Partner choice and homogamy in the nineteenth century: Was there a sexual revolution in Europe?

Journal of Social History

Volumn 36, Issue 1, 2002, Pages

  Van Leeuwen, Marco H D ^a   Maas, Ineke ^a  

^a UTRECHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0036744394     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.2002.0111     Document Type: Review

References (72)

1. M. Kalmijn, "Intermarriage and homogamy: Causes, patterns, trends," Annual Review of Sociology 24 (1998): 395-421.
2. Edward Shorter, The Making of the Modern Family (New York, 1975), pp. 19-20.
3. Shorter, The Making of the Modern Family, p. 148.
4. E. Shorter, "Illegitimacy, sexual revolution, and social change in modern Europe," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 6 (1971): 237-272.
5. E. Shorter, "Female emancipation, birth control, and fertility in European history," American Historical Review 78 (1973): 605-640.
6. Shorter, The Making of the Modern Family, p. 150.
7. See M.H.D. Van Leeuwen and I. Maas, "Long-term social mobility: Research agenda and a case study (Berlin, 1825-1957)," Continuity and Change 11 (1996): 399-433; and M.H.D. van Leeuwen and I. Maas, "Social mobility in a Dutch province, Utrecht 1850-1940," Journal of Social History 30 (1997): 619-644 for a review.
8. See M.H.D. van Leeuwen and I. Maas, "Long-term social mobility: Research agenda and a case study (Berlin, 1825-1957)," Continuity and Change 11 (1996): 399-433; and M.H.D. van Leeuwen and I. Maas, "Social mobility in a Dutch province, Utrecht 1850-1940," Journal of Social History 30 (1997): 619-644 for a review.
9. W. Goode, The Family (Englewood Cliffs, 1964), pp. 108-109.
10. W. Uunk, Who marries whom? The role of social origin, education and high culture in mate selection of industrial societies during the twentieth century (Nijmegen, 1996).
11. See for example P.M. Blau, T.C. Blum, and J.E. Schwartz, "Heterogeneity and intermarriage," American Sociological Review (1982) 47: 45-62; M. Kalmijn and H. Flap, "Assortative meeting and mating: Unintended consequences of organized settings for partner choices," Social Forces 79 (2001): 1289-1312.
12. See for example P.M. Blau, T.C. Blum, and J.E. Schwartz, "Heterogeneity and intermarriage," American Sociological Review (1982) 47: 45-62; M. Kalmijn and H. Flap, "Assortative meeting and mating: Unintended consequences of organized settings for partner choices," Social Forces 79 (2001): 1289-1312.
13. For a comparison of the difference between total and relative intergenerational mobility, see M. Hout, Mobility Tables (Beverly Hills, 1982).
14. M. Kalmijn, "Status homogamy in the United States," American Journal of Sociology 97 (1991a): 496-523.
15. M. Mitterauer, A History of Youth (Oxford, 1990), p. 54.
16. K.R.V. Wikman, "Die Einleitung der Ehe. Eine vergleichende Ethno-soziologische Untersuchung über die Vorstufe der Ehe in den Sitten des Schwedischen Volkstum," Acta Academiae Aboensis Humaniora XI (1937): 1-384, and especially pp. 17 and 22.
17. Wikman, "Die Einleitung der Ehe", pp. 55 et passim; J.E. Nilsson, Sundsvalls historia. Vol. 5 (Sundsvall, 1943), pp. 495-497.
18. Wikman, "Die Einleitung der Ehe", pp. 55 et passim; J.E. Nilsson, Sundsvalls historia. Vol. 5 (Sundsvall, 1943), pp. 495-497.
19. Mitterauer, A History of Youth, pp. 178-184; Shorter, The Making of the Modern Family, pp. 124-127; L. Tilly and J.W. Scott, Women, Work and Family (New York, 1978), pp. 38, 58 and 187.
20. Mitterauer, A History of Youth, pp. 178-184; Shorter, The Making of the Modern Family, pp. 124-127; L. Tilly and J.W. Scott, Women, Work and Family (New York, 1978), pp. 38, 58 and 187.
21. Mitterauer, A History of Youth, pp. 178-184; Shorter, The Making of the Modern Family, pp. 124-127; L. Tilly and J.W. Scott, Women, Work and Family (New York, 1978), pp. 38, 58 and 187.
22. Mitterauer, A History of Youth, p. 181; see also M. Segalen, Love and Power in the Peasant Family: Rural France in the Nineteenth Century (Oxford, 1983), p. 16, on the importance of a farmer's prospective wife being a skillful and sturdy girl. This importance was reflected in many of the popular sayings of the time.
23. Mitterauer, A History of Youth, p. 181; see also M. Segalen, Love and Power in the Peasant Family: Rural France in the Nineteenth Century (Oxford, 1983), p. 16, on the importance of a farmer's prospective wife being a skillful and sturdy girl. This importance was reflected in many of the popular sayings of the time.
24. Wikman, "Die Einleitung der Ehe," pp. 138-152.
25. Wikman, "Die Einleitung der Ehe," pp. 152-162.
26. Skellefteå was mainly rural and differed in certain respects from the Sundsvall region: It had a later industrial development and a stronger religious tradition.
27. Shorter, The Making of the Modern Family, pp. 104-105 also refers to Wikman, albeit briefly.
28. Wikman, "Die Einleitung der Ehe," p. 189 for a map, and pp. 168-170.
29. Wikman, "Die Einleitung der Ehe," p. 264 presents a map showing the geographical incidence of this tradition in Europe.
30. Wikman, "Die Einleitung der Ehe," p. 182, see also p. 119.
31. Wikman, "Die Einleitung der Ehe," pp. 38-40.
32. Wikman, "Die Einleitung der Ehe", pp. 41-44.
33. Wikman, "Die Einleitung der Ehe," pp. 48, 54.
34. Wikman, "Die Einleitung der Ehe," pp. 56-58.
35. Wikman, "Die Einleitung der Ehe," p. 69.
36. Wikman, "Die Einleitung der Ehe," pp. 65-76.
37. Wikman, "Die Einleitung der Ehe," pp. 77-80.
38. Wikman, "Die Einleitung der Ehe," pp. 83-111.
39. Wikman, "Die Einleitung der Ehe," pp. 119-136.
40. Marks, "Illegitimacy, propriety, marriage and property: Clues in explaining illegitimacy in Southern Norrland 1850-1930," Ethnologica Scandinavia 21 (1991): 126-140, esp. p. 136; Wikman, "Die Einleitung der Ehe," pp. 112-113 and 124-126.
41. Marks, "Illegitimacy, propriety, marriage and property: Clues in explaining illegitimacy in Southern Norrland 1850-1930," Ethnologica Scandinavia 21 (1991): 126-140, esp. p. 136; Wikman, "Die Einleitung der Ehe," pp. 112-113 and 124-126.
42. Although Sweden differed from some other European countries in having such a strong tradition of partner choice through bundling, it did, according to Shorter, conform to what he describes as a "sexual revolution" and thus is an apt testing ground: "At any given time, the custom of betrothal license makes Scandinavia quite different from France or Ireland. But Scandinavia had undergone the same historical evolution towards liberality." Shorter, The Making of the Modern Family, p. 106.
43. As noted earlier, we do not know the numerical incidence of bundling, i.e. what proportion of all youths were involved in the activities of fraternities.
44. Wikman, "Die Einleitung der Ehe," pp. 5, 284-286; Shorter, The Making of the Modern Family, pp. 104-105. Although the decline in bundling is undisputed, its causes remain obscure. For Finland, for instance, quite another explanation is given: The introduction of the bicycle.
45. Wikman, "Die Einleitung der Ehe," pp. 5, 284-286; Shorter, The Making of the Modern Family, pp. 104-105. Although the decline in bundling is undisputed, its causes remain obscure. For Finland, for instance, quite another explanation is given: The introduction of the bicycle.
46. Shorter, The Making of the Modern Family, pp. 150-151.
47. See P. Borscheid, "Romantic love or material interest: Choosing partners in nineteenth-century Germany," Journal of Family History 11 (1986): 157-168, for a similar attempt. Borscheid uses wealth homogamy rather than homogamy of social origin; nor does the author use log-linear models to dissociate total from relative homogamy, as we have done.
48. See P.M. Blau and O.D. Duncan, The American Occupational Structure (New York, 1967), esp. ch. 10 on marriage; George Alter, Family and the Female Life Course (Madison, 1988); D.A. Coleman, "Assortative mating in Britain," in: R. Chester and J. Peel, eds, Equalities and Inequalities in Family Life (New York, 1977), pp. 17-53; and, more recently, Kalmijn, "Status homogamy in the United States"; M. Kalmijn, "Shifting boundaries: Trends in religious and educational homogamy," American Sociological Review 56 (1991b): 786-800; M. Kalmijn, "Assortative mating by cultural and economic occupational status," American Journal of Sociology 100 (1994): 422-452; M. Kalmijn, "Intermarriage and homogamy: causes, patterns, trends," Annual Review of Sociology 24 (1998): 395-421; I. Maas, W. Uunk and M.H.D. Van Leeuwen, "Marriage timing in 19th Century Sweden: Effects of availability of marriage candidates," paper presented at the meeting of the ISA rc28, Quebec, 1997; and Uunk, Who marries whom?, on other traditions in homogamy research.
49. See P.M. Blau and O.D. Duncan, The American Occupational Structure (New York, 1967), esp. ch. 10 on marriage; George Alter, Family and the Female Life Course (Madison, 1988); D.A. Coleman, "Assortative mating in Britain," in: R. Chester and J. Peel, eds, Equalities and Inequalities in Family Life (New York, 1977), pp. 17-53; and, more recently, Kalmijn, "Status homogamy in the United States"; M. Kalmijn, "Shifting boundaries: Trends in religious and educational homogamy," American Sociological Review 56 (1991b): 786-800; M. Kalmijn, "Assortative mating by cultural and economic occupational status," American Journal of Sociology 100 (1994): 422-452; M. Kalmijn, "Intermarriage and homogamy: Causes, patterns, trends," Annual Review of Sociology 24 (1998): 395-421; I. Maas, W. Uunk and M.H.D. Van Leeuwen, "Marriage timing in 19th Century Sweden: Effects of availability of marriage candidates," paper presented at the meeting of the ISA rc28, Quebec, 1997; and Uunk, Who marries whom?, on other traditions in homogamy research.
50. See P.M. Blau and O.D. Duncan, The American Occupational Structure (New York, 1967), esp. ch. 10 on marriage; George Alter, Family and the Female Life Course (Madison, 1988); D.A. Coleman, "Assortative mating in Britain," in: R. Chester and J. Peel, eds, Equalities and Inequalities in Family Life (New York, 1977), pp. 17-53; and, more recently, Kalmijn, "Status homogamy in the United States"; M. Kalmijn, "Shifting boundaries: Trends in religious and educational homogamy," American Sociological Review 56 (1991b): 786-800; M. Kalmijn, "Assortative mating by cultural and economic occupational status," American Journal of Sociology 100 (1994): 422-452; M. Kalmijn, "Intermarriage and homogamy: Causes, patterns, trends," Annual Review of Sociology 24 (1998): 395-421; I. Maas, W. Uunk and M.H.D. Van Leeuwen, "Marriage timing in 19th Century Sweden: Effects of availability of marriage candidates," paper presented at the meeting of the ISA rc28, Quebec, 1997; and Uunk, Who marries whom?, on other traditions in homogamy research.
51. See P.M. Blau and O.D. Duncan, The American Occupational Structure (New York, 1967), esp. ch. 10 on marriage; George Alter, Family and the Female Life Course (Madison, 1988); D.A. Coleman, "Assortative mating in Britain," in: R. Chester and J. Peel, eds, Equalities and Inequalities in Family Life (New York, 1977), pp. 17-53; and, more recently, Kalmijn, "Status homogamy in the United States"; M. Kalmijn, "Shifting boundaries: Trends in religious and educational homogamy," American Sociological Review 56 (1991b): 786-800; M. Kalmijn, "Assortative mating by cultural and economic occupational status," American Journal of Sociology 100 (1994): 422-452; M. Kalmijn, "Intermarriage and homogamy: Causes, patterns, trends," Annual Review of Sociology 24 (1998): 395-421; I. Maas, W. Uunk and M.H.D. Van Leeuwen, "Marriage timing in 19th Century Sweden: Effects of availability of marriage candidates," paper presented at the meeting of the ISA rc28, Quebec, 1997; and Uunk, Who marries whom?, on other traditions in homogamy research.
52. See P.M. Blau and O.D. Duncan, The American Occupational Structure (New York, 1967), esp. ch. 10 on marriage; George Alter, Family and the Female Life Course (Madison, 1988); D.A. Coleman, "Assortative mating in Britain," in: R. Chester and J. Peel, eds, Equalities and Inequalities in Family Life (New York, 1977), pp. 17-53; and, more recently, Kalmijn, "Status homogamy in the United States"; M. Kalmijn, "Shifting boundaries: Trends in religious and educational homogamy," American Sociological Review 56 (1991b): 786-800; M. Kalmijn, "Assortative mating by cultural and economic occupational status," American Journal of Sociology 100 (1994): 422-452; M. Kalmijn, "Intermarriage and homogamy: Causes, patterns, trends," Annual Review of Sociology 24 (1998): 395-421; I. Maas, W. Uunk and M.H.D. Van Leeuwen, "Marriage timing in 19th Century Sweden: Effects of availability of marriage candidates," paper presented at the meeting of the ISA rc28, Quebec, 1997; and Uunk, Who marries whom?, on other traditions in homogamy research.
53. See P.M. Blau and O.D. Duncan, The American Occupational Structure (New York, 1967), esp. ch. 10 on marriage; George Alter, Family and the Female Life Course (Madison, 1988); D.A. Coleman, "Assortative mating in Britain," in: R. Chester and J. Peel, eds, Equalities and Inequalities in Family Life (New York, 1977), pp. 17-53; and, more recently, Kalmijn, "Status homogamy in the United States"; M. Kalmijn, "Shifting boundaries: Trends in religious and educational homogamy," American Sociological Review 56 (1991b): 786-800; M. Kalmijn, "Assortative mating by cultural and economic occupational status," American Journal of Sociology 100 (1994): 422-452; M. Kalmijn, "Intermarriage and homogamy: Causes, patterns, trends," Annual Review of Sociology 24 (1998): 395-421; I. Maas, W. Uunk and M.H.D. Van Leeuwen, "Marriage timing in 19th Century Sweden: Effects of availability of marriage candidates," paper presented at the meeting of the ISA rc28, Quebec, 1997; and Uunk, Who marries whom?, on other traditions in homogamy research.
54. See P.M. Blau and O.D. Duncan, The American Occupational Structure (New York, 1967), esp. ch. 10 on marriage; George Alter, Family and the Female Life Course (Madison, 1988); D.A. Coleman, "Assortative mating in Britain," in: R. Chester and J. Peel, eds, Equalities and Inequalities in Family Life (New York, 1977), pp. 17-53; and, more recently, Kalmijn, "Status homogamy in the United States"; M. Kalmijn, "Shifting boundaries: Trends in religious and educational homogamy," American Sociological Review 56 (1991b): 786-800; M. Kalmijn, "Assortative mating by cultural and economic occupational status," American Journal of Sociology 100 (1994): 422-452; M. Kalmijn, "Intermarriage and homogamy: Causes, patterns, trends," Annual Review of Sociology 24 (1998): 395-421; I. Maas, W. Uunk and M.H.D. Van Leeuwen, "Marriage timing in 19th Century Sweden: Effects of availability of marriage candidates," paper presented at the meeting of the ISA rc28, Quebec, 1997; and Uunk, Who marries whom?, on other traditions in homogamy research.
55. See P.M. Blau and O.D. Duncan, The American Occupational Structure (New York, 1967), esp. ch. 10 on marriage; George Alter, Family and the Female Life Course (Madison, 1988); D.A. Coleman, "Assortative mating in Britain," in: R. Chester and J. Peel, eds, Equalities and Inequalities in Family Life (New York, 1977), pp. 17-53; and, more recently, Kalmijn, "Status homogamy in the United States"; M. Kalmijn, "Shifting boundaries: Trends in religious and educational homogamy," American Sociological Review 56 (1991b): 786-800; M. Kalmijn, "Assortative mating by cultural and economic occupational status," American Journal of Sociology 100 (1994): 422-452; M. Kalmijn, "Intermarriage and homogamy: Causes, patterns, trends," Annual Review of Sociology 24 (1998): 395-421; I. Maas, W. Uunk and M.H.D. Van Leeuwen, "Marriage timing in 19th Century Sweden: Effects of availability of marriage candidates," paper presented at the meeting of the ISA rc28, Quebec, 1997; and Uunk, Who marries whom?, on other traditions in homogamy research.
56. See P.M. Blau and O.D. Duncan, The American Occupational Structure (New York, 1967), esp. ch. 10 on marriage; George Alter, Family and the Female Life Course (Madison, 1988); D.A. Coleman, "Assortative mating in Britain," in: R. Chester and J. Peel, eds, Equalities and Inequalities in Family Life (New York, 1977), pp. 17-53; and, more recently, Kalmijn, "Status homogamy in the United States"; M. Kalmijn, "Shifting boundaries: Trends in religious and educational homogamy," American Sociological Review 56 (1991b): 786-800; M. Kalmijn, "Assortative mating by cultural and economic occupational status," American Journal of Sociology 100 (1994): 422-452; M. Kalmijn, "Intermarriage and homogamy: Causes, patterns, trends," Annual Review of Sociology 24 (1998): 395-421; I. Maas, W. Uunk and M.H.D. Van Leeuwen, "Marriage timing in 19th Century Sweden: Effects of availability of marriage candidates," paper presented at the meeting of the ISA rc28, Quebec, 1997; and Uunk, Who marries whom?, on other traditions in homogamy research.
57. See A.S. Kälvemark, "The country that kept track of its population," Scandinavian Journal of History 2 (1977): 211-230; and J.D. Willigan and K.A. Lynch, Sources and Methods of Historical Demography (New York, 1982): 123-126, for general information. For the records of the Demographic Database in Umeå see U.N. Jeub, Parish records. 19th century ecclesiastical registers (Umeå, 1993); A. Brändström, I. Egerbladh, C. Sjöström and L.-G. Tedebrand, "Lebenserwartung in Schweden 1750-1850," in: A.E. Imhof, ed., Lebenserwartungen in Deutschland, Norwegen und Schweden im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Hamburg, 1994), pp. 330-366, and especially 340-343. See also I. Maas and M.H.D. Van Leeuwen, "Industrialization and Intergenerational Mobility in Sweden," Acta Sociologica (forthcoming).
58. See A.S. Kälvemark, "The country that kept track of its population," Scandinavian Journal of History 2 (1977): 211-230; and J.D. Willigan and K.A. Lynch, Sources and Methods of Historical Demography (New York, 1982): 123-126, for general information. For the records of the Demographic Database in Umeå see U.N. Jeub, Parish records. 19th century ecclesiastical registers (Umeå, 1993); A. Brändström, I. Egerbladh, C. Sjöström and L.-G. Tedebrand, "Lebenserwartung in Schweden 1750-1850," in: A.E. Imhof, ed., Lebenserwartungen in Deutschland, Norwegen und Schweden im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Hamburg, 1994), pp. 330-366, and especially 340-343. See also I. Maas and M.H.D. Van Leeuwen, "Industrialization and Intergenerational Mobility in Sweden," Acta Sociologica (forthcoming).
59. See A.S. Kälvemark, "The country that kept track of its population," Scandinavian Journal of History 2 (1977): 211-230; and J.D. Willigan and K.A. Lynch, Sources and Methods of Historical Demography (New York, 1982): 123-126, for general information. For the records of the Demographic Database in Umeå see U.N. Jeub, Parish records. 19th century ecclesiastical registers (Umeå, 1993); A. Brändström, I. Egerbladh, C. Sjöström and L.-G. Tedebrand, "Lebenserwartung in Schweden 1750-1850," in: A.E. Imhof, ed., Lebenserwartungen in Deutschland, Norwegen und Schweden im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Hamburg, 1994), pp. 330-366, and especially 340-343. See also I. Maas and M.H.D. Van Leeuwen, "Industrialization and Intergenerational Mobility in Sweden," Acta Sociologica (forthcoming).
60. See A.S. Kälvemark, "The country that kept track of its population," Scandinavian Journal of History 2 (1977): 211-230; and J.D. Willigan and K.A. Lynch, Sources and Methods of Historical Demography (New York, 1982): 123-126, for general information. For the records of the Demographic Database in Umeå see U.N. Jeub, Parish records. 19th century ecclesiastical registers (Umeå, 1993); A. Brändström, I. Egerbladh, C. Sjöström and L.-G. Tedebrand, "Lebenserwartung in Schweden 1750-1850," in: A.E. Imhof, ed., Lebenserwartungen in Deutschland, Norwegen und Schweden im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Hamburg, 1994), pp. 330-366, and especially 340-343. See also I. Maas and M.H.D. Van Leeuwen, "Industrialization and Intergenerational Mobility in Sweden," Acta Sociologica (forthcoming).
61. See A.S. Kälvemark, "The country that kept track of its population," Scandinavian Journal of History 2 (1977): 211-230; and J.D. Willigan and K.A. Lynch, Sources and Methods of Historical Demography (New York, 1982): 123-126, for general information. For the records of the Demographic Database in Umeå see U.N. Jeub, Parish records. 19th century ecclesiastical registers (Umeå, 1993); A. Brändström, I. Egerbladh, C. Sjöström and L.-G. Tedebrand, "Lebenserwartung in Schweden 1750-1850," in: A.E. Imhof, ed., Lebenserwartungen in Deutschland, Norwegen und Schweden im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Hamburg, 1994), pp. 330-366, and especially 340-343. See also I. Maas and M.H.D. Van Leeuwen, "Industrialization and Intergenerational Mobility in Sweden," Acta Sociologica (forthcoming).
62. The DDB has also collected data for Skellefteå, which is part of the province of Västerbotten. Both Västerbotten and Västernorrland are part of what is called Norrland, which is not an administrative region but more a general geographic name: Sweden is often divided into three parts: Göttalans, Svealand and Norrland.
63. In another part of Sweden these migrants were traced. It was found that they were more likely to marry than those who stayed, the more so for women than for men. See B. Kronborg and T. Nilsson, "Social mobility, migration and family building in urban environments," in: S. Åkerman et al., eds, Chance and Change: Social and Economic Studies in Historical Demography in the Baltic Area (Odense, 1978), pp. 227-237, and especially 233.
64. For data on the amount of wood exported and the number of sawmills, see F. Hjulström, G. Arpi and E. Lövgren, Sundsvalldistriktet 1850-1950 (Uppsala, 1955), pp. 220-221, and H. Wik, Norra Sveriges Sågverkindustri från 1800-talets mitt fram till 1937 (Stockholm, 1950), pp. 200-209.
65. For data on the amount of wood exported and the number of sawmills, see F. Hjulström, G. Arpi and E. Lövgren, Sundsvalldistriktet 1850-1950 (Uppsala, 1955), pp. 220-221, and H. Wik, Norra Sveriges Sågverkindustri från 1800-talets mitt fram till 1937 (Stockholm, 1950), pp. 200-209.
66. The results are similar for children of deceased fathers.
67. R. Erikson and J.H. Goldthorpe, The Constant Flux: A Study of Class Mobility in Industrial Societies (Oxford, 1992); Y. Xie, "The log-multiplicative layer effect model for comparing mobility tables," American Sociological Review 57 (1992): 380-395.
68. R. Erikson and J.H. Goldthorpe, The Constant Flux: A Study of Class Mobility in Industrial Societies (Oxford, 1992); Y. Xie, "The log-multiplicative layer effect model for comparing mobility tables," American Sociological Review 57 (1992): 380-395.
69. The same effect has been reported by F. Van Poppel, J. De Jong and A.C. Liefbroer, "The effects of paternal mortality on sons' social mobility: A nineteenth-century example," Historical Methods 3 (1998): 101-112. See also, M. Delger and J. Kok, "Bridegroons and biases: A critical look at the study of intergenerational mobility on the basis of marriage certificates," Historical Methods 3 (1998): 113-121, esp. 120.
70. The same effect has been reported by F. Van Poppel, J. De Jong and A.C. Liefbroer, "The effects of paternal mortality on sons' social mobility: A nineteenth-century example," Historical Methods 3 (1998): 101-112. See also, M. Delger and J. Kok, "Bridegroons and biases: A critical look at the study of intergenerational mobility on the basis of marriage certificates," Historical Methods 3 (1998): 113-121, esp. 120.
71. See Erikson and Goldthorpe, The Constant Flux, and the appendix for matrices describing the parameters.
72. This was not true for the offspring of skilled workers and farm workers, who were more likely to marry outside their class of origin. This cannot be explained by their small size, since these models refer to relative mobility, i.e. differences in the marginal distributions of the tables, reflecting the relative sizes of classes, have been taken into account.