See also "Syllabus for Teachers" (n. 79); Bernice W. Mansell and Ellen Loughlin, "The Navajo Health Visitor," Pract. Nursing, 1958, 8: 13-15; Kurt W. Deuschle, "Training and Use of Medical Auxiliaries in a Navajo Community," Pub. Health Rep., 1963, 78: 461-69.
321. "Research Grant Report" (n. 91), p. 47.
322. Dcuschle and Adair, "Interdisciplinary Approach" (n. 117), p. 899.
323. Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1901-5), trans. Talcott Parsons (NewYork: Routledge, 1992), pp. 180-83; John Patrick Diggins, Max Weber: Politics and the Spirit of Tragedy (New York: Basic Books, 1996), pp. 16, 79-82, 109, 253, 267, 280-83.
324. Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1901-5), trans. Talcott Parsons (NewYork: Routledge, 1992), pp. 180-83; John Patrick Diggins, Max Weber: Politics and the Spirit of Tragedy (New York: Basic Books, 1996), pp. 16, 79-82, 109, 253, 267, 280-83.
325. Young, "Foreword" (n. 127), p. xiv.
326. Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 142.
327. Deuschle and Adair, "Interdisciplinary Approach" (n. 117), p. 903. See also Adair, Deuschle, and Barnett, People's Health (n. 127), pp. 145-47, 153-55.
328. Deuschle and Adair, "Interdisciplinary Approach" (n. 117), p. 903. See also Adair, Deuschle, and Barnett, People's Health (n. 127), pp. 145-47, 153-55.
329. For a nearly complete list, see Adair, Deuschle, and Barnett, People's Health (n. 127), pp. 263-66. See also Jones, "Rationalizing Epidemics" (n. 6), pp. 637-56.
330. For a nearly complete list, see Adair, Deuschle, and Barnett, People's Health (n. 127), pp. 263-66. See also Jones, "Rationalizing Epidemics" (n. 6), pp. 637-56.
331. Deuschle, "Cross-Cultural Medicine" (n. 50), p. 177. For the project as a model for medical anthropology, see ibid., p. 182; Sandra K. Schackel, "The People's Health: Medicine and Anthropology in a Navajo Community - book review," New Mexico Hist. Rev., 1991, 66: 240; Alan L. Silver and David N. Rose, "Kurt W. Deuschle and Community Medicine: Clinical Care, Statistical Compassion, Community Empowerment," Mount Sinai J. Med., 1992, 59: 439-41, on p. 440; Arthur J. Rubel and Linda C. Garro, "Social and Cultural Factors in the Successful Control of Tuberculosis," Pub. Health Rep., 1992, 107: 626-36, on p. 632. McDermott worked as an international health advisor for President Lyndon Johnson, USAID, and the United Nations. Deuschle left Many Farms to become chairman of the Department of Community Medicine at the University of Kentucky, and then at Mt. Sinai School of Medicine: see Alan L. Silver and David N. Rose, eds., "Urban Community Medicine: The Mount Sinai Experience, Honoring the Work of Kurt W. Deuschle," Mount Sinai J. Med., 1992, 59: 439-68. David Rogers, who worked with McDermott at Cornell and at Many Farms, became chairman of community medicine at Vanderbilt University, then dean of Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, and finally president of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation: see David E. Rogers, "Kurt W. Deuschle as an Actor and Community Medicine as His Stage," Mount Sinai J. Med., 1992, 59: 450-52, on p. 450.
332. Deuschle, "Cross-Cultural Medicine" (n. 50), p. 177. For the project as a model for medical anthropology, see ibid., p. 182; Sandra K. Schackel, "The People's Health: Medicine and Anthropology in a Navajo Community - book review," New Mexico Hist. Rev., 1991, 66: 240; Alan L. Silver and David N. Rose, "Kurt W. Deuschle and Community Medicine: Clinical Care, Statistical Compassion, Community Empowerment," Mount Sinai J. Med., 1992, 59: 439-41, on p. 440; Arthur J. Rubel and Linda C. Garro, "Social and Cultural Factors in the Successful Control of Tuberculosis," Pub. Health Rep., 1992, 107: 626-36, on p. 632. McDermott worked as an international health advisor for President Lyndon Johnson, USAID, and the United Nations. Deuschle left Many Farms to become chairman of the Department of Community Medicine at the University of Kentucky, and then at Mt. Sinai School of Medicine: see Alan L. Silver and David N. Rose, eds., "Urban Community Medicine: The Mount Sinai Experience, Honoring the Work of Kurt W. Deuschle," Mount Sinai J. Med., 1992, 59: 439-68. David Rogers, who worked with McDermott at Cornell and at Many Farms, became chairman of community medicine at Vanderbilt University, then dean of Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, and finally president of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation: see David E. Rogers, "Kurt W. Deuschle as an Actor and Community Medicine as His Stage," Mount Sinai J. Med., 1992, 59: 450-52, on p. 450.
333. Deuschle, "Cross-Cultural Medicine" (n. 50), p. 177. For the project as a model for medical anthropology, see ibid., p. 182; Sandra K. Schackel, "The People's Health: Medicine and Anthropology in a Navajo Community - book review," New Mexico Hist. Rev., 1991, 66: 240; Alan L. Silver and David N. Rose, "Kurt W. Deuschle and Community Medicine: Clinical Care, Statistical Compassion, Community Empowerment," Mount Sinai J. Med., 1992, 59: 439-41, on p. 440; Arthur J. Rubel and Linda C. Garro, "Social and Cultural Factors in the Successful Control of Tuberculosis," Pub. Health Rep., 1992, 107: 626-36, on p. 632. McDermott worked as an international health advisor for President Lyndon Johnson, USAID, and the United Nations. Deuschle left Many Farms to become chairman of the Department of Community Medicine at the University of Kentucky, and then at Mt. Sinai School of Medicine: see Alan L. Silver and David N. Rose, eds., "Urban Community Medicine: The Mount Sinai Experience, Honoring the Work of Kurt W. Deuschle," Mount Sinai J. Med., 1992, 59: 439-68. David Rogers, who worked with McDermott at Cornell and at Many Farms, became chairman of community medicine at Vanderbilt University, then dean of Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, and finally president of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation: see David E. Rogers, "Kurt W. Deuschle as an Actor and Community Medicine as His Stage," Mount Sinai J. Med., 1992, 59: 450-52, on p. 450.
334. Deuschle, "Cross-Cultural Medicine" (n. 50), p. 177. For the project as a model for medical anthropology, see ibid., p. 182; Sandra K. Schackel, "The People's Health: Medicine and Anthropology in a Navajo Community - book review," New Mexico Hist. Rev., 1991, 66: 240; Alan L. Silver and David N. Rose, "Kurt W. Deuschle and Community Medicine: Clinical Care, Statistical Compassion, Community Empowerment," Mount Sinai J. Med., 1992, 59: 439-41, on p. 440; Arthur J. Rubel and Linda C. Garro, "Social and Cultural Factors in the Successful Control of Tuberculosis," Pub. Health Rep., 1992, 107: 626-36, on p. 632. McDermott worked as an international health advisor for President Lyndon Johnson, USAID, and the United Nations. Deuschle left Many Farms to become chairman of the Department of Community Medicine at the University of Kentucky, and then at Mt. Sinai School of Medicine: see Alan L. Silver and David N. Rose, eds., "Urban Community Medicine: The Mount Sinai Experience, Honoring the Work of Kurt W. Deuschle," Mount Sinai J. Med., 1992, 59: 439-68. David Rogers, who worked with McDermott at Cornell and at Many Farms, became chairman of community medicine at Vanderbilt University, then dean of Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, and finally president of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation: see David E. Rogers, "Kurt W. Deuschle as an Actor and Community Medicine as His Stage," Mount Sinai J. Med., 1992, 59: 450-52, on p. 450.
335. Deuschle, "Cross-Cultural Medicine" (n. 50), p. 177. For the project as a model for medical anthropology, see ibid., p. 182; Sandra K. Schackel, "The People's Health: Medicine and Anthropology in a Navajo Community - book review," New Mexico Hist. Rev., 1991, 66: 240; Alan L. Silver and David N. Rose, "Kurt W. Deuschle and Community Medicine: Clinical Care, Statistical Compassion, Community Empowerment," Mount Sinai J. Med., 1992, 59: 439-41, on p. 440; Arthur J. Rubel and Linda C. Garro, "Social and Cultural Factors in the Successful Control of Tuberculosis," Pub. Health Rep., 1992, 107: 626-36, on p. 632. McDermott worked as an international health advisor for President Lyndon Johnson, USAID, and the United Nations. Deuschle left Many Farms to become chairman of the Department of Community Medicine at the University of Kentucky, and then at Mt. Sinai School of Medicine: see Alan L. Silver and David N. Rose, eds., "Urban Community Medicine: The Mount Sinai Experience, Honoring the Work of Kurt W. Deuschle," Mount Sinai J. Med., 1992, 59: 439-68. David Rogers, who worked with McDermott at Cornell and at Many Farms, became chairman of community medicine at Vanderbilt University, then dean of Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, and finally president of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation: see David E. Rogers, "Kurt W. Deuschle as an Actor and Community Medicine as His Stage," Mount Sinai J. Med., 1992, 59: 450-52, on p. 450.
336. Deuschle, "Cross-Cultural Medicine" (n. 50), p. 177. For the project as a model for medical anthropology, see ibid., p. 182; Sandra K. Schackel, "The People's Health: Medicine and Anthropology in a Navajo Community - book review," New Mexico Hist. Rev., 1991, 66: 240; Alan L. Silver and David N. Rose, "Kurt W. Deuschle and Community Medicine: Clinical Care, Statistical Compassion, Community Empowerment," Mount Sinai J. Med., 1992, 59: 439-41, on p. 440; Arthur J. Rubel and Linda C. Garro, "Social and Cultural Factors in the Successful Control of Tuberculosis," Pub. Health Rep., 1992, 107: 626-36, on p. 632. McDermott worked as an international health advisor for President Lyndon Johnson, USAID, and the United Nations. Deuschle left Many Farms to become chairman of the Department of Community Medicine at the University of Kentucky, and then at Mt. Sinai School of Medicine: see Alan L. Silver and David N. Rose, eds., "Urban Community Medicine: The Mount Sinai Experience, Honoring the Work of Kurt W. Deuschle," Mount Sinai J. Med., 1992, 59: 439-68. David Rogers, who worked with McDermott at Cornell and at Many Farms, became chairman of community medicine at Vanderbilt University, then dean of Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, and finally president of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation: see David E. Rogers, "Kurt W. Deuschle as an Actor and Community Medicine as His Stage," Mount Sinai J. Med., 1992, 59: 450-52, on p. 450.
337. Deuschle, "Cross-Cultural Medicine" (n. 50), p. 177. For the project as a model for medical anthropology, see ibid., p. 182; Sandra K. Schackel, "The People's Health: Medicine and Anthropology in a Navajo Community - book review," New Mexico Hist. Rev., 1991, 66: 240; Alan L. Silver and David N. Rose, "Kurt W. Deuschle and Community Medicine: Clinical Care, Statistical Compassion, Community Empowerment," Mount Sinai J. Med., 1992, 59: 439-41, on p. 440; Arthur J. Rubel and Linda C. Garro, "Social and Cultural Factors in the Successful Control of
338. Adair and Deuschle, "Some Problems" (n. 125), p. 19.
339. Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 147. See also Doris Schwartz, "Notes on Three Weeks at the Cornell-Navajo Field Health Project: Manyfarms, Arizona, 1956," p. 4, Doris Schwartz Papers, MCA, box 1, folder 3. One of the incompatibilities, for example, was that the Many Farms team allowed health visitors who did not have drivers' licenses to drive to hogans.
340. Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 147. See also Doris Schwartz, "Notes on Three Weeks at the Cornell-Navajo Field Health Project: Manyfarms, Arizona, 1956," p. 4, Doris Schwartz Papers, MCA, box 1, folder 3. One of the incompatibilities, for example, was that the Many Farms team allowed health visitors who did not have drivers' licenses to drive to hogans.
341. For the limited impact, see Kunitz, Disease Change (n. 6), p. 201 n. 1; Jerrold Levy, quoted in Adair, Deuschle, and Barnett, People's Health (n. 127), p. 246 n. 2.
342. For the limited impact, see Kunitz, Disease Change (n. 6), p. 201 n. 1; Jerrold Levy, quoted in Adair, Deuschle, and Barnett, People's Health (n. 127), p. 246 n. 2.
343. Adair and Deuschle, People's Health (n. 3), p. 163. See also pp. xiv, 144, 168.
344. Ibid., p. 168. See also Cara E. Richards, "Cooperation between Anthropologist and Medical Personnel," Human Org., 1960, 19: 64-67, on p. 67.
345. Ibid., p. 168. See also Cara E. Richards, "Cooperation between Anthropologist and Medical Personnel," Human Org., 1960, 19: 64-67, on p. 67.
346. Deuschle, "Tuberculosis" (n. 71), pp. 202-5; McDermott, Deuschle, and Barnett, "Health Care Experiment" (n. 4), pp. 25-27. The burden of disease changed more quickly than medical capability. By the time the team had achieved success against tuberculosis (the leading cause of death in 1952), viral pneumonia and diarrhea (against which they could do little) had become the leading causes of death.
347. Deuschle, "Tuberculosis" (n. 71), pp. 202-5; McDermott, Deuschle, and Barnett, "Health Care Experiment" (n. 4), pp. 25-27. The burden of disease changed more quickly than medical capability. By the time the team had achieved success against tuberculosis (the leading cause of death in 1952), viral pneumonia and diarrhea (against which they could do little) had become the leading causes of death.
348. McDermott, "Draft of Chapter II" (n. 49), p. 11.
349. Walsh McDermott, "Environmental Factors Bearing on Medical Education in the Developing Countries: A. Modern Medicine and the Demographic-Disease Pattern of Overly Traditional Societies: A Technologic Misfit," J. Med. Educ., 1966, 41 (Suppl.): 137-62, quotation on p. 155.
350. McDermott, "Conversation" (n. 4), p. 11.
351. McDermott, Deuschle, and Barnett, "Health Care Experiment" (n. 4), p. 28. Returning for a reunion in 1977, McDermott was impressed by the improvements in reservation infrastructure, especially the increased availability of running water: McDermott, "Oral History Transcript" (n. 33), pp. 20-21. But as recently as May 2000, many on the reservation remained without running water: personal observations, Indian Health Service, Crownpoint Service Unit, New Mexico, May 2000.
352. McDermott, Deuschle, and Barnett, "Health Care Experiment" (n. 4), p. 28. Returning for a reunion in 1977, McDermott was impressed by the improvements in reservation infrastructure, especially the increased availability of running water: McDermott, "Oral History Transcript" (n. 33), pp. 20-21. But as recently as May 2000, many on the reservation remained without running water: personal observations, Indian Health Service, Crownpoint Service Unit, New Mexico, May 2000.
353. Walsh McDermott, "Draft," 1969, p. 37, WMP/10/3: "Many Farms: Bnice Lecture, 4/1/68, and Drafts and Alternate Starts, 6/30/69."
354. Walsh McDermott, "Draft," 1969, p. 37, WMP/10/3: "Many Farms: Bnice Lecture, 4/1/68, and Drafts and Alternate Starts, 6/30/69."
355. McDermott, Deuschle, and Barnett, "Health Care Experiment" (n. 4), p. 30. See also Walsh McDermott, "Absence of Indicators of the Influence of Its Physicians on a Society's Health: Impact of Physician Care on Society," Amer. J. Med., 1981, 70: 833-43, on pp. 839-41.
356. McDermott, Deuschle, and Barnett, "Health Care Experiment" (n. 4), p. 30. See also Walsh McDermott, "Absence of Indicators of the Influence of Its Physicians on a Society's Health: Impact of Physician Care on Society," Amer. J. Med., 1981, 70: 833-43, on pp. 839-41.
357. Walsh McDermott, "Medicine: The Public Good and One's Own," Perspect. Biol. & Med., 1978, 21: 167-87, quotation on p. 169. See also McDermott, Deuschle, and Barnett, "Health Care Experiment" (n. 4), p. 23.
358. Walsh McDermott, "Medicine: The Public Good and One's Own," Perspect. Biol. & Med., 1978, 21: 167-87, quotation on p. 169. See also McDermott, Deuschle, and Barnett, "Health Care Experiment" (n. 4), p. 23.
359. For discussions of the ways in which technology has distanced doctors from their patients, see Stanley Joel Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1978); Lewis Thomas, The Youngest Science: Notes of a Medicine-Watcher (New-York: Viking Press, 1983); Hughes Evans, "Losing Touch: The Controversy over the Introduction of the Blood Pressure Instruments into Medicine," Technol. & Cult., 1993, 34: 784-807; Edward Shorter, "The History of the Doctor-Patient Relationship," in Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine, ed. W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (New York: Routledge, 1993), 2: 783-800 , esp. p. 794; Joel D. Howell, Technology in the Hospital: Transforming Patient Care in the Early Twentieth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), esp. pp. 6, 230.
360. For discussions of the ways in which technology has distanced doctors from their patients, see Stanley Joel Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1978); Lewis Thomas, The Youngest Science: Notes of a Medicine-Watcher (New-York: Viking Press, 1983); Hughes Evans, "Losing Touch: The Controversy over the Introduction of the Blood Pressure Instruments into Medicine," Technol. & Cult., 1993, 34: 784-807; Edward Shorter, "The History of the Doctor-Patient Relationship," in Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine, ed. W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (New York: Routledge, 1993), 2: 783-800 , esp. p. 794; Joel D. Howell, Technology in the Hospital: Transforming Patient Care in the Early Twentieth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), esp. pp. 6, 230.
361. For discussions of the ways in which technology has distanced doctors from their patients, see Stanley Joel Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1978); Lewis Thomas, The Youngest Science: Notes of a Medicine-Watcher (New-York: Viking Press, 1983); Hughes Evans, "Losing Touch: The Controversy over the Introduction of the Blood Pressure Instruments into Medicine," Technol. & Cult., 1993, 34: 784-807; Edward Shorter, "The History of the Doctor-Patient Relationship," in Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine, ed. W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (New York: Routledge, 1993), 2: 783-800 , esp. p. 794; Joel D. Howell, Technology in the Hospital: Transforming Patient Care in the Early Twentieth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), esp. pp. 6, 230.
362. For discussions of the ways in which technology has distanced doctors from their patients, see Stanley Joel Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1978); Lewis Thomas, The Youngest Science: Notes of a Medicine-Watcher (New-York: Viking Press, 1983); Hughes Evans, "Losing Touch: The Controversy over the Introduction of the Blood Pressure Instruments into Medicine," Technol. & Cult., 1993, 34: 784-807; Edward Shorter, "The History of the Doctor-Patient Relationship," in Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine, ed. W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (New York: Routledge, 1993), 2: 783-800 , esp. p. 794; Joel D. Howell, Technology in the Hospital: Transforming Patient Care in the Early Twentieth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), esp. pp. 6, 230.
363. For discussions of the ways in which technology has distanced doctors from their patients, see Stanley Joel Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1978); Lewis Thomas, The Youngest Science: Notes of a Medicine-Watcher (New-York: Viking Press, 1983); Hughes Evans, "Losing Touch: The Controversy over the Introduction of the Blood Pressure Instruments into Medicine," Technol. & Cult., 1993, 34: 784-807; Edward Shorter, "The History of the Doctor-Patient Relationship," in Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine, ed. W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (New York: Routledge, 1993), 2: 783-800 , esp. p. 794; Joel D. Howell, Technology in the Hospital: Transforming Patient Care in the Early Twentieth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), esp. pp. 6, 230.
364. Rogers, "Early Years" (n. 6), p. 2.
365. McDermott, with Rogers, "Social Ramifications" (n. 6), pp. 302-12.
366. Walsh McDermott, "Medical Institutions and Modification of Disease Patterns," Amer. J. Psychiatry, 1966, 122: 1398-1406.
367. McDermott, "Absence of Indicators" (n. 171), pp. 833-43.
368. For McDermott's arguments, see Walsh McDermott, "Evaluating the Physician and His Technology," Daedalus, 1977, 106 (winter): 135-57; McDermott, "Absence of Indicators" (n. 171), pp. 833-43. For those of Thomas McKeown and other critics of medicine, see Thomas McKeown, The Role of Medicine: Dream, Mirage, or Nemesis (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979); John B. McKinlay and Sonja M. McKinlay, "The Questionable Contribution of Medical Measures to the Decline of Mortality in the United States in the Twentieth Century," Milbank Mem. Fund Quart., 1977, 55: 405-28.
369. For McDermott's arguments, see Walsh McDermott, "Evaluating the Physician and His Technology," Daedalus, 1977, 106 (winter): 135-57; McDermott, "Absence of Indicators" (n. 171), pp. 833-43. For those of Thomas McKeown and other critics of medicine, see Thomas McKeown, The Role of Medicine: Dream, Mirage, or Nemesis (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979); John B. McKinlay and Sonja M. McKinlay, "The Questionable Contribution of Medical Measures to the Decline of Mortality in the United States in the Twentieth Century," Milbank Mem. Fund Quart., 1977, 55: 405-28.
370. For McDermott's arguments, see Walsh McDermott, "Evaluating the Physician and His Technology," Daedalus, 1977, 106 (winter): 135-57; McDermott, "Absence of Indicators" (n. 171), pp. 833-43. For those of Thomas McKeown and other critics of medicine, see Thomas McKeown, The Role of Medicine: Dream, Mirage, or Nemesis (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979); John B. McKinlay and Sonja M. McKinlay, "The Questionable Contribution of Medical Measures to the Decline of Mortality in the United States in the Twentieth Century," Milbank Mem. Fund Quart., 1977, 55: 405-28.
371. For McDermott's arguments, see Walsh McDermott, "Evaluating the Physician and His Technology," Daedalus, 1977, 106 (winter): 135-57; McDermott, "Absence of Indicators" (n. 171), pp. 833-43. For those of Thomas McKeown and other critics of medicine, see Thomas McKeown, The Role of Medicine: Dream, Mirage, or Nemesis (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979); John B. McKinlay and Sonja M. McKinlay, "The Questionable Contribution of Medical Measures to the Decline of Mortality in the United States in the Twentieth Century," Milbank Mem. Fund Quart., 1977, 55: 405-28.
372. Consider the many obstacles (moral, political, economic) to the deployment of medical treatments for sexually transmitted diseases, whether penicillin for syphilis or antiretroviral therapy for HIV: see Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 172-78; David S. Jones and Allan M. Brandt, "AIDS, Historical," in Encyclopedia of Microbiology, 2d ed., ed. Joshua Lederberg, vol. 1 (San Diego: Academic Press, 2000), pp. 104-15, esp. pp. 112-15.
373. Consider the many obstacles (moral, political, economic) to the deployment of medical treatments for sexually transmitted diseases, whether penicillin for syphilis or antiretroviral therapy for HIV: see Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 172-78; David S. Jones and Allan M. Brandt, "AIDS, Historical," in Encyclopedia of Microbiology, 2d ed., ed. Joshua Lederberg, vol. 1 (San Diego: Academic Press, 2000), pp. 104-15, esp. pp. 112-15.
374. For examples, see Robert G. Evans, Morris L. Barer, and Theodore R. Marmor, eds., Why Are Some People Healthy and Others Not? The Determinants of Health of Populations (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1994); Robert G. Evans, "Health Care as a Threat to Health: Defense, Opulence, and the Social Environment," Daedalus, 1994, 123 (fall): 21-42; Richard Wilkinson, Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions of Inequality (London: Routledge, 1996); Norman Daniels, Bruce Kennedy, and Ichiro Kawachi, eds., Is Inequality Bad for Our Health? (Boston: Beacon Press, 2000).
375. For examples, see Robert G. Evans, Morris L. Barer, and Theodore R. Marmor, eds., Why Are Some People Healthy and Others Not? The Determinants of Health of Populations (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1994); Robert G. Evans, "Health Care as a Threat to Health: Defense, Opulence, and the Social Environment," Daedalus, 1994, 123 (fall): 21-42; Richard Wilkinson, Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions of Inequality (London: Routledge, 1996); Norman Daniels, Bruce Kennedy, and Ichiro Kawachi, eds., Is Inequality Bad for Our Health? (Boston: Beacon Press, 2000).
376. For examples, see Robert G. Evans, Morris L. Barer, and Theodore R. Marmor, eds., Why Are Some People Healthy and Others Not? The Determinants of Health of Populations (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1994); Robert G. Evans, "Health Care as a Threat to Health: Defense, Opulence, and the Social Environment," Daedalus, 1994, 123 (fall): 21-42; Richard Wilkinson, Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions of Inequality (London: Routledge, 1996); Norman Daniels, Bruce Kennedy, and Ichiro Kawachi, eds., Is Inequality Bad for Our Health? (Boston: Beacon Press, 2000).
377. For examples, see Robert G. Evans, Morris L. Barer, and Theodore R. Marmor, eds., Why Are Some People Healthy and Others Not? The Determinants of Health of Populations (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1994); Robert G. Evans, "Health Care as a Threat to Health: Defense, Opulence, and the Social Environment," Daedalus, 1994, 123 (fall): 21-42; Richard Wilkinson, Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions of Inequality (London: Routledge, 1996); Norman Daniels, Bruce Kennedy, and Ichiro Kawachi, eds., Is Inequality Bad for Our Health? (Boston: Beacon Press, 2000).