Long-term social mobility: Research agenda and a case study (Berlin, 1825-1957)

Continuity and Change

Volumn 11, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 399-433

  Van Leeuwen, Marco H D ^a   Maas, Ineke ^b  

^a NEHA   (Netherlands)

^b MAX PLANCK INSTITUTE FOR HUMAN DEVELOPMENT   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HISTORICAL STUDY; LONG-TERM TRENDS; NINETEENTH CENTURY; SOCIAL CHANGE; SOCIAL MOBILITY; SOCIAL STRATIFICATION; URBAN SOCIETY;

GERMANY, BERLIN;

EID: 0030391096     PISSN: 02684160     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0268416000003477     Document Type: Review

References (169)

1. P. Sorokin, Social and cultural mobility (New York, 1959; first published 1929), 152-4.
2. Ibid., 152.
3. Ibid., 458.
4. Ibid., 418.
5. D. V. Glass, Social mobility in Britain (London, 1954); S. M. Lipset and H. L. Zetterberg, 'A theory of social mobility', in S. M. Lipset and R. Bendix eds., Social mobility in industrial society (Berkeley, 1959; first published 1956).
6. D. V. Glass, Social mobility in Britain (London, 1954); S. M. Lipset and H. L. Zetterberg, 'A theory of social mobility', in S. M. Lipset and R. Bendix eds., Social mobility in industrial society (Berkeley, 1959; first published 1956).
7. Lipset and Zetterberg, 'A theory of social mobility', 13.
8. I. K. Fukumoto and D. B. Grusky, 'Social mobility and class structure in early-industrial France', in A. Miles and D. Vincent eds., Building European society: occupational change and social mobility in Europe 1840-1940 (Manchester, 1993); see also Lipset and Zetterberg, 'A theory of social mobility', 38 and 112.
9. I. K. Fukumoto and D. B. Grusky, 'Social mobility and class structure in early-industrial France', in A. Miles and D. Vincent eds., Building European society: occupational change and social mobility in Europe 1840-1940 (Manchester, 1993); see also Lipset and Zetterberg, 'A theory of social mobility', 38 and 112.
10. C. Kerr et al., Industrialism and industrial man (New York and Oxford, 1973, first published 1960), 41-56, 97, 106-7, 175; A. Inkeles, 'Industrial man: the relation of status to experience, perception and values', American Journal of Sociology 66 (1960), 29; W. Form, 'Comparative industrial sociology and the convergence hypothesis' Annual Review of Sociology 5 (1979), 1-25.
11. C. Kerr et al., Industrialism and industrial man (New York and Oxford, 1973, first published 1960), 41-56, 97, 106-7, 175; A. Inkeles, 'Industrial man: the relation of status to experience, perception and values', American Journal of Sociology 66 (1960), 29; W. Form, 'Comparative industrial sociology and the convergence hypothesis' Annual Review of Sociology 5 (1979), 1-25.
12. C. Kerr et al., Industrialism and industrial man (New York and Oxford, 1973, first published 1960), 41-56, 97, 106-7, 175; A. Inkeles, 'Industrial man: the relation of status to experience, perception and values', American Journal of Sociology 66 (1960), 29; W. Form, 'Comparative industrial sociology and the convergence hypothesis' Annual Review of Sociology 5 (1979), 1-25.
13. The same happened in historical research as well; see H. Kaelble, Historical research on social mobility: Western Europe and the USA in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (London, 1981); H. Kaelble, Social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries: Europe and America in comparative perspective (Leamington Spa, 1985); and R. Schüren, Soziale Mobilität: Muster, Veränderungen und Bedingungen im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (St Katharinen, 1989). For other reviews, see H. B. G. Ganzeboom, D. J. Treiman, and W. C. Ultee, 'Comparative intergenerational stratification research; three generations and beyond', Annual Review of Sociology 17 (1991), 277-302; Fukumoto and Grusky, 'Social mobility and class structure', 40-67; and R. Erikson and J. H. Goldthorpe, The constant flux: a study of class mobility in industrial societies (Oxford, 1992), 1-27.
14. The same happened in historical research as well; see H. Kaelble, Historical research on social mobility: Western Europe and the USA in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (London, 1981); H. Kaelble, Social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries: Europe and America in comparative perspective (Leamington Spa, 1985); and R. Schüren, Soziale Mobilität: Muster, Veränderungen und Bedingungen im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (St Katharinen, 1989). For other reviews, see H. B. G. Ganzeboom, D. J. Treiman, and W. C. Ultee, 'Comparative intergenerational stratification research; three generations and beyond', Annual Review of Sociology 17 (1991), 277-302; Fukumoto and Grusky, 'Social mobility and class structure', 40-67; and R. Erikson and J. H. Goldthorpe, The constant flux: a study of class mobility in industrial societies (Oxford, 1992), 1-27.
15. The same happened in historical research as well; see H. Kaelble, Historical research on social mobility: Western Europe and the USA in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (London, 1981); H. Kaelble, Social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries: Europe and America in comparative perspective (Leamington Spa, 1985); and R. Schüren, Soziale Mobilität: Muster, Veränderungen und Bedingungen im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (St Katharinen, 1989). For other reviews, see H. B. G. Ganzeboom, D. J. Treiman, and W. C. Ultee, 'Comparative intergenerational stratification research; three generations and beyond', Annual Review of Sociology 17 (1991), 277-302; Fukumoto and Grusky, 'Social mobility and class structure', 40-67; and R. Erikson and J. H. Goldthorpe, The constant flux: a study of class mobility in industrial societies (Oxford, 1992), 1-27.
16. The same happened in historical research as well; see H. Kaelble, Historical research on social mobility: Western Europe and the USA in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (London, 1981); H. Kaelble, Social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries: Europe and America in comparative perspective (Leamington Spa, 1985); and R. Schüren, Soziale Mobilität: Muster, Veränderungen und Bedingungen im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (St Katharinen, 1989). For other reviews, see H. B. G. Ganzeboom, D. J. Treiman, and W. C. Ultee, 'Comparative intergenerational stratification research; three generations and beyond', Annual Review of Sociology 17 (1991), 277-302; Fukumoto and Grusky, 'Social mobility and class structure', 40-67; and R. Erikson and J. H. Goldthorpe, The constant flux: a study of class mobility in industrial societies (Oxford, 1992), 1-27.
17. The same happened in historical research as well; see H. Kaelble, Historical research on social mobility: Western Europe and the USA in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (London, 1981); H. Kaelble, Social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries: Europe and America in comparative perspective (Leamington Spa, 1985); and R. Schüren, Soziale Mobilität: Muster, Veränderungen und Bedingungen im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (St Katharinen, 1989). For other reviews, see H. B. G. Ganzeboom, D. J. Treiman, and W. C. Ultee, 'Comparative intergenerational stratification research; three generations and beyond', Annual Review of Sociology 17 (1991), 277-302; Fukumoto and Grusky, 'Social mobility and class structure', 40-67; and R. Erikson and J. H. Goldthorpe, The constant flux: a study of class mobility in industrial societies (Oxford, 1992), 1-27.
18. The same happened in historical research as well; see H. Kaelble, Historical research on social mobility: Western Europe and the USA in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (London, 1981); H. Kaelble, Social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries: Europe and America in comparative perspective (Leamington Spa, 1985); and R. Schüren, Soziale Mobilität: Muster, Veränderungen und Bedingungen im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (St Katharinen, 1989). For other reviews, see H. B. G. Ganzeboom, D. J. Treiman, and W. C. Ultee, 'Comparative intergenerational stratification research; three generations and beyond', Annual Review of Sociology 17 (1991), 277-302; Fukumoto and Grusky, 'Social mobility and class structure', 40-67; and R. Erikson and J. H. Goldthorpe, The constant flux: a study of class mobility in industrial societies (Oxford, 1992), 1-27.
19. D. L. Featherman, F. L. Jones, and R. M. Hauser, 'Assumptions of social mobility research in the U.S.: the case of occupational status', Social Science Research 4 (1975), 340. Later research on circulation mobility does suggest some change over time and differences between industrialized countries: see R. M. Hauser, J. Koffel, H. Travis, and P. Dickenson, 'Temporal change in occupational mobility: evidence for men in the United States', American Sociological Review 40 (1975), 279-97; R. M. Hauser, P. J. Dickinson, H. P. Travis, and J. N. Koffel, 'Structural changes in occupational mobility among men in the United States', American Sociological Review 40 (1975), 585-98; D. B. Grusky and R. M. Hauser, 'Comparative social mobility revisited: models of convergence and divergence in 16 countries', American Sociological Review 49 (1984), 19-38; R. M. Hauser and D. B. Grusky, 'Cross-national variation in occupational distributions, relative mobility chances, and intergenerational shifts in occupational distributions', American Sociological Review 53 (1988), 723-41; and M. Hout, 'More universalism, less structural mobility: the American occupational structure in the 1980s', American Journal of Sociology 93 (1988), 1358-1400.
20. D. L. Featherman, F. L. Jones, and R. M. Hauser, 'Assumptions of social mobility research in the U.S.: the case of occupational status', Social Science Research 4 (1975), 340. Later research on circulation mobility does suggest some change over time and differences between industrialized countries: see R. M. Hauser, J. Koffel, H. Travis, and P. Dickenson, 'Temporal change in occupational mobility: evidence for men in the United States', American Sociological Review 40 (1975), 279-97; R. M. Hauser, P. J. Dickinson, H. P. Travis, and J. N. Koffel, 'Structural changes in occupational mobility among men in the United States', American Sociological Review 40 (1975), 585-98; D. B. Grusky and R. M. Hauser, 'Comparative social mobility revisited: models of convergence and divergence in 16 countries', American Sociological Review 49 (1984), 19-38; R. M. Hauser and D. B. Grusky, 'Cross-national variation in occupational distributions, relative mobility chances, and intergenerational shifts in occupational distributions', American Sociological Review 53 (1988), 723-41; and M. Hout, 'More universalism, less structural mobility: the American occupational structure in the 1980s', American Journal of Sociology 93 (1988), 1358-1400.
21. D. L. Featherman, F. L. Jones, and R. M. Hauser, 'Assumptions of social mobility research in the U.S.: the case of occupational status', Social Science Research 4 (1975), 340. Later research on circulation mobility does suggest some change over time and differences between industrialized countries: see R. M. Hauser, J. Koffel, H. Travis, and P. Dickenson, 'Temporal change in occupational mobility: evidence for men in the United States', American Sociological Review 40 (1975), 279-97; R. M. Hauser, P. J. Dickinson, H. P. Travis, and J. N. Koffel, 'Structural changes in occupational mobility among men in the United States', American Sociological Review 40 (1975), 585-98; D. B. Grusky and R. M. Hauser, 'Comparative social mobility revisited: models of convergence and divergence in 16 countries', American Sociological Review 49 (1984), 19-38; R. M. Hauser and D. B. Grusky, 'Cross-national variation in occupational distributions, relative mobility chances, and intergenerational shifts in occupational distributions', American Sociological Review 53 (1988), 723-41; and M. Hout, 'More universalism, less structural mobility: the American occupational structure in the 1980s', American Journal of Sociology 93 (1988), 1358-1400.
22. D. L. Featherman, F. L. Jones, and R. M. Hauser, 'Assumptions of social mobility research in the U.S.: the case of occupational status', Social Science Research 4 (1975), 340. Later research on circulation mobility does suggest some change over time and differences between industrialized countries: see R. M. Hauser, J. Koffel, H. Travis, and P. Dickenson, 'Temporal change in occupational mobility: evidence for men in the United States', American Sociological Review 40 (1975), 279-97; R. M. Hauser, P. J. Dickinson, H. P. Travis, and J. N. Koffel, 'Structural changes in occupational mobility among men in the United States', American Sociological Review 40 (1975), 585-98; D. B. Grusky and R. M. Hauser, 'Comparative social mobility revisited: models of convergence and divergence in 16 countries', American Sociological Review 49 (1984), 19-38; R. M. Hauser and D. B. Grusky, 'Cross-national variation in occupational distributions, relative mobility chances, and intergenerational shifts in occupational distributions', American Sociological Review 53 (1988), 723-41; and M. Hout, 'More universalism, less structural mobility: the American occupational structure in the 1980s', American Journal of Sociology 93 (1988), 1358-1400.
23. D. L. Featherman, F. L. Jones, and R. M. Hauser, 'Assumptions of social mobility research in the U.S.: the case of occupational status', Social Science Research 4 (1975), 340. Later research on circulation mobility does suggest some change over time and differences between industrialized countries: see R. M. Hauser, J. Koffel, H. Travis, and P. Dickenson, 'Temporal change in occupational mobility: evidence for men in the United States', American Sociological Review 40 (1975), 279-97; R. M. Hauser, P. J. Dickinson, H. P. Travis, and J. N. Koffel, 'Structural changes in occupational mobility among men in the United States', American Sociological Review 40 (1975), 585-98; D. B. Grusky and R. M. Hauser, 'Comparative social mobility revisited: models of convergence and divergence in 16 countries', American Sociological Review 49 (1984), 19-38; R. M. Hauser and D. B. Grusky, 'Cross-national variation in occupational distributions, relative mobility chances, and intergenerational shifts in occupational distributions', American Sociological Review 53 (1988), 723-41; and M. Hout, 'More universalism, less structural mobility: the American occupational structure in the 1980s', American Journal of Sociology 93 (1988), 1358-1400.
24. D. L. Featherman, F. L. Jones, and R. M. Hauser, 'Assumptions of social mobility research in the U.S.: the case of occupational status', Social Science Research 4 (1975), 340. Later research on circulation mobility does suggest some change over time and differences between industrialized countries: see R. M. Hauser, J. Koffel, H. Travis, and P. Dickenson, 'Temporal change in occupational mobility: evidence for men in the United States', American Sociological Review 40 (1975), 279-97; R. M. Hauser, P. J. Dickinson, H. P. Travis, and J. N. Koffel, 'Structural changes in occupational mobility among men in the United States', American Sociological Review 40 (1975), 585-98; D. B. Grusky and R. M. Hauser, 'Comparative social mobility revisited: models of convergence and divergence in 16 countries', American Sociological Review 49 (1984), 19-38; R. M. Hauser and D. B. Grusky, 'Cross-national variation in occupational distributions, relative mobility chances, and intergenerational shifts in occupational distributions', American Sociological Review 53 (1988), 723-41; and M. Hout, 'More universalism, less structural mobility: the American occupational structure in the 1980s', American Journal of Sociology 93 (1988), 1358-1400.
25. A. Simkus, 'Structural transformation and social mobility: Hungary 1938-1973', American Sociological Review 49 (1984), 291-307.
26. For a review of these advances in log-linear modelling, see L. A. Goodman, 'Simple models for the analysis of association in cross-classifications having ordered categories', Journal of the American Statistical Association 74 (1979), 537-52; M. Hout, Mobility tables (Beverly Hills, 1983); R. M. Hauser, 'Some exploratory methods for modelling mobility tables and other cross-classified data', in K. F. Schuessler ed., Sociological methodology 1980 (San Francisco, 1980), 413-58. For a review of mobility indices, see D. L. Featherman and R. M. Hauser, Opportunity and change (New York, 1978).
27. For a review of these advances in log-linear modelling, see L. A. Goodman, 'Simple models for the analysis of association in cross-classifications having ordered categories', Journal of the American Statistical Association 74 (1979), 537-52; M. Hout, Mobility tables (Beverly Hills, 1983); R. M. Hauser, 'Some exploratory methods for modelling mobility tables and other cross-classified data', in K. F. Schuessler ed., Sociological methodology 1980 (San Francisco, 1980), 413-58. For a review of mobility indices, see D. L. Featherman and R. M. Hauser, Opportunity and change (New York, 1978).
28. For a review of these advances in log-linear modelling, see L. A. Goodman, 'Simple models for the analysis of association in cross-classifications having ordered categories', Journal of the American Statistical Association 74 (1979), 537-52; M. Hout, Mobility tables (Beverly Hills, 1983); R. M. Hauser, 'Some exploratory methods for modelling mobility tables and other cross-classified data', in K. F. Schuessler ed., Sociological methodology 1980 (San Francisco, 1980), 413-58. For a review of mobility indices, see D. L. Featherman and R. M. Hauser, Opportunity and change (New York, 1978).
29. For a review of these advances in log-linear modelling, see L. A. Goodman, 'Simple models for the analysis of association in cross-classifications having ordered categories', Journal of the American Statistical Association 74 (1979), 537-52; M. Hout, Mobility tables (Beverly Hills, 1983); R. M. Hauser, 'Some exploratory methods for modelling mobility tables and other cross-classified data', in K. F. Schuessler ed., Sociological methodology 1980 (San Francisco, 1980), 413-58. For a review of mobility indices, see D. L. Featherman and R. M. Hauser, Opportunity and change (New York, 1978).
30. Erikson and Goldthorpe, Constant flux, 367.
31. A collaborator of Goldthorpe, Hope, had tried earlier to test the FJH-hypothesis by applying log-linear models to two British surveys, one from Glass (Social mobility in Britain) and another from Goldthorpe dating from 1972. Hope's conclusion was that openness had increased, assuming the data were trustworthy. In that case, however, the association between the occupation of father and son in the older age group in the 1972 survey should have been more or less the same as that of the younger age group in the 1954 survey (disregarding selective mortality or migration processes). This turns out not to be the case, perhaps due to incompatibility in the way in which individuals have been assigned to occupational groups. Hope believed that, if the two surveys were made compatible, 'the conclusion...is that any change in mobility patterns ... since ... 1880 ... is so slight as not to be detectable' ( K. Hope, 'Trends in the openness of British society in the present century', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 1 (1981), 161).
32. A collaborator of Goldthorpe, Hope, had tried earlier to test the FJH-hypothesis by applying log-linear models to two British surveys, one from Glass (Social mobility in Britain) and another from Goldthorpe dating from 1972. Hope's conclusion was that openness had increased, assuming the data were trustworthy. In that case, however, the association between the occupation of father and son in the older age group in the 1972 survey should have been more or less the same as that of the younger age group in the 1954 survey (disregarding selective mortality or migration processes). This turns out not to be the case, perhaps due to incompatibility in the way in which individuals have been assigned to occupational groups. Hope believed that, if the two surveys were made compatible, 'the conclusion...is that any change in mobility patterns ... since ... 1880 ... is so slight as not to be detectable' ( K. Hope, 'Trends in the openness of British society in the present century', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 1 (1981), 161).
33. H. B. G. Ganzeboom, R. Luijkx, and D. J. Treiman, 'Intergenerational class mobility in comparative perspective', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 8 (1989), 3-84.
34. For a different point of view, see Erikson and Goldthorpe, Constant flux, 53.
35. Ganzeboom, Luijkx, and Treiman, 'Class mobility in comparative perspective', 45.
36. A. Daumard, 'Les relations sociales à l'époque de la monarchie constitutionelle d'après les registres paroissiaux des mariages', Population 12 (1957), 445-66; A. Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale: l'enregistrement des mutations par décès: le XIIe arrondissement de Paris en 1820 et 1847', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale (1957), 52-78; A. Daumard, 'Structures et relations sociales: Paris au milieu du XVIIIe siècle', Cahiers des Annales 18 (Paris, 1961); A. Daumard and F. Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale: les archives notariales et la méchanographie', Annales ESC 14 (1959), 676-93.
37. A. Daumard, 'Les relations sociales à l'époque de la monarchie constitutionelle d'après les registres paroissiaux des mariages', Population 12 (1957), 445-66; A. Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale: l'enregistrement des mutations par décès: le XIIe arrondissement de Paris en 1820 et 1847', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale (1957), 52-78; A. Daumard, 'Structures et relations sociales: Paris au milieu du XVIIIe siècle', Cahiers des Annales 18 (Paris, 1961); A. Daumard and F. Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale: les archives notariales et la méchanographie', Annales ESC 14 (1959), 676-93.
38. A. Daumard, 'Les relations sociales à l'époque de la monarchie constitutionelle d'après les registres paroissiaux des mariages', Population 12 (1957), 445-66; A. Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale: l'enregistrement des mutations par décès: le XIIe arrondissement de Paris en 1820 et 1847', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale (1957), 52-78; A. Daumard, 'Structures et relations sociales: Paris au milieu du XVIIIe siècle', Cahiers des Annales 18 (Paris, 1961); A. Daumard and F. Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale: les archives notariales et la méchanographie', Annales ESC 14 (1959), 676-93.
39. A. Daumard, 'Les relations sociales à l'époque de la monarchie constitutionelle d'après les registres paroissiaux des mariages', Population 12 (1957), 445-66; A. Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale: l'enregistrement des mutations par décès: le XIIe arrondissement de Paris en 1820 et 1847', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale (1957), 52-78; A. Daumard, 'Structures et relations sociales: Paris au milieu du XVIIIe siècle', Cahiers des Annales 18 (Paris, 1961); A. Daumard and F. Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale: les archives notariales et la méchanographie', Annales ESC 14 (1959), 676-93.
40. J. Dupâquier and D. Kessler, 'L'enquête des 3000 families', in J. Dupâquier and D. Kessler eds., La société française au XIXe siècle, tradition, transition, transformations (Paris, 1992), 23-61, especially p. 25; J. Dupâquier and J.-P. Pelissier, 'Mutations d'une société: la mobilité professionelle', in Dupâquier and Kessler, La société française au XIXe siècle, 121-235; M. Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales: les ouvriers de Renault dans l'entre-deux-guerres', Population 44 (1989), 1213-32; M. Gribaudi and A. Blum, 'Des catégories aux liens individuelles: l'analyse statistique de l'espace social', Annales ESC 45 (1990), 1365-402; J.-L. Pinol, Les mobilités de la grande ville: Lyon fin XIXe-début XXe siècle (Paris, 1991); J.-L. Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon from the late nineteenth to the early twentieth century', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 116-37.
41. J. Dupâquier and D. Kessler, 'L'enquête des 3000 families', in J. Dupâquier and D. Kessler eds., La société française au XIXe siècle, tradition, transition, transformations (Paris, 1992), 23-61, especially p. 25; J. Dupâquier and J.-P. Pelissier, 'Mutations d'une société: la mobilité professionelle', in Dupâquier and Kessler, La société française au XIXe siècle, 121-235; M. Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales: les ouvriers de Renault dans l'entre-deux-guerres', Population 44 (1989), 1213-32; M. Gribaudi and A. Blum, 'Des catégories aux liens individuelles: l'analyse statistique de l'espace social', Annales ESC 45 (1990), 1365-402; J.-L. Pinol, Les mobilités de la grande ville: Lyon fin XIXe-début XXe siècle (Paris, 1991); J.-L. Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon from the late nineteenth to the early twentieth century', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 116-37.
42. J. Dupâquier and D. Kessler, 'L'enquête des 3000 families', in J. Dupâquier and D. Kessler eds., La société française au XIXe siècle, tradition, transition, transformations (Paris, 1992), 23-61, especially p. 25; J. Dupâquier and J.-P. Pelissier, 'Mutations d'une société: la mobilité professionelle', in Dupâquier and Kessler, La société française au XIXe siècle, 121-235; M. Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales: les ouvriers de Renault dans l'entre-deux-guerres', Population 44 (1989), 1213-32; M. Gribaudi and A. Blum, 'Des catégories aux liens individuelles: l'analyse statistique de l'espace social', Annales ESC 45 (1990), 1365-402; J.-L. Pinol, Les mobilités de la grande ville: Lyon fin XIXe-début XXe siècle (Paris, 1991); J.-L. Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon from the late nineteenth to the early twentieth century', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 116-37.
43. J. Dupâquier and D. Kessler, 'L'enquête des 3000 families', in J. Dupâquier and D. Kessler eds., La société française au XIXe siècle, tradition, transition, transformations (Paris, 1992), 23-61, especially p. 25; J. Dupâquier and J.-P. Pelissier, 'Mutations d'une société: la mobilité professionelle', in Dupâquier and Kessler, La société française au XIXe siècle, 121-235; M. Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales: les ouvriers de Renault dans l'entre-deux-guerres', Population 44 (1989), 1213-32; M. Gribaudi and A. Blum, 'Des catégories aux liens individuelles: l'analyse statistique de l'espace social', Annales ESC 45 (1990), 1365-402; J.-L. Pinol, Les mobilités de la grande ville: Lyon fin XIXe-début XXe siècle (Paris, 1991); J.-L. Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon from the late nineteenth to the early twentieth century', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 116-37.
44. J. Dupâquier and D. Kessler, 'L'enquête des 3000 families', in J. Dupâquier and D. Kessler eds., La société française au XIXe siècle, tradition, transition, transformations (Paris, 1992), 23-61, especially p. 25; J. Dupâquier and J.-P. Pelissier, 'Mutations d'une société: la mobilité professionelle', in Dupâquier and Kessler, La société française au XIXe siècle, 121-235; M. Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales: les ouvriers de Renault dans l'entre-deux-guerres', Population 44 (1989), 1213-32; M. Gribaudi and A. Blum, 'Des catégories aux liens individuelles: l'analyse statistique de l'espace social', Annales ESC 45 (1990), 1365-402; J.-L. Pinol, Les mobilités de la grande ville: Lyon fin XIXe-début XXe siècle (Paris, 1991); J.-L. Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon from the late nineteenth to the early twentieth century', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 116-37.
45. J. Dupâquier and D. Kessler, 'L'enquête des 3000 families', in J. Dupâquier and D. Kessler eds., La société française au XIXe siècle, tradition, transition, transformations (Paris, 1992), 23-61, especially p. 25; J. Dupâquier and J.-P. Pelissier, 'Mutations d'une société: la mobilité professionelle', in Dupâquier and Kessler, La société française au XIXe siècle, 121-235; M. Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales: les ouvriers de Renault dans l'entre-deux-guerres', Population 44 (1989), 1213-32; M. Gribaudi and A. Blum, 'Des catégories aux liens individuelles: l'analyse statistique de l'espace social', Annales ESC 45 (1990), 1365-402; J.-L. Pinol, Les mobilités de la grande ville: Lyon fin XIXe-début XXe siècle (Paris, 1991); J.-L. Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon from the late nineteenth to the early twentieth century', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 116-37.
46. S. Thernstrom, Poverty and progress: social mobility in a nineteenth-century city (New York, 1964).
47. S. Thernstrom, The other Bostonians: poverty and progress in the American metropolis (Cambridge, 1973).
48. As testified by the works of S. Blumin, 'Mobility and change in ante-bellum Philadelphia', in S. Thernstrom and R. Sennet eds., Nineteenth-century cities: essays in the new urban history (New Haven, 1969), 165-208, and T. Hershberg, Work, space, family, and group experience in the 19th century (Oxford, 1981) on Philadelphia; G. Bouchard, 'L'analyse de la mobilité socio-professionelle au Saguenay à l'aide de la reconstitution automatique des familles', in Evolution et éclairement du monde rural: structures, fonctionnement et évolution différentielle des sociétés rurales françaises, et Québecoises (Paris, 1986), 89-103, on French Canada; L. Glasco, 'Migration and adjustment in the nineteenth-century city: occupation, property, and household structure of native-born whites, Buffalo, New York, 1855', in T. K. Hareven and M. Vinovskis eds., Population in nineteenth-century America (Princeton, 1978), 123-75, on Buffalo; C. Griffen and S. Griffen, Natives and newcomers: the ordering of opportunity in mid-nineteenth-century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, 1978) on Poughkeepsie; P. R. Knights, The plain people of Boston, 1830-1860: a study in city growth (New York, 1971) and Yankee destinies: the lives of ordinary nineteenth-century Bostonians (Chapel Hill, 1991) on Boston; M. Katz, The people of Hamilton, Canada West (Cambridge, 1975) on Hamilton; and A. E. Broadman and M. P. Weber, 'Economic growth and occupational mobility in nineteenth century urban America: a reappraisal', Journal of Social History XI (1977), 52-74, on Warren, Michigan. In Europe, too, mobility studies have taken root. In overviews Kaelble (Historical research on social mobility and Social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries) cites many studies (see in addition Miles and Vincent, Building European society).
49. As testified by the works of S. Blumin, 'Mobility and change in ante-bellum Philadelphia', in S. Thernstrom and R. Sennet eds., Nineteenth-century cities: essays in the new urban history (New Haven, 1969), 165-208, and T. Hershberg, Work, space, family, and group experience in the 19th century (Oxford, 1981) on Philadelphia; G. Bouchard, 'L'analyse de la mobilité socio-professionelle au Saguenay à l'aide de la reconstitution automatique des familles', in Evolution et éclairement du monde rural: structures, fonctionnement et évolution différentielle des sociétés rurales françaises, et Québecoises (Paris, 1986), 89-103, on French Canada; L. Glasco, 'Migration and adjustment in the nineteenth-century city: occupation, property, and household structure of native-born whites, Buffalo, New York, 1855', in T. K. Hareven and M. Vinovskis eds., Population in nineteenth-century America (Princeton, 1978), 123-75, on Buffalo; C. Griffen and S. Griffen, Natives and newcomers: the ordering of opportunity in mid-nineteenth-century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, 1978) on Poughkeepsie; P. R. Knights, The plain people of Boston, 1830-1860: a study in city growth (New York, 1971) and Yankee destinies: the lives of ordinary nineteenth-century Bostonians (Chapel Hill, 1991) on Boston; M. Katz, The people of Hamilton, Canada West (Cambridge, 1975) on Hamilton; and A. E. Broadman and M. P. Weber, 'Economic growth and occupational mobility in nineteenth century urban America: a reappraisal', Journal of Social History XI (1977), 52-74, on Warren, Michigan. In Europe, too, mobility studies have taken root. In overviews Kaelble (Historical research on social mobility and Social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries) cites many studies (see in addition Miles and Vincent, Building European society).
50. As testified by the works of S. Blumin, 'Mobility and change in ante-bellum Philadelphia', in S. Thernstrom and R. Sennet eds., Nineteenth-century cities: essays in the new urban history (New Haven, 1969), 165-208, and T. Hershberg, Work, space, family, and group experience in the 19th century (Oxford, 1981) on Philadelphia; G. Bouchard, 'L'analyse de la mobilité socio-professionelle au Saguenay à l'aide de la reconstitution automatique des familles', in Evolution et éclairement du monde rural: structures, fonctionnement et évolution différentielle des sociétés rurales françaises, et Québecoises (Paris, 1986), 89-103, on French Canada; L. Glasco, 'Migration and adjustment in the nineteenth-century city: occupation, property, and household structure of native-born whites, Buffalo, New York, 1855', in T. K. Hareven and M. Vinovskis eds., Population in nineteenth-century America (Princeton, 1978), 123-75, on Buffalo; C. Griffen and S. Griffen, Natives and newcomers: the ordering of opportunity in mid-nineteenth-century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, 1978) on Poughkeepsie; P. R. Knights, The plain people of Boston, 1830-1860: a study in city growth (New York, 1971) and Yankee destinies: the lives of ordinary nineteenth-century Bostonians (Chapel Hill, 1991) on Boston; M. Katz, The people of Hamilton, Canada West (Cambridge, 1975) on Hamilton; and A. E. Broadman and M. P. Weber, 'Economic growth and occupational mobility in nineteenth century urban America: a reappraisal', Journal of Social History XI (1977), 52-74, on Warren, Michigan. In Europe, too, mobility studies have taken root. In overviews Kaelble (Historical research on social mobility and Social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries) cites many studies (see in addition Miles and Vincent, Building European society).
51. As testified by the works of S. Blumin, 'Mobility and change in ante-bellum Philadelphia', in S. Thernstrom and R. Sennet eds., Nineteenth-century cities: essays in the new urban history (New Haven, 1969), 165-208, and T. Hershberg, Work, space, family, and group experience in the 19th century (Oxford, 1981) on Philadelphia; G. Bouchard, 'L'analyse de la mobilité socio-professionelle au Saguenay à l'aide de la reconstitution automatique des familles', in Evolution et éclairement du monde rural: structures, fonctionnement et évolution différentielle des sociétés rurales françaises, et Québecoises (Paris, 1986), 89-103, on French Canada; L. Glasco, 'Migration and adjustment in the nineteenth-century city: occupation, property, and household structure of native-born whites, Buffalo, New York, 1855', in T. K. Hareven and M. Vinovskis eds., Population in nineteenth-century America (Princeton, 1978), 123-75, on Buffalo; C. Griffen and S. Griffen, Natives and newcomers: the ordering of opportunity in mid-nineteenth-century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, 1978) on Poughkeepsie; P. R. Knights, The plain people of Boston, 1830-1860: a study in city growth (New York, 1971) and Yankee destinies: the lives of ordinary nineteenth-century Bostonians (Chapel Hill, 1991) on Boston; M. Katz, The people of Hamilton, Canada West (Cambridge, 1975) on Hamilton; and A. E. Broadman and M. P. Weber, 'Economic growth and occupational mobility in nineteenth century urban America: a reappraisal', Journal of Social History XI (1977), 52-74, on Warren, Michigan. In Europe, too, mobility studies have taken root. In overviews Kaelble (Historical research on social mobility and Social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries) cites many studies (see in addition Miles and Vincent, Building European society).
52. As testified by the works of S. Blumin, 'Mobility and change in ante-bellum Philadelphia', in S. Thernstrom and R. Sennet eds., Nineteenth-century cities: essays in the new urban history (New Haven, 1969), 165-208, and T. Hershberg, Work, space, family, and group experience in the 19th century (Oxford, 1981) on Philadelphia; G. Bouchard, 'L'analyse de la mobilité socio-professionelle au Saguenay à l'aide de la reconstitution automatique des familles', in Evolution et éclairement du monde rural: structures, fonctionnement et évolution différentielle des sociétés rurales françaises, et Québecoises (Paris, 1986), 89-103, on French Canada; L. Glasco, 'Migration and adjustment in the nineteenth-century city: occupation, property, and household structure of native-born whites, Buffalo, New York, 1855', in T. K. Hareven and M. Vinovskis eds., Population in nineteenth-century America (Princeton, 1978), 123-75, on Buffalo; C. Griffen and S. Griffen, Natives and newcomers: the ordering of opportunity in mid-nineteenth-century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, 1978) on Poughkeepsie; P. R. Knights, The plain people of Boston, 1830-1860: a study in city growth (New York, 1971) and Yankee destinies: the lives of ordinary nineteenth-century Bostonians (Chapel Hill, 1991) on Boston; M. Katz, The people of Hamilton, Canada West (Cambridge, 1975) on Hamilton; and A. E. Broadman and M. P. Weber, 'Economic growth and occupational mobility in nineteenth century urban America: a reappraisal', Journal of Social History XI (1977), 52-74, on Warren, Michigan. In Europe, too, mobility studies have taken root. In overviews Kaelble (Historical research on social mobility and Social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries) cites many studies (see in addition Miles and Vincent, Building European society).
53. As testified by the works of S. Blumin, 'Mobility and change in ante-bellum Philadelphia', in S. Thernstrom and R. Sennet eds., Nineteenth-century cities: essays in the new urban history (New Haven, 1969), 165-208, and T. Hershberg, Work, space, family, and group experience in the 19th century (Oxford, 1981) on Philadelphia; G. Bouchard, 'L'analyse de la mobilité socio-professionelle au Saguenay à l'aide de la reconstitution automatique des familles', in Evolution et éclairement du monde rural: structures, fonctionnement et évolution différentielle des sociétés rurales françaises, et Québecoises (Paris, 1986), 89-103, on French Canada; L. Glasco, 'Migration and adjustment in the nineteenth-century city: occupation, property, and household structure of native-born whites, Buffalo, New York, 1855', in T. K. Hareven and M. Vinovskis eds., Population in nineteenth-century America (Princeton, 1978), 123-75, on Buffalo; C. Griffen and S. Griffen, Natives and newcomers: the ordering of opportunity in mid-nineteenth-century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, 1978) on Poughkeepsie; P. R. Knights, The plain people of Boston, 1830-1860: a study in city growth (New York, 1971) and Yankee destinies: the lives of ordinary nineteenth-century Bostonians (Chapel Hill, 1991) on Boston; M. Katz, The people of Hamilton, Canada West (Cambridge, 1975) on Hamilton; and A. E. Broadman and M. P. Weber, 'Economic growth and occupational mobility in nineteenth century urban America: a reappraisal', Journal of Social History XI (1977), 52-74, on Warren, Michigan. In Europe, too, mobility studies have taken root. In overviews Kaelble (Historical research on social mobility and Social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries) cites many studies (see in addition Miles and Vincent, Building European society).
54. As testified by the works of S. Blumin, 'Mobility and change in ante-bellum Philadelphia', in S. Thernstrom and R. Sennet eds., Nineteenth-century cities: essays in the new urban history (New Haven, 1969), 165-208, and T. Hershberg, Work, space, family, and group experience in the 19th century (Oxford, 1981) on Philadelphia; G. Bouchard, 'L'analyse de la mobilité socio-professionelle au Saguenay à l'aide de la reconstitution automatique des familles', in Evolution et éclairement du monde rural: structures, fonctionnement et évolution différentielle des sociétés rurales françaises, et Québecoises (Paris, 1986), 89-103, on French Canada; L. Glasco, 'Migration and adjustment in the nineteenth-century city: occupation, property, and household structure of native-born whites, Buffalo, New York, 1855', in T. K. Hareven and M. Vinovskis eds., Population in nineteenth-century America (Princeton, 1978), 123-75, on Buffalo; C. Griffen and S. Griffen, Natives and newcomers: the ordering of opportunity in mid-nineteenth-century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, 1978) on Poughkeepsie; P. R. Knights, The plain people of Boston, 1830-1860: a study in city growth (New York, 1971) and Yankee destinies: the lives of ordinary nineteenth-century Bostonians (Chapel Hill, 1991) on Boston; M. Katz, The people of Hamilton, Canada West (Cambridge, 1975) on Hamilton; and A. E. Broadman and M. P. Weber, 'Economic growth and occupational mobility in nineteenth century urban America: a reappraisal', Journal of Social History XI (1977), 52-74, on Warren, Michigan. In Europe, too, mobility studies have taken root. In overviews Kaelble (Historical research on social mobility and Social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries) cites many studies (see in addition Miles and Vincent, Building European society).
55. As testified by the works of S. Blumin, 'Mobility and change in ante-bellum Philadelphia', in S. Thernstrom and R. Sennet eds., Nineteenth-century cities: essays in the new urban history (New Haven, 1969), 165-208, and T. Hershberg, Work, space, family, and group experience in the 19th century (Oxford, 1981) on Philadelphia; G. Bouchard, 'L'analyse de la mobilité socio-professionelle au Saguenay à l'aide de la reconstitution automatique des familles', in Evolution et éclairement du monde rural: structures, fonctionnement et évolution différentielle des sociétés rurales françaises, et Québecoises (Paris, 1986), 89-103, on French Canada; L. Glasco, 'Migration and adjustment in the nineteenth-century city: occupation, property, and household structure of native-born whites, Buffalo, New York, 1855', in T. K. Hareven and M. Vinovskis eds., Population in nineteenth-century America (Princeton, 1978), 123-75, on Buffalo; C. Griffen and S. Griffen, Natives and newcomers: the ordering of opportunity in mid-nineteenth-century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, 1978) on Poughkeepsie; P. R. Knights, The plain people of Boston, 1830-1860: a study in city growth (New York, 1971) and Yankee destinies: the lives of ordinary nineteenth-century Bostonians (Chapel Hill, 1991) on Boston; M. Katz, The people of Hamilton, Canada West (Cambridge, 1975) on Hamilton; and A. E. Broadman and M. P. Weber, 'Economic growth and occupational mobility in nineteenth century urban America: a reappraisal', Journal of Social History XI (1977), 52-74, on Warren, Michigan. In Europe, too, mobility studies have taken root. In overviews Kaelble (Historical research on social mobility and Social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries) cites many studies (see in addition Miles and Vincent, Building European society).
56. As testified by the works of S. Blumin, 'Mobility and change in ante-bellum Philadelphia', in S. Thernstrom and R. Sennet eds., Nineteenth-century cities: essays in the new urban history (New Haven, 1969), 165-208, and T. Hershberg, Work, space, family, and group experience in the 19th century (Oxford, 1981) on Philadelphia; G. Bouchard, 'L'analyse de la mobilité socio-professionelle au Saguenay à l'aide de la reconstitution automatique des familles', in Evolution et éclairement du monde rural: structures, fonctionnement et évolution différentielle des sociétés rurales françaises, et Québecoises (Paris, 1986), 89-103, on French Canada; L. Glasco, 'Migration and adjustment in the nineteenth-century city: occupation, property, and household structure of native-born whites, Buffalo, New York, 1855', in T. K. Hareven and M. Vinovskis eds., Population in nineteenth-century America (Princeton, 1978), 123-75, on Buffalo; C. Griffen and S. Griffen, Natives and newcomers: the ordering of opportunity in mid-nineteenth-century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, 1978) on Poughkeepsie; P. R. Knights, The plain people of Boston, 1830-1860: a study in city growth (New York, 1971) and Yankee destinies: the lives of ordinary nineteenth-century Bostonians (Chapel Hill, 1991) on Boston; M. Katz, The people of Hamilton, Canada West (Cambridge, 1975) on Hamilton; and A. E. Broadman and M. P. Weber, 'Economic growth and occupational mobility in nineteenth century urban America: a reappraisal', Journal of Social History XI (1977), 52-74, on Warren, Michigan. In Europe, too, mobility studies have taken root. In overviews Kaelble (Historical research on social mobility and Social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries) cites many studies (see in addition Miles and Vincent, Building European society).
57. As testified by the works of S. Blumin, 'Mobility and change in ante-bellum Philadelphia', in S. Thernstrom and R. Sennet eds., Nineteenth-century cities: essays in the new urban history (New Haven, 1969), 165-208, and T. Hershberg, Work, space, family, and group experience in the 19th century (Oxford, 1981) on Philadelphia; G. Bouchard, 'L'analyse de la mobilité socio-professionelle au Saguenay à l'aide de la reconstitution automatique des familles', in Evolution et éclairement du monde rural: structures, fonctionnement et évolution différentielle des sociétés rurales françaises, et Québecoises (Paris, 1986), 89-103, on French Canada; L. Glasco, 'Migration and adjustment in the nineteenth-century city: occupation, property, and household structure of native-born whites, Buffalo, New York, 1855', in T. K. Hareven and M. Vinovskis eds., Population in nineteenth-century America (Princeton, 1978), 123-75, on Buffalo; C. Griffen and S. Griffen, Natives and newcomers: the ordering of opportunity in mid-nineteenth-century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, 1978) on Poughkeepsie; P. R. Knights, The plain people of Boston, 1830-1860: a study in city growth (New York, 1971) and Yankee destinies: the lives of ordinary nineteenth-century Bostonians (Chapel Hill, 1991) on Boston; M. Katz, The people of Hamilton, Canada West (Cambridge, 1975) on Hamilton; and A. E. Broadman and M. P. Weber, 'Economic growth and occupational mobility in nineteenth century urban America: a reappraisal', Journal of Social History XI (1977), 52-74, on Warren, Michigan. In Europe, too, mobility studies have taken root. In overviews Kaelble (Historical research on social mobility and Social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries) cites many studies (see in addition Miles and Vincent, Building European society).
58. As testified by the works of S. Blumin, 'Mobility and change in ante-bellum Philadelphia', in S. Thernstrom and R. Sennet eds., Nineteenth-century cities: essays in the new urban history (New Haven, 1969), 165-208, and T. Hershberg, Work, space, family, and group experience in the 19th century (Oxford, 1981) on Philadelphia; G. Bouchard, 'L'analyse de la mobilité socio-professionelle au Saguenay à l'aide de la reconstitution automatique des familles', in Evolution et éclairement du monde rural: structures, fonctionnement et évolution différentielle des sociétés rurales françaises, et Québecoises (Paris, 1986), 89-103, on French Canada; L. Glasco, 'Migration and adjustment in the nineteenth-century city: occupation, property, and household structure of native-born whites, Buffalo, New York, 1855', in T. K. Hareven and M. Vinovskis eds., Population in nineteenth-century America (Princeton, 1978), 123-75, on Buffalo; C. Griffen and S. Griffen, Natives and newcomers: the ordering of opportunity in mid-nineteenth-century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, 1978) on Poughkeepsie; P. R. Knights, The plain people of Boston, 1830-1860: a study in city growth (New York, 1971) and Yankee destinies: the lives of ordinary nineteenth-century Bostonians (Chapel Hill, 1991) on Boston; M. Katz, The people of Hamilton, Canada West (Cambridge, 1975) on Hamilton; and A. E. Broadman and M. P. Weber, 'Economic growth and occupational mobility in nineteenth century urban America: a reappraisal', Journal of Social History XI (1977), 52-74, on Warren, Michigan. In Europe, too, mobility studies have taken root. In overviews Kaelble (Historical research on social mobility and Social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries) cites many studies (see in addition Miles and Vincent, Building European society).
59. Kaelble, Social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries.
60. K. N. Conzen, 'Quantification and the new urban history', Journal of Interdisciplinary History 13 (1983), 665.
61. In addition to the studies mentioned below, see D. B. Grusky and I. K. Fukumoto, 'A sociological approach to historical social mobility', Journal of Social History 22 (1989), 221-32; J. M. Kousser, G. W. Cox, and D. W. Galenson, 'Log-linear analysis of contingency tables: an introduction for historians with an application to Thernstrom on the "Floating proletariat"', Historical Methods 15 (1982), 152-69; N. S. Landale and A. M. Guest, 'Generation, ethnicity, and occupational opportunity in late 19th century America', American Sociological Review 55 (1990), 280-96; M. H. D. van Leeuwen and I. Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns: some models with an application to the Amsterdam upper classes in the second half of the nineteenth century', Historical Methods 24 (1991), 66-79; and G. J. G. Upton, 'A note on "log-linear analysis of contingency tables"', Historical Methods 18 (1985), 147-54. Furthermore, a small group of historical studies exist in the status-attainment tradition of mobility research following the example of P. M. Blau and O. D. Duncan, The American occupational structure (New York, 1967).
62. In addition to the studies mentioned below, see D. B. Grusky and I. K. Fukumoto, 'A sociological approach to historical social mobility', Journal of Social History 22 (1989), 221-32; J. M. Kousser, G. W. Cox, and D. W. Galenson, 'Log-linear analysis of contingency tables: an introduction for historians with an application to Thernstrom on the "Floating proletariat"', Historical Methods 15 (1982), 152-69; N. S. Landale and A. M. Guest, 'Generation, ethnicity, and occupational opportunity in late 19th century America', American Sociological Review 55 (1990), 280-96; M. H. D. van Leeuwen and I. Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns: some models with an application to the Amsterdam upper classes in the second half of the nineteenth century', Historical Methods 24 (1991), 66-79; and G. J. G. Upton, 'A note on "log-linear analysis of contingency tables"', Historical Methods 18 (1985), 147-54. Furthermore, a small group of historical studies exist in the status-attainment tradition of mobility research following the example of P. M. Blau and O. D. Duncan, The American occupational structure (New York, 1967).
63. In addition to the studies mentioned below, see D. B. Grusky and I. K. Fukumoto, 'A sociological approach to historical social mobility', Journal of Social History 22 (1989), 221-32; J. M. Kousser, G. W. Cox, and D. W. Galenson, 'Log-linear analysis of contingency tables: an introduction for historians with an application to Thernstrom on the "Floating proletariat"', Historical Methods 15 (1982), 152-69; N. S. Landale and A. M. Guest, 'Generation, ethnicity, and occupational opportunity in late 19th century America', American Sociological Review 55 (1990), 280-96; M. H. D. van Leeuwen and I. Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns: some models with an application to the Amsterdam upper classes in the second half of the nineteenth century', Historical Methods 24 (1991), 66-79; and G. J. G. Upton, 'A note on "log-linear analysis of contingency tables"', Historical Methods 18 (1985), 147-54. Furthermore, a small group of historical studies exist in the status-attainment tradition of mobility research following the example of P. M. Blau and O. D. Duncan, The American occupational structure (New York, 1967).
64. In addition to the studies mentioned below, see D. B. Grusky and I. K. Fukumoto, 'A sociological approach to historical social mobility', Journal of Social History 22 (1989), 221-32; J. M. Kousser, G. W. Cox, and D. W. Galenson, 'Log-linear analysis of contingency tables: an introduction for historians with an application to Thernstrom on the "Floating proletariat"', Historical Methods 15 (1982), 152-69; N. S. Landale and A. M. Guest, 'Generation, ethnicity, and occupational opportunity in late 19th century America', American Sociological Review 55 (1990), 280-96; M. H. D. van Leeuwen and I. Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns: some models with an application to the Amsterdam upper classes in the second half of the nineteenth century', Historical Methods 24 (1991), 66-79; and G. J. G. Upton, 'A note on "log-linear analysis of contingency tables"', Historical Methods 18 (1985), 147-54. Furthermore, a small group of historical studies exist in the status-attainment tradition of mobility research following the example of P. M. Blau and O. D. Duncan, The American occupational structure (New York, 1967).
65. In addition to the studies mentioned below, see D. B. Grusky and I. K. Fukumoto, 'A sociological approach to historical social mobility', Journal of Social History 22 (1989), 221-32; J. M. Kousser, G. W. Cox, and D. W. Galenson, 'Log-linear analysis of contingency tables: an introduction for historians with an application to Thernstrom on the "Floating proletariat"', Historical Methods 15 (1982), 152-69; N. S. Landale and A. M. Guest, 'Generation, ethnicity, and occupational opportunity in late 19th century America', American Sociological Review 55 (1990), 280-96; M. H. D. van Leeuwen and I. Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns: some models with an application to the Amsterdam upper classes in the second half of the nineteenth century', Historical Methods 24 (1991), 66-79; and G. J. G. Upton, 'A note on "log-linear analysis of contingency tables"', Historical Methods 18 (1985), 147-54. Furthermore, a small group of historical studies exist in the status-attainment tradition of mobility research following the example of P. M. Blau and O. D. Duncan, The American occupational structure (New York, 1967).
66. In addition to the studies mentioned below, see D. B. Grusky and I. K. Fukumoto, 'A sociological approach to historical social mobility', Journal of
67. D. B. Grusky, American social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries (University of Wisconsin at Madison: Working Paper 86-28, 1986), 43-5 and 54ff.
68. A. M. Guest, N. S. Landale, and J. C. McCann, 'Intergenerational occupational mobility in the late 19th century United States', Social Forces 68 (1989), 351-378.
69. Fukumoto and Grusky, 'Social mobility and class structure'.
70. R. D. Penn, Skilled workers in the class structure (Cambridge, 1985), 158-82; R. D. Penn and D. C. Dawkins, 'Structural transformations in the British class structure: a log-linear analysis of marital endogamy in Rochdale 1856-1964, Sociology 17 (1983), 200-76.
71. R. D. Penn, Skilled workers in the class structure (Cambridge, 1985), 158-82; R. D. Penn and D. C. Dawkins, 'Structural transformations in the British class structure: a log-linear analysis of marital endogamy in Rochdale 1856-1964, Sociology 17 (1983), 200-76.
72. D. Mitch, 'Inequalities which everyone may remove: occupational recruitment, endogamy, and the homogeneity of social origins in Victorian England', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 142-3.
73. A. Miles and D. Vincent, 'A land of "boundless opportunities"? Mobility and stability in nineteenth-century England', in S. Dex ed., Life and work history analysis: qualitative and quantitative developments (London, 1991), 57.
74. A. Miles, 'How "open" was nineteenth-century British society? Social mobility and equality of opportunity', in Miles and Vincent eds., Building European society, 28.
75. G. Kleining, 'Struktur und Prestige-mobilität in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland', Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie 23 (1971), 1-33; G. Kleining, 'Die Veränderungen der Mobilitätschancen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland', Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie 23 (1971), 789-807.
76. G. Kleining, 'Struktur und Prestige-mobilität in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland', Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie 23 (1971), 1-33; G. Kleining, 'Die Veränderungen der Mobilitätschancen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland', Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie 23 (1971), 789-807.
77. K. U. Mayer and W. Müller, 'Trendanalyse in der Mobilitätsforschung: Eine Replik auf Gerhard Kleining', Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie 23 (1971), 761-88; K. U. Mayer and W. Müller, 'Die Analyse von Mobilitätstrends: Anmerkungen zu einer Kontroverse über Forschungsdesign und Datenanalyse', Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie 24 (1972), 132-9.
78. K. U. Mayer and W. Müller, 'Trendanalyse in der Mobilitätsforschung: Eine Replik auf Gerhard Kleining', Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie 23 (1971), 761-88; K. U. Mayer and W. Müller, 'Die Analyse von Mobilitätstrends: Anmerkungen zu einer Kontroverse über Forschungsdesign und Datenanalyse', Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie 24 (1972), 132-9.
79. H. Kaelble, Soziale Mobilität und Chancengleichheit im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 1983), 65-73.
80. K. R. Allerbeck and H. R. Stork, 'Soziale Mobilität in Deutschland 1833-1970. Eine Reanalyse', Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie 32 (1980), 103.
81. The same conclusion was drawn by T. Rishoy, 'Metropolitan social mobility 1850-1950: the case of Copenhagen', Quality and Quantity 5 (1971), 131-40, on the basis of three sets of data: military enrolment, marriage registers, and survey material. He looked at total mobility and studied two mobility indices.
82. J. H. Goldthorpe, 'On economic development and social mobility', British Journal of Sociology XXXVI (1985), 564.
83. D. J. Treiman, 'A standard occupational prestige scale of use with historical data', Journal of Interdisciplinary History 7 (1976), 283-304; D. J. Treiman, Occupational prestige in comparative perspective (New York, 1977).
84. D. J. Treiman, 'A standard occupational prestige scale of use with historical data', Journal of Interdisciplinary History 7 (1976), 283-304; D. J. Treiman, Occupational prestige in comparative perspective (New York, 1977).
85. A. Sharlin, 'From the study of social mobility to the study of society', American Journal of Sociology 85 (1979), 338-60; R. M. Hauser, 'Occupational status in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries', Historical Methods 15 (1982), 111-26.
86. A. Sharlin, 'From the study of social mobility to the study of society', American Journal of Sociology 85 (1979), 338-60; R. M. Hauser, 'Occupational status in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries', Historical Methods 15 (1982), 111-26.
87. Guest et al., 'Mobility in the late 19th century United States', 369-70 and 375.
88. Fukumoto and Grusky, 'Social mobility and class structure', 40-67.
89. Grusky, American social mobility, 47 and 72-6.
90. Katz, The people of Hamilton, 9.
91. Miles and Vincent, 'Land of "boundless opportunities"?', 52.
92. Grusky and Fukumoto, 'Sociological approach to historical social mobility', 221-32.
93. J. Kocka, 'Family and class formation: intergenerational mobility and marriage patterns in nineteenth-century Westphalian towns', Journal of Social History 17 (1984), 411-33; J. Kocka, 'Problems of working-class formation in Germany: the early years, 1800-1875', in I. Katznelson and A. R. Zolberg eds., Working-class formation: nineteenth-century patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, 1986), 279-351.
94. J. Kocka, 'Family and class formation: intergenerational mobility and marriage patterns in nineteenth-century Westphalian towns', Journal of Social History 17 (1984), 411-33; J. Kocka, 'Problems of working-class formation in Germany: the early years, 1800-1875', in I. Katznelson and A. R. Zolberg eds., Working-class formation: nineteenth-century patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, 1986), 279-351.
95. R. Aminzade and R. Hodson, 'Social mobility in a mid-nineteenth-century French city', American Sociological Review 47 (1982), 441-57.
96. Fukumoto and Grusky, 'Social mobility and class structure', 40-67. But compare Grusky, American social mobility, 72-4, on the distance between craftsmen and labourers in the USA.
97. Fukumoto and Grusky, 'Social mobility and class structure', 40-67. But compare Grusky, American social mobility, 72-4, on the distance between craftsmen and labourers in the USA.
98. E. J. Hobsbawm, 'The labour aristocracy in nineteenth-century Britain', in E. J. Hobsbawm ed., Labouring men (London, 1964), 53, see also pp. 273-4; for assessments of the debate see Penn and Dawkins, 'Structural transformations in the British class structure', 200-76, and Miles and Vincent, 'Land of "boundless opportunities"?', 43-72.
99. E. J. Hobsbawm, 'The labour aristocracy in nineteenth-century Britain', in E. J. Hobsbawm ed., Labouring men (London, 1964), 53, see also pp. 273-4; for assessments of the debate see Penn and Dawkins, 'Structural transformations in the British class structure', 200-76, and Miles and Vincent, 'Land of "boundless opportunities"?', 43-72.
100. E. J. Hobsbawm, 'The labour aristocracy in nineteenth-century Britain', in E. J. Hobsbawm ed., Labouring men (London, 1964), 53, see also pp. 273-4; for assessments of the debate see Penn and Dawkins, 'Structural transformations in the British class structure', 200-76, and Miles and Vincent, 'Land of "boundless opportunities"?', 43-72.
101. Kaelble, Social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries, chapter 3.
102. Leeuwen and Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns', 66-79.
103. A. Zimm, Die Entwicklung des industriellen Standorts Berlin (Berlin, 1959); E. Schmieder, 'Wirtschaftsgeschichte Berlins im 19./20. Jahrhundert', in O. F. Gandert et al. eds., Heimatchronik Berlin (Cologne, 1962), 663-762; K. C. Thalheim, 'Berlins wirtschaftliche Entwicklung nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg', in Gander et al., Heimatchronik Berlin, 763-866, and Schüren, Soziale Mobilität.
104. A. Zimm, Die Entwicklung des industriellen Standorts Berlin (Berlin, 1959); E. Schmieder, 'Wirtschaftsgeschichte Berlins im 19./20. Jahrhundert', in O. F. Gandert et al. eds., Heimatchronik Berlin (Cologne, 1962), 663-762; K. C. Thalheim, 'Berlins wirtschaftliche Entwicklung nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg', in Gander et al., Heimatchronik Berlin, 763-866, and Schüren, Soziale Mobilität.
105. A. Zimm, Die Entwicklung des industriellen Standorts Berlin (Berlin, 1959); E. Schmieder, 'Wirtschaftsgeschichte Berlins im 19./20. Jahrhundert', in O. F. Gandert et al. eds., Heimatchronik Berlin (Cologne, 1962), 663-762; K. C. Thalheim, 'Berlins wirtschaftliche Entwicklung nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg', in Gander et al., Heimatchronik Berlin, 763-866, and Schüren, Soziale Mobilität.
106. A. Zimm, Die Entwicklung des industriellen Standorts Berlin (Berlin, 1959); E. Schmieder, 'Wirtschaftsgeschichte Berlins im 19./20. Jahrhundert', in O. F. Gandert et al. eds., Heimatchronik Berlin (Cologne, 1962), 663-762; K. C. Thalheim, 'Berlins wirtschaftliche Entwicklung nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg', in Gander et al., Heimatchronik Berlin, 763-866, and Schüren, Soziale Mobilität.
107. Schüren, Soziale Mobilität, 42.
108. Calculated after the map in Zimm, Entwicklung des industriellen Standorts Berlin, 28.
109. Calculations based on Zimm, Entwicklung des industriellen Standorts Berlin.
110. Ibid., 125.
111. Thalheim, 'Berlins wirtschaftliche Entwicklung', 802.
112. Ibid., 782.
113. Schüren, Soziale Mobilität, 243; R. Schüren, 'Intergenerational occupational and marital mobility in German cities in the nineteenth and early twentieth century', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 68-91.
114. Schüren, Soziale Mobilität, 243; R. Schüren, 'Intergenerational occupational and marital mobility in German cities in the nineteenth and early twentieth century', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 68-91.
115. H. Kaelble and R. Federspiel, Soziale Mobilität in Berlin 1825-1957 - Tabellen zur Mobilität, zu Heiratskreisen und zur Sozialstruktur (St Katharinen, 1990).
116. Other data sources exist, such as (auto)biographies (W. G. Roy, 'Institutional governance and social cohesion: the internal organization of the American capitalist class, 1886-1905', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 3 (1984), 147-71; Miles, 'How "open" was nineteenth-century British society?', 18-39; D. Vincent, 'Mobility, bureaucracy and careers in early-twentieth-century Britain', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 217-39); company records with information on careers (Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales', 1213-32; M. Savage, 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 206-16); catechetical examination records (B. Kronborg and T. Nilson, 'Social mobility, migration and family building in urban environments', in S. Akerman et al. eds., Chance and change: social and economic studies in historical demography in the Baltic area (Odense, 1978), 227-37); city directories and electoral and tax registers (B. de Vries, Electoraat en elite: Sociale structuur en sociale mobiliteit in Amsterdam 1850-1895 (Amsterdam, 1986); Leeuwen and Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns', 66-79; Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon', 116-37); family trees (V. Weiss, 'Sozialstruktur und soziale Mobilität der Landbevölkerung: das Beispiel Sachsen 1550-1880', Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie 39 (1991), 24-43); guilds and apprenticeship records (V. B. Elliott, 'Mobility and marriage in pre-industrial England: a demographic and social structural analysis of geographic and social mobility and aspects of marriage, 1570-1690' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1978); M. C. Burrage, 'At sixes and sevens: occupational status in the city of London from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century', American Sociological Review 46 (1981), 375-93; S. Rappaport, Worlds within worlds: structures of life in sixteenth-century London (Cambridge, 1989), 285-376; P. S. Bearman and G. Deane, 'The structure of opportunity: middle-class mobility in England, 1548-1689', American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992), 30-66); military registers (M. Papy, 'Professions et mobilité à Oloron sous la monarchie censitaire d'après les listes du recrutement militaire', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale 2 (1971), 225-64; Rishoy, 'Metropolitan social mobility', 131-40); notarial records (Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale', 52-78; Daumard and Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale', 676-93; Daumard, Structures et relations sociales); and school records (M. Sanderson, 'Literacy and social mobility in the Industrial Revolution', Past and Present 56 (1972), 75-104). However, these other data sources are less often used.
117. Other data sources exist, such as (auto)biographies (W. G. Roy, 'Institutional governance and social cohesion: the internal organization of the American capitalist class, 1886-1905', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 3 (1984), 147-71; Miles, 'How "open" was nineteenth-century British society?', 18-39; D. Vincent, 'Mobility, bureaucracy and careers in early-twentieth-century Britain', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 217-39); company records with information on careers (Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales', 1213-32; M. Savage, 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 206-16); catechetical examination records (B. Kronborg and T. Nilson, 'Social mobility, migration and family building in urban environments', in S. Akerman et al. eds., Chance and change: social and economic studies in historical demography in the Baltic area (Odense, 1978), 227-37); city directories and electoral and tax registers (B. de Vries, Electoraat en elite: Sociale structuur en sociale mobiliteit in Amsterdam 1850-1895 (Amsterdam, 1986); Leeuwen and Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns', 66-79; Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon', 116-37); family trees (V. Weiss, 'Sozialstruktur und soziale Mobilität der Landbevölkerung: das Beispiel Sachsen 1550-1880', Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie 39 (1991), 24-43); guilds and apprenticeship records (V. B. Elliott, 'Mobility and marriage in pre-industrial England: a demographic and social structural analysis of geographic and social mobility and aspects of marriage, 1570-1690' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1978); M. C. Burrage, 'At sixes and sevens: occupational status in the city of London from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century', American Sociological Review 46 (1981), 375-93; S. Rappaport, Worlds within worlds: structures of life in sixteenth-century London (Cambridge, 1989), 285-376; P. S. Bearman and G. Deane, 'The structure of opportunity: middle-class mobility in England, 1548-1689', American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992), 30-66); military registers (M. Papy, 'Professions et mobilité à Oloron sous la monarchie censitaire d'après les listes du recrutement militaire', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale 2 (1971), 225-64; Rishoy, 'Metropolitan social mobility', 131-40); notarial records (Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale', 52-78; Daumard and Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale', 676-93; Daumard, Structures et relations sociales); and school records (M. Sanderson, 'Literacy and social mobility in the Industrial Revolution', Past and Present 56 (1972), 75-104). However, these other data sources are less often used.
118. Other data sources exist, such as (auto)biographies (W. G. Roy, 'Institutional governance and social cohesion: the internal organization of the American capitalist class, 1886-1905', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 3 (1984), 147-71; Miles, 'How "open" was nineteenth-century British society?', 18-39; D. Vincent, 'Mobility, bureaucracy and careers in early-twentieth-century Britain', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 217-39); company records with information on careers (Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales', 1213-32; M. Savage, 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 206-16); catechetical examination records (B. Kronborg and T. Nilson, 'Social mobility, migration and family building in urban environments', in S. Akerman et al. eds., Chance and change: social and economic studies in historical demography in the Baltic area (Odense, 1978), 227-37); city directories and electoral and tax registers (B. de Vries, Electoraat en elite: Sociale structuur en sociale mobiliteit in Amsterdam 1850-1895 (Amsterdam, 1986); Leeuwen and Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns', 66-79; Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon', 116-37); family trees (V. Weiss, 'Sozialstruktur und soziale Mobilität der Landbevölkerung: das Beispiel Sachsen 1550-1880', Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie 39 (1991), 24-43); guilds and apprenticeship records (V. B. Elliott, 'Mobility and marriage in pre-industrial England: a demographic and social structural analysis of geographic and social mobility and aspects of marriage, 1570-1690' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1978); M. C. Burrage, 'At sixes and sevens: occupational status in the city of London from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century', American Sociological Review 46 (1981), 375-93; S. Rappaport, Worlds within worlds: structures of life in sixteenth-century London (Cambridge, 1989), 285-376; P. S. Bearman and G. Deane, 'The structure of opportunity: middle-class mobility in England, 1548-1689', American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992), 30-66); military registers (M. Papy, 'Professions et mobilité à Oloron sous la monarchie censitaire d'après les listes du recrutement militaire', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale 2 (1971), 225-64; Rishoy, 'Metropolitan social mobility', 131-40); notarial records (Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale', 52-78; Daumard and Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale', 676-93; Daumard, Structures et relations sociales); and school records (M. Sanderson, 'Literacy and social mobility in the Industrial Revolution', Past and Present 56 (1972), 75-104). However, these other data sources are less often used.
119. Other data sources exist, such as (auto)biographies (W. G. Roy, 'Institutional governance and social cohesion: the internal organization of the American capitalist class, 1886-1905', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 3 (1984), 147-71; Miles, 'How "open" was nineteenth-century British society?', 18-39; D. Vincent, 'Mobility, bureaucracy and careers in early-twentieth-century Britain', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 217-39); company records with information on careers (Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales', 1213-32; M. Savage, 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 206-16); catechetical examination records (B. Kronborg and T. Nilson, 'Social mobility, migration and family building in urban environments', in S. Akerman et al. eds., Chance and change: social and economic studies in historical demography in the Baltic area (Odense, 1978), 227-37); city directories and electoral and tax registers (B. de Vries, Electoraat en elite: Sociale structuur en sociale mobiliteit in Amsterdam 1850-1895 (Amsterdam, 1986); Leeuwen and Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns', 66-79; Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon', 116-37); family trees (V. Weiss, 'Sozialstruktur und soziale Mobilität der Landbevölkerung: das Beispiel Sachsen 1550-1880', Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie 39 (1991), 24-43); guilds and apprenticeship records (V. B. Elliott, 'Mobility and marriage in pre-industrial England: a demographic and social structural analysis of geographic and social mobility and aspects of marriage, 1570-1690' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1978); M. C. Burrage, 'At sixes and sevens: occupational status in the city of London from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century', American Sociological Review 46 (1981), 375-93; S. Rappaport, Worlds within worlds: structures of life in sixteenth-century London (Cambridge, 1989), 285-376; P. S. Bearman and G. Deane, 'The structure of opportunity: middle-class mobility in England, 1548-1689', American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992), 30-66); military registers (M. Papy, 'Professions et mobilité à Oloron sous la monarchie censitaire d'après les listes du recrutement militaire', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale 2 (1971), 225-64; Rishoy, 'Metropolitan social mobility', 131-40); notarial records (Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale', 52-78; Daumard and Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale', 676-93; Daumard, Structures et relations sociales); and school records (M. Sanderson, 'Literacy and social mobility in the Industrial Revolution', Past and Present 56 (1972), 75-104). However, these other data sources are less often used.
120. Other data sources exist, such as (auto)biographies (W. G. Roy, 'Institutional governance and social cohesion: the internal organization of the American capitalist class, 1886-1905', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 3 (1984), 147-71; Miles, 'How "open" was nineteenth-century British society?', 18-39; D. Vincent, 'Mobility, bureaucracy and careers in early-twentieth-century Britain', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 217-39); company records with information on careers (Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales', 1213-32; M. Savage, 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 206-16); catechetical examination records (B. Kronborg and T. Nilson, 'Social mobility, migration and family building in urban environments', in S. Akerman et al. eds., Chance and change: social and economic studies in historical demography in the Baltic area (Odense, 1978), 227-37); city directories and electoral and tax registers (B. de Vries, Electoraat en elite: Sociale structuur en sociale mobiliteit in Amsterdam 1850-1895 (Amsterdam, 1986); Leeuwen and Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns', 66-79; Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon', 116-37); family trees (V. Weiss, 'Sozialstruktur und soziale Mobilität der Landbevölkerung: das Beispiel Sachsen 1550-1880', Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie 39 (1991), 24-43); guilds and apprenticeship records (V. B. Elliott, 'Mobility and marriage in pre-industrial England: a demographic and social structural analysis of geographic and social mobility and aspects of marriage, 1570-1690' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1978); M. C. Burrage, 'At sixes and sevens: occupational status in the city of London from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century', American Sociological Review 46 (1981), 375-93; S. Rappaport, Worlds within worlds: structures of life in sixteenth-century London (Cambridge, 1989), 285-376; P. S. Bearman and G. Deane, 'The structure of opportunity: middle-class mobility in England, 1548-1689', American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992), 30-66); military registers (M. Papy, 'Professions et mobilité à Oloron sous la monarchie censitaire d'après les listes du recrutement militaire', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale 2 (1971), 225-64; Rishoy, 'Metropolitan social mobility', 131-40); notarial records (Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale', 52-78; Daumard and Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale', 676-93; Daumard, Structures et relations sociales); and school records (M. Sanderson, 'Literacy and social mobility in the Industrial Revolution', Past and Present 56 (1972), 75-104). However, these other data sources are less often used.
121. Other data sources exist, such as (auto)biographies (W. G. Roy, 'Institutional governance and social cohesion: the internal organization of the American capitalist class, 1886-1905', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 3 (1984), 147-71; Miles, 'How "open" was nineteenth-century British society?', 18-39; D. Vincent, 'Mobility, bureaucracy and careers in early-twentieth-century Britain', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 217-39); company records with information on careers (Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales', 1213-32; M. Savage, 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 206-16); catechetical examination records (B. Kronborg and T. Nilson, 'Social mobility, migration and family building in urban environments', in S. Akerman et al. eds., Chance and change: social and economic studies in historical demography in the Baltic area (Odense, 1978), 227-37); city directories and electoral and tax registers (B. de Vries, Electoraat en elite: Sociale structuur en sociale mobiliteit in Amsterdam 1850-1895 (Amsterdam, 1986); Leeuwen and Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns', 66-79; Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon', 116-37); family trees (V. Weiss, 'Sozialstruktur und soziale Mobilität der Landbevölkerung: das Beispiel Sachsen 1550-1880', Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie 39 (1991), 24-43); guilds and apprenticeship records (V. B. Elliott, 'Mobility and marriage in pre-industrial England: a demographic and social structural analysis of geographic and social mobility and aspects of marriage, 1570-1690' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1978); M. C. Burrage, 'At sixes and sevens: occupational status in the city of London from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century', American Sociological Review 46 (1981), 375-93; S. Rappaport, Worlds within worlds: structures of life in sixteenth-century London (Cambridge, 1989), 285-376; P. S. Bearman and G. Deane, 'The structure of opportunity: middle-class mobility in England, 1548-1689', American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992), 30-66); military registers (M. Papy, 'Professions et mobilité à Oloron sous la monarchie censitaire d'après les listes du recrutement militaire', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale 2 (1971), 225-64; Rishoy, 'Metropolitan social mobility', 131-40); notarial records (Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale', 52-78; Daumard and Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale', 676-93; Daumard, Structures et relations sociales); and school records (M. Sanderson, 'Literacy and social mobility in the Industrial Revolution', Past and Present 56 (1972), 75-104). However, these other data sources are less often used.
122. Other data sources exist, such as (auto)biographies (W. G. Roy, 'Institutional governance and social cohesion: the internal organization of the American capitalist class, 1886-1905', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 3 (1984), 147-71; Miles, 'How "open" was nineteenth-century British society?', 18-39; D. Vincent, 'Mobility, bureaucracy and careers in early-twentieth-century Britain', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 217-39); company records with information on careers (Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales', 1213-32; M. Savage, 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 206-16); catechetical examination records (B. Kronborg and T. Nilson, 'Social mobility, migration and family building in urban environments', in S. Akerman et al. eds., Chance and change: social and economic studies in historical demography in the Baltic area (Odense, 1978), 227-37); city directories and electoral and tax registers (B. de Vries, Electoraat en elite: Sociale structuur en sociale mobiliteit in Amsterdam 1850-1895 (Amsterdam, 1986); Leeuwen and Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns', 66-79; Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon', 116-37); family trees (V. Weiss, 'Sozialstruktur und soziale Mobilität der Landbevölkerung: das Beispiel Sachsen 1550-1880', Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie 39 (1991), 24-43); guilds and apprenticeship records (V. B. Elliott, 'Mobility and marriage in pre-industrial England: a demographic and social structural analysis of geographic and social mobility and aspects of marriage, 1570-1690' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1978); M. C. Burrage, 'At sixes and sevens: occupational status in the city of London from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century', American Sociological Review 46 (1981), 375-93; S. Rappaport, Worlds within worlds: structures of life in sixteenth-century London (Cambridge, 1989), 285-376; P. S. Bearman and G. Deane, 'The structure of opportunity: middle-class mobility in England, 1548-1689', American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992), 30-66); military registers (M. Papy, 'Professions et mobilité à Oloron sous la monarchie censitaire d'après les listes du recrutement militaire', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale 2 (1971), 225-64; Rishoy, 'Metropolitan social mobility', 131-40); notarial records (Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale', 52-78; Daumard and Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale', 676-93; Daumard, Structures et relations sociales); and school records (M. Sanderson, 'Literacy and social mobility in the Industrial Revolution', Past and Present 56 (1972), 75-104). However, these other data sources are less often used.
123. Other data sources exist, such as (auto)biographies (W. G. Roy, 'Institutional governance and social cohesion: the internal organization of the American capitalist class, 1886-1905', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 3 (1984), 147-71; Miles, 'How "open" was nineteenth-century British society?', 18-39; D. Vincent, 'Mobility, bureaucracy and careers in early-twentieth-century Britain', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 217-39); company records with information on careers (Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales', 1213-32; M. Savage, 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 206-16); catechetical examination records (B. Kronborg and T. Nilson, 'Social mobility, migration and family building in urban environments', in S. Akerman et al. eds., Chance and change: social and economic studies in historical demography in the Baltic area (Odense, 1978), 227-37); city directories and electoral and tax registers (B. de Vries, Electoraat en elite: Sociale structuur en sociale mobiliteit in Amsterdam 1850-1895 (Amsterdam, 1986); Leeuwen and Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns', 66-79; Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon', 116-37); family trees (V. Weiss, 'Sozialstruktur und soziale Mobilität der Landbevölkerung: das Beispiel Sachsen 1550-1880', Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie 39 (1991), 24-43); guilds and apprenticeship records (V. B. Elliott, 'Mobility and marriage in pre-industrial England: a demographic and social structural analysis of geographic and social mobility and aspects of marriage, 1570-1690' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1978); M. C. Burrage, 'At sixes and sevens: occupational status in the city of London from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century', American Sociological Review 46 (1981), 375-93; S. Rappaport, Worlds within worlds: structures of life in sixteenth-century London (Cambridge, 1989), 285-376; P. S. Bearman and G. Deane, 'The structure of opportunity: middle-class mobility in England, 1548-1689', American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992), 30-66); military registers (M. Papy, 'Professions et mobilité à Oloron sous la monarchie censitaire d'après les listes du recrutement militaire', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale 2 (1971), 225-64; Rishoy, 'Metropolitan social mobility', 131-40); notarial records (Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale', 52-78; Daumard and Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale', 676-93; Daumard, Structures et relations sociales); and school records (M. Sanderson, 'Literacy and social mobility in the Industrial Revolution', Past and Present 56 (1972), 75-104). However, these other data sources are less often used.
124. Other data sources exist, such as (auto)biographies (W. G. Roy, 'Institutional governance and social cohesion: the internal organization of the American capitalist class, 1886-1905', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 3 (1984), 147-71; Miles, 'How "open" was nineteenth-century British society?', 18-39; D. Vincent, 'Mobility, bureaucracy and careers in early-twentieth-century Britain', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 217-39); company records with information on careers (Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales', 1213-32; M. Savage, 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 206-16); catechetical examination records (B. Kronborg and T. Nilson, 'Social mobility, migration and family building in urban environments', in S. Akerman et al. eds., Chance and change: social and economic studies in historical demography in the Baltic area (Odense, 1978), 227-37); city directories and electoral and tax registers (B. de Vries, Electoraat en elite: Sociale structuur en sociale mobiliteit in Amsterdam 1850-1895 (Amsterdam, 1986); Leeuwen and Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns', 66-79; Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon', 116-37); family trees (V. Weiss, 'Sozialstruktur und soziale Mobilität der Landbevölkerung: das Beispiel Sachsen 1550-1880', Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie 39 (1991), 24-43); guilds and apprenticeship records (V. B. Elliott, 'Mobility and marriage in pre-industrial England: a demographic and social structural analysis of geographic and social mobility and aspects of marriage, 1570-1690' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1978); M. C. Burrage, 'At sixes and sevens: occupational status in the city of London from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century', American Sociological Review 46 (1981), 375-93; S. Rappaport, Worlds within worlds: structures of life in sixteenth-century London (Cambridge, 1989), 285-376; P. S. Bearman and G. Deane, 'The structure of opportunity: middle-class mobility in England, 1548-1689', American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992), 30-66); military registers (M. Papy, 'Professions et mobilité à Oloron sous la monarchie censitaire d'après les listes du recrutement militaire', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale 2 (1971), 225-64; Rishoy, 'Metropolitan social mobility', 131-40); notarial records (Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale', 52-78; Daumard and Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale', 676-93; Daumard, Structures et relations sociales); and school records (M. Sanderson, 'Literacy and social mobility in the Industrial Revolution', Past and Present 56 (1972), 75-104). However, these other data sources are less often used.
125. Other data sources exist, such as (auto)biographies (W. G. Roy, 'Institutional governance and social cohesion: the internal organization of the American capitalist class, 1886-1905', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 3 (1984), 147-71; Miles, 'How "open" was nineteenth-century British society?', 18-39; D. Vincent, 'Mobility, bureaucracy and careers in early-twentieth-century Britain', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 217-39); company records with information on careers (Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales', 1213-32; M. Savage, 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 206-16); catechetical examination records (B. Kronborg and T. Nilson, 'Social mobility, migration and family building in urban environments', in S. Akerman et al. eds., Chance and change: social and economic studies in historical demography in the Baltic area (Odense, 1978), 227-37); city directories and electoral and tax registers (B. de Vries, Electoraat en elite: Sociale structuur en sociale mobiliteit in Amsterdam 1850-1895 (Amsterdam, 1986); Leeuwen and Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns', 66-79; Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon', 116-37); family trees (V. Weiss, 'Sozialstruktur und soziale Mobilität der Landbevölkerung: das Beispiel Sachsen 1550-1880', Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie 39 (1991), 24-43); guilds and apprenticeship records (V. B. Elliott, 'Mobility and marriage in pre-industrial England: a demographic and social structural analysis of geographic and social mobility and aspects of marriage, 1570-1690' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1978); M. C. Burrage, 'At sixes and sevens: occupational status in the city of London from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century', American Sociological Review 46 (1981), 375-93; S. Rappaport, Worlds within worlds: structures of life in sixteenth-century London (Cambridge, 1989), 285-376; P. S. Bearman and G. Deane, 'The structure of opportunity: middle-class mobility in England, 1548-1689', American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992), 30-66); military registers (M. Papy, 'Professions et mobilité à Oloron sous la monarchie censitaire d'après les listes du recrutement militaire', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale 2 (1971), 225-64; Rishoy, 'Metropolitan social mobility', 131-40); notarial records (Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale', 52-78; Daumard and Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale', 676-93; Daumard, Structures et relations sociales); and school records (M. Sanderson, 'Literacy and social mobility in the Industrial Revolution', Past and Present 56 (1972), 75-104). However, these other data sources are less often used.
126. Other data sources exist, such as (auto)biographies (W. G. Roy, 'Institutional governance and social cohesion: the internal organization of the American capitalist class, 1886-1905', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 3 (1984), 147-71; Miles, 'How "open" was nineteenth-century British society?', 18-39; D. Vincent, 'Mobility, bureaucracy and careers in early-twentieth-century Britain', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 217-39); company records with information on careers (Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales', 1213-32; M. Savage, 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 206-16); catechetical examination records (B. Kronborg and T. Nilson, 'Social mobility, migration and family building in urban environments', in S. Akerman et al. eds., Chance and change: social and economic studies in historical demography in the Baltic area (Odense, 1978), 227-37); city directories and electoral and tax registers (B. de Vries, Electoraat en elite: Sociale structuur en sociale mobiliteit in Amsterdam 1850-1895 (Amsterdam, 1986); Leeuwen and Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns', 66-79; Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon', 116-37); family trees (V. Weiss, 'Sozialstruktur und soziale Mobilität der Landbevölkerung: das Beispiel Sachsen 1550-1880', Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie 39 (1991), 24-43); guilds and apprenticeship records (V. B. Elliott, 'Mobility and marriage in pre-industrial England: a demographic and social structural analysis of geographic and social mobility and aspects of marriage, 1570-1690' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1978); M. C. Burrage, 'At sixes and sevens: occupational status in the city of London from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century', American Sociological Review 46 (1981), 375-93; S. Rappaport, Worlds within worlds: structures of life in sixteenth-century London (Cambridge, 1989), 285-376; P. S. Bearman and G. Deane, 'The structure of opportunity: middle-class mobility in England, 1548-1689', American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992), 30-66); military registers (M. Papy, 'Professions et mobilité à Oloron sous la monarchie censitaire d'après les listes du recrutement militaire', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale 2 (1971), 225-64; Rishoy, 'Metropolitan social mobility', 131-40); notarial records (Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale', 52-78; Daumard and Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale', 676-93; Daumard, Structures et relations sociales); and school records (M. Sanderson, 'Literacy and social mobility in the Industrial Revolution', Past and Present 56 (1972), 75-104). However, these other data sources are less often used.
127. Other data sources exist, such as (auto)biographies (W. G. Roy, 'Institutional governance and social cohesion: the internal organization of the American capitalist class, 1886-1905', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 3 (1984), 147-71; Miles, 'How "open" was nineteenth-century British society?', 18-39; D. Vincent, 'Mobility, bureaucracy and careers in early-twentieth-century Britain', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 217-39); company records with information on careers (Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales', 1213-32; M. Savage, 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 206-16); catechetical examination records (B. Kronborg and T. Nilson, 'Social mobility, migration and family building in urban environments', in S. Akerman et al. eds., Chance and change: social and economic studies in historical demography in the Baltic area (Odense, 1978), 227-37); city directories and electoral and tax registers (B. de Vries, Electoraat en elite: Sociale structuur en sociale mobiliteit in Amsterdam 1850-1895 (Amsterdam, 1986); Leeuwen and Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns', 66-79; Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon', 116-37); family trees (V. Weiss, 'Sozialstruktur und soziale Mobilität der Landbevölkerung: das Beispiel Sachsen 1550-1880', Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie 39 (1991), 24-43); guilds and apprenticeship records (V. B. Elliott, 'Mobility and marriage in pre-industrial England: a demographic and social structural analysis of geographic and social mobility and aspects of marriage, 1570-1690' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1978); M. C. Burrage, 'At sixes and sevens: occupational status in the city of London from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century', American Sociological Review 46 (1981), 375-93; S. Rappaport, Worlds within worlds: structures of life in sixteenth-century London (Cambridge, 1989), 285-376; P. S. Bearman and G. Deane, 'The structure of opportunity: middle-class mobility in England, 1548-1689', American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992), 30-66); military registers (M. Papy, 'Professions et mobilité à Oloron sous la monarchie censitaire d'après les listes du recrutement militaire', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale 2 (1971), 225-64; Rishoy, 'Metropolitan social mobility', 131-40); notarial records (Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale', 52-78; Daumard and Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale', 676-93; Daumard, Structures et relations sociales); and school records (M. Sanderson, 'Literacy and social mobility in the Industrial Revolution', Past and Present 56 (1972), 75-104). However, these other data sources are less often used.
128. Other data sources exist, such as (auto)biographies (W. G. Roy, 'Institutional governance and social cohesion: the internal organization of the American capitalist class, 1886-1905', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 3 (1984), 147-71; Miles, 'How "open" was nineteenth-century British society?', 18-39; D. Vincent, 'Mobility, bureaucracy and careers in early-twentieth-century Britain', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 217-39); company records with information on careers (Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales', 1213-32; M. Savage, 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 206-16); catechetical examination records (B. Kronborg and T. Nilson, 'Social mobility, migration and family building in urban environments', in S. Akerman et al. eds., Chance and change: social and economic studies in historical demography in the Baltic area (Odense, 1978), 227-37); city directories and electoral and tax registers (B. de Vries, Electoraat en elite: Sociale structuur en sociale mobiliteit in Amsterdam 1850-1895 (Amsterdam, 1986); Leeuwen and Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns', 66-79; Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon', 116-37); family trees (V. Weiss, 'Sozialstruktur und soziale Mobilität der Landbevölkerung: das Beispiel Sachsen 1550-1880', Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie 39 (1991), 24-43); guilds and apprenticeship records (V. B. Elliott, 'Mobility and marriage in pre-industrial England: a demographic and social structural analysis of geographic and social mobility and aspects of marriage, 1570-1690' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1978); M. C. Burrage, 'At sixes and sevens: occupational status in the city of London from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century', American Sociological Review 46 (1981), 375-93; S. Rappaport, Worlds within worlds: structures of life in sixteenth-century London (Cambridge, 1989), 285-376; P. S. Bearman and G. Deane, 'The structure of opportunity: middle-class mobility in England, 1548-1689', American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992), 30-66); military registers (M. Papy, 'Professions et mobilité à Oloron sous la monarchie censitaire d'après les listes du recrutement militaire', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale 2 (1971), 225-64; Rishoy, 'Metropolitan social mobility', 131-40); notarial records (Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale', 52-78; Daumard and Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale', 676-93; Daumard, Structures et relations sociales); and school records (M. Sanderson, 'Literacy and social mobility in the Industrial Revolution', Past and Present 56 (1972), 75-104). However, these other data sources are less often used.
129. Other data sources exist, such as (auto)biographies (W. G. Roy, 'Institutional governance and social cohesion: the internal organization of the American capitalist class, 1886-1905', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 3 (1984), 147-71; Miles, 'How "open" was nineteenth-century British society?', 18-39; D. Vincent, 'Mobility, bureaucracy and careers in early-twentieth-century Britain', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 217-39); company records with information on careers (Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales', 1213-32; M. Savage, 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 206-16); catechetical examination records (B. Kronborg and T. Nilson, 'Social mobility, migration and family building in urban environments', in S. Akerman et al. eds., Chance and change: social and economic studies in historical demography in the Baltic area (Odense, 1978), 227-37); city directories and electoral and tax registers (B. de Vries, Electoraat en elite: Sociale structuur en sociale mobiliteit in Amsterdam 1850-1895 (Amsterdam, 1986); Leeuwen and Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns', 66-79; Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon', 116-37); family trees (V. Weiss, 'Sozialstruktur und soziale Mobilität der Landbevölkerung: das Beispiel Sachsen 1550-1880', Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie 39 (1991), 24-43); guilds and apprenticeship records (V. B. Elliott, 'Mobility and marriage in pre-industrial England: a demographic and social structural analysis of geographic and social mobility and aspects of marriage, 1570-1690' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1978); M. C. Burrage, 'At sixes and sevens: occupational status in the city of London from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century', American Sociological Review 46 (1981), 375-93; S. Rappaport, Worlds within worlds: structures of life in sixteenth-century London (Cambridge, 1989), 285-376; P. S. Bearman and G. Deane, 'The structure of opportunity: middle-class mobility in England, 1548-1689', American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992), 30-66); military registers (M. Papy, 'Professions et mobilité à Oloron sous la monarchie censitaire d'après les listes du recrutement militaire', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale 2 (1971), 225-64; Rishoy, 'Metropolitan social mobility', 131-40); notarial records (Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale', 52-78; Daumard and Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale', 676-93; Daumard, Structures et relations sociales); and school records (M. Sanderson, 'Literacy and social mobility in the Industrial Revolution', Past and Present 56 (1972), 75-104). However, these other data sources are less often used.
130. Other data sources exist, such as (auto)biographies (W. G. Roy, 'Institutional governance and social cohesion: the internal organization of the American capitalist class, 1886-1905', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 3 (1984), 147-71; Miles, 'How "open" was nineteenth-century British society?', 18-39; D. Vincent, 'Mobility, bureaucracy and careers in early-twentieth-century Britain', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 217-39); company records with information on careers (Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales', 1213-32; M. Savage, 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 206-16); catechetical examination records (B. Kronborg and T. Nilson, 'Social mobility, migration and family building in urban environments', in S. Akerman et al. eds., Chance and change: social and economic studies in historical demography in the Baltic area (Odense, 1978), 227-37); city directories and electoral and tax registers (B. de Vries, Electoraat en elite: Sociale structuur en sociale mobiliteit in Amsterdam 1850-1895 (Amsterdam, 1986); Leeuwen and Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns', 66-79; Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon', 116-37); family trees (V. Weiss, 'Sozialstruktur und soziale Mobilität der Landbevölkerung: das Beispiel Sachsen 1550-1880', Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie 39 (1991), 24-43); guilds and apprenticeship records (V. B. Elliott, 'Mobility and marriage in pre-industrial England: a demographic and social structural analysis of geographic and social mobility and aspects of marriage, 1570-1690' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1978); M. C. Burrage, 'At sixes and sevens: occupational status in the city of London from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century', American Sociological Review 46 (1981), 375-93; S. Rappaport, Worlds within worlds: structures of life in sixteenth-century London (Cambridge, 1989), 285-376; P. S. Bearman and G. Deane, 'The structure of opportunity: middle-class mobility in England, 1548-1689', American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992), 30-66); military registers (M. Papy, 'Professions et mobilité à Oloron sous la monarchie censitaire d'après les listes du recrutement militaire', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale 2 (1971), 225-64; Rishoy, 'Metropolitan social mobility', 131-40); notarial records (Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale', 52-78; Daumard and Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale', 676-93; Daumard, Structures et relations sociales); and school records (M. Sanderson, 'Literacy and social mobility in the Industrial Revolution', Past and Present 56 (1972), 75-104). However, these other data sources are less often used.
131. Other data sources exist, such as (auto)biographies (W. G. Roy, 'Institutional governance and social cohesion: the internal organization of the American capitalist class, 1886-1905', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 3 (1984), 147-71; Miles, 'How "open" was nineteenth-century British society?', 18-39; D. Vincent, 'Mobility, bureaucracy and careers in early-twentieth-century Britain', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 217-39); company records with information on careers (Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales', 1213-32; M. Savage, 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 206-16); catechetical examination records (B. Kronborg and T. Nilson, 'Social mobility, migration and family building in urban environments', in S. Akerman et al. eds., Chance and change: social and economic studies in historical demography in the Baltic area (Odense, 1978), 227-37); city directories and electoral and tax registers (B. de Vries, Electoraat en elite: Sociale structuur en sociale mobiliteit in Amsterdam 1850-1895 (Amsterdam, 1986); Leeuwen and Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns', 66-79; Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon', 116-37); family trees (V. Weiss, 'Sozialstruktur und soziale Mobilität der Landbevölkerung: das Beispiel Sachsen 1550-1880', Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie 39 (1991), 24-43); guilds and apprenticeship records (V. B. Elliott, 'Mobility and marriage in pre-industrial England: a demographic and social structural analysis of geographic and social mobility and aspects of marriage, 1570-1690' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1978); M. C. Burrage, 'At sixes and sevens: occupational status in the city of London from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century', American Sociological Review 46 (1981), 375-93; S. Rappaport, Worlds within worlds: structures of life in sixteenth-century London (Cambridge, 1989), 285-376; P. S. Bearman and G. Deane, 'The structure of opportunity: middle-class mobility in England, 1548-1689', American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992), 30-66); military registers (M. Papy, 'Professions et mobilité à Oloron sous la monarchie censitaire d'après les listes du recrutement militaire', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale 2 (1971), 225-64; Rishoy, 'Metropolitan social mobility', 131-40); notarial records (Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale', 52-78; Daumard and Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale', 676-93; Daumard, Structures et relations sociales); and school records (M. Sanderson, 'Literacy and social mobility in the Industrial Revolution', Past and Present 56 (1972), 75-104). However, these other data sources are less often used.
132. Other data sources exist, such as (auto)biographies (W. G. Roy, 'Institutional governance and social cohesion: the internal organization of the American capitalist class, 1886-1905', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 3 (1984), 147-71; Miles, 'How "open" was nineteenth-century
133. Other data sources exist, such as (auto)biographies (W. G. Roy, 'Institutional governance and social cohesion: the internal organization of the American capitalist class, 1886-1905', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 3 (1984), 147-71; Miles, 'How "open" was nineteenth-century British society?', 18-39; D. Vincent, 'Mobility, bureaucracy and careers in early-twentieth-century Britain', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 217-39); company records with information on careers (Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales', 1213-32; M. Savage, 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 206-16); catechetical examination records (B. Kronborg and T. Nilson, 'Social mobility, migration and family building in urban environments', in S. Akerman et al. eds., Chance and change: social and economic studies in historical demography in the Baltic area (Odense, 1978), 227-37); city directories and electoral and tax registers (B. de Vries, Electoraat en elite: Sociale structuur en sociale mobiliteit in Amsterdam 1850-1895 (Amsterdam, 1986); Leeuwen and Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns', 66-79; Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon', 116-37); family trees (V. Weiss, 'Sozialstruktur und soziale Mobilität der Landbevölkerung: das Beispiel Sachsen 1550-1880', Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie 39 (1991), 24-43); guilds and apprenticeship records (V. B. Elliott, 'Mobility and marriage in pre-industrial England: a demographic and social structural analysis of geographic and social mobility and aspects of marriage, 1570-1690' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1978); M. C. Burrage, 'At sixes and sevens: occupational status in the city of London from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century', American Sociological Review 46 (1981), 375-93; S. Rappaport, Worlds within worlds: structures of life in sixteenth-century London (Cambridge, 1989), 285-376; P. S. Bearman and G. Deane, 'The structure of opportunity: middle-class mobility in England, 1548-1689', American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992), 30-66); military registers (M. Papy, 'Professions et mobilité à Oloron sous la monarchie censitaire d'après les listes du recrutement militaire', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale 2 (1971), 225-64; Rishoy, 'Metropolitan social mobility', 131-40); notarial records (Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale', 52-78; Daumard and Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale', 676-93; Daumard, Structures et relations sociales); and school records (M. Sanderson, 'Literacy and social mobility in the Industrial Revolution', Past and Present 56 (1972), 75-104). However, these other data sources are less often used.
134. Other data sources exist, such as (auto)biographies (W. G. Roy, 'Institutional governance and social cohesion: the internal organization of the American capitalist class, 1886-1905', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 3 (1984), 147-71; Miles, 'How "open" was nineteenth-century British society?', 18-39; D. Vincent, 'Mobility, bureaucracy and careers in early-twentieth-century Britain', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 217-39); company records with information on careers (Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales', 1213-32; M. Savage, 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 206-16); catechetical examination records (B. Kronborg and T. Nilson, 'Social mobility, migration and family building in urban environments', in S. Akerman et al. eds., Chance and change: social and economic studies in historical demography in the Baltic area (Odense, 1978), 227-37); city directories and electoral and tax registers (B. de Vries, Electoraat en elite: Sociale structuur en sociale mobiliteit in Amsterdam 1850-1895 (Amsterdam, 1986); Leeuwen and Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns', 66-79; Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon', 116-37); family trees (V. Weiss, 'Sozialstruktur und soziale Mobilität der Landbevölkerung: das Beispiel Sachsen 1550-1880', Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie 39 (1991), 24-43); guilds and apprenticeship records (V. B. Elliott, 'Mobility and marriage in pre-industrial England: a demographic and social structural analysis of geographic and social mobility and aspects of marriage, 1570-1690' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1978); M. C. Burrage, 'At sixes and sevens: occupational status in the city of London from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century', American Sociological Review 46 (1981), 375-93; S. Rappaport, Worlds within worlds: structures of life in sixteenth-century London (Cambridge, 1989), 285-376; P. S. Bearman and G. Deane, 'The structure of opportunity: middle-class mobility in England, 1548-1689', American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992), 30-66); military registers (M. Papy, 'Professions et mobilité à Oloron sous la monarchie censitaire d'après les listes du recrutement militaire', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale 2 (1971), 225-64; Rishoy, 'Metropolitan social mobility', 131-40); notarial records (Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale', 52-78; Daumard and Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale', 676-93; Daumard, Structures et relations sociales); and school records (M. Sanderson, 'Literacy and social mobility in the Industrial Revolution', Past and Present 56 (1972), 75-104). However, these other data sources are less often used.
135. Other data sources exist, such as (auto)biographies (W. G. Roy, 'Institutional governance and social cohesion: the internal organization of the American capitalist class, 1886-1905', Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 3 (1984), 147-71; Miles, 'How "open" was nineteenth-century British society?', 18-39; D. Vincent, 'Mobility, bureaucracy and careers in early-twentieth-century Britain', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 217-39); company records with information on careers (Gribaudi, 'Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales', 1213-32; M. Savage, 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes', in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 206-16); catechetical examination records (B. Kronborg and T. Nilson, 'Social mobility, migration and family building in urban environments', in S. Akerman et al. eds., Chance and change: social and economic studies in historical demography in the Baltic area (Odense, 1978), 227-37); city directories and electoral and tax registers (B. de Vries, Electoraat en elite: Sociale structuur en sociale mobiliteit in Amsterdam 1850-1895 (Amsterdam, 1986); Leeuwen and Maas, 'Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns', 66-79; Pinol, 'Occupational and social mobility in Lyon', 116-37); family trees (V. Weiss, 'Sozialstruktur und soziale Mobilität der Landbevölkerung: das Beispiel Sachsen 1550-1880', Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie 39 (1991), 24-43); guilds and apprenticeship records (V. B. Elliott, 'Mobility and marriage in pre-industrial England: a demographic and social structural analysis of geographic and social mobility and aspects of marriage, 1570-1690' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1978); M. C. Burrage, 'At sixes and sevens: occupational status in the city of London from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century', American Sociological Review 46 (1981), 375-93; S. Rappaport, Worlds within worlds: structures of life in sixteenth-century London (Cambridge, 1989), 285-376; P. S. Bearman and G. Deane, 'The structure of opportunity: middle-class mobility in England, 1548-1689', American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992), 30-66); military registers (M. Papy, 'Professions et mobilité à Oloron sous la monarchie censitaire d'après les listes du recrutement militaire', Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale 2 (1971), 225-64; Rishoy, 'Metropolitan social mobility', 131-40); notarial records (Daumard, 'Une source d'histoire sociale', 52-78; Daumard and Furet, 'Méthodes de l'histoire sociale', 676-93; Daumard, Structures et relations sociales); and school records (M. Sanderson, 'Literacy and social mobility in the Industrial Revolution', Past and Present 56 (1972), 75-104). However, these other data sources are less often used.
136. Hardy has estimated, using data from Indianapolis in 1850-1860, that of all persons in the ten years between the censuses 10 per cent died, 30-40 per cent migrated, and 50-55 per cent were 'persisters' who stayed in town. Of these persisters three-fifths were successfully linked and two-fifths were missed, either because of linkage problems or because they were not registered by the census-takers. Hardy estimated selection effects in occupational mobility using linked censuses, and concluded that no selection effects can be discerned (M. A. Hardy, 'Estimating selection effects in occupational mobility in a 19th-century city', American Sociological Review 54 (1989), 834-43).
137. Kaelble and Federspiel, Soziale Mobilität in Berlin 1825-1957, viii; compare Schüren, Soziale Mobilität, 44-45 and 90.
138. Kaelble and Federspiel, Soziale Mobilität in Berlin 1825-1957, viii; compare Schüren, Soziale Mobilität, 44-45 and 90.
139. Kaelble and Federspiel, Soziale Mobilität in Berlin 1825-1957, vi.
140. Schüren, Soziale Mobilität, 38 and 95.
141. The occupational grouping is based on a one-dimensional 15-group ordering by the German team (Kaelble and Federspiel, Soziale Mobilität in Berlin 1825-1957, 46-59, 90-104). Printing errors have been corrected. The 15 groups have been collapsed according to the Goodman procedure (L. A. Goodman, 'Criteria for determining whether certain categories in a cross-classification table should be combined with special reference to occupational categories in an occupational mobility table', American Journal of Sociology 87 (1981), 612-50). Particulars are available from the authors.
142. The occupational grouping is based on a one-dimensional 15-group ordering by the German team (Kaelble and Federspiel, Soziale Mobilität in Berlin 1825-1957, 46-59, 90-104). Printing errors have been corrected. The 15 groups have been collapsed according to the Goodman procedure (L. A. Goodman, 'Criteria for determining whether certain categories in a cross-classification table should be combined with special reference to occupational categories in an occupational mobility table', American Journal of Sociology 87 (1981), 612-50). Particulars are available from the authors.
143. Craftsmen who referred to themselves as 'master' are included in the category of artisans. Those craftsmen explicitly stating that they were not masters and those with unknown status are included in the category of small craftsmen and shopkeepers (Kaelble and Federspiel, Soziale Mobilität in Berlin 1825-1957).
144. Erikson and Goldthorpe, Constant flux; Y. Xie, 'The log-multiplicative layer effect model for comparing mobility tables', American Sociological Review 57 (1992), 380-95.
145. Erikson and Goldthorpe, Constant flux; Y. Xie, 'The log-multiplicative layer effect model for comparing mobility tables', American Sociological Review 57 (1992), 380-95.
146. The three-way interaction of origin, destination, and time, which would allow the association to vary between tables, is not included.
147. Erikson and Goldthorpe, Constant flux, 91-2. The model has to be estimated in two steps. First, an iterative procedure is used to define a 'general pattern of association' for all points in time. Second, the change in association is modelled by one parameter for each table, describing the deviation from the general association.
148. Some of the tables contain zero in the marginal distributions, which causes estimation problems. As is customary in these cases, the content of each cell was increased by 0.5. See for example Aminzade and Hodson, 'Social mobility in a mid-nineteenth-century French city', 452, and Fukumoto and Grusky, 'Social mobility and class structure', 40-67.
149. Some of the tables contain zero in the marginal distributions, which causes estimation problems. As is customary in these cases, the content of each cell was increased by 0.5. See for example Aminzade and Hodson, 'Social mobility in a mid-nineteenth-century French city', 452, and Fukumoto and Grusky, 'Social mobility and class structure', 40-67.
150. A. Raftery, 'Choosing models for cross-classifications', American Sociological Review 51 (1986), 145-6.
151. 2/df measure some significance testing is possible - between nested models - but no conventional significance tests are known for Bic.
152. Erikson and Goldthorpe, Constant flux, 90.
153. Sorokin, Social and cultural mobility; C. Tilly, The Vendée (Cambridge, Mass., 1964), 93-9; Griffen and Griffen, Natives and newcomers, 54; J. H. Levine, Exceptions are the rule: an inquiry into the methods in the social sciences (Boulder, 1993), 249-82; Sharlin, 'From the study of social mobility to the study of society', 338-60; P. M. Horan, 'Occupational mobility and historical social structure', Social Science History 9 (1985), 25-47.
154. Sorokin, Social and cultural mobility; C. Tilly, The Vendée (Cambridge, Mass., 1964), 93-9; Griffen and Griffen, Natives and newcomers, 54; J. H. Levine, Exceptions are the rule: an inquiry into the methods in the social sciences (Boulder, 1993), 249-82; Sharlin, 'From the study of social mobility to the study of society', 338-60; P. M. Horan, 'Occupational mobility and historical social structure', Social Science History 9 (1985), 25-47.
155. Sorokin, Social and cultural mobility; C. Tilly, The Vendée (Cambridge, Mass., 1964), 93-9; Griffen and Griffen, Natives and newcomers, 54; J. H. Levine, Exceptions are the rule: an inquiry into the methods in the social sciences (Boulder, 1993), 249-82; Sharlin, 'From the study of social mobility to the study of society', 338-60; P. M. Horan, 'Occupational mobility and historical social structure', Social Science History 9 (1985), 25-47.
156. Sorokin, Social and cultural mobility; C. Tilly, The Vendée (Cambridge, Mass., 1964), 93-9; Griffen and Griffen, Natives and newcomers, 54; J. H. Levine, Exceptions are the rule: an inquiry into the methods in the social sciences (Boulder, 1993), 249-82; Sharlin, 'From the study of social mobility to the study of society', 338-60; P. M. Horan, 'Occupational mobility and historical social structure', Social Science History 9 (1985), 25-47.
157. Sorokin, Social and cultural mobility; C. Tilly, The Vendée (Cambridge, Mass., 1964), 93-9; Griffen and Griffen, Natives and newcomers, 54; J. H. Levine, Exceptions are the rule: an inquiry into the methods in the social sciences (Boulder, 1993), 249-82; Sharlin, 'From the study of social mobility to the study of society', 338-60; P. M. Horan, 'Occupational mobility and historical social structure', Social Science History 9 (1985), 25-47.
158. Sorokin, Social and cultural mobility; C. Tilly, The Vendée (Cambridge, Mass., 1964), 93-9; Griffen and Griffen, Natives and newcomers, 54; J. H. Levine, Exceptions are the rule: an inquiry into the methods in the social sciences (Boulder, 1993), 249-82; Sharlin, 'From the study of social mobility to the study of society', 338-60; P. M. Horan, 'Occupational mobility and historical social structure', Social Science History 9 (1985), 25-47.
159. Goodman, 'Simple models'; see for examples in historical research Grusky and Fukumoto, 'Sociological approach to historical social mobility'; Guest, Landale, and McCann, 'Mobility in the late 19th century United States'; Leeuwen and Maas, 'Loglinear analysis of changes in mobility patterns'.
160. Goodman, 'Simple models'; see for examples in historical research Grusky and Fukumoto, 'Sociological approach to historical social mobility'; Guest, Landale, and McCann, 'Mobility in the late 19th century United States'; Leeuwen and Maas, 'Loglinear analysis of changes in mobility patterns'.
161. Goodman, 'Simple models'; see for examples in historical research Grusky and Fukumoto, 'Sociological approach to historical social mobility'; Guest, Landale, and McCann, 'Mobility in the late 19th century United States'; Leeuwen and Maas, 'Loglinear analysis of changes in mobility patterns'.
162. Goodman, 'Simple models'; see for examples in historical research Grusky and Fukumoto, 'Sociological approach to historical social mobility'; Guest, Landale, and McCann, 'Mobility in the late 19th century United States'; Leeuwen and Maas, 'Loglinear analysis of changes in mobility patterns'.
163. Before these models can be tested, assumptions have to be made as to how to treat the diagonal cells of the mobility table. In this case, diagonal cells have been treated separately from non-diagonal cells, on the assumption that the various occupational classes show different degrees of immobility which do not change over time. Other assumptions produce slightly different parameter estimates, but the conclusions remain the same.
164. Compare Fukumoto and Grusky, 'Social mobility and class structure'; Ganzeboom, Luijkx, and Treiman, 'Class mobility in comparative perspective'; and Hauser, 'Occupational status'.
165. Compare Fukumoto and Grusky, 'Social mobility and class structure'; Ganzeboom, Luijkx, and Treiman, 'Class mobility in comparative perspective'; and Hauser, 'Occupational status'.
166. Compare Fukumoto and Grusky, 'Social mobility and class structure'; Ganzeboom, Luijkx, and Treiman, 'Class mobility in comparative perspective'; and Hauser, 'Occupational status'.
167. The conclusions concerning changes in association (presented in section VIII) still hold when using heterogeneous class positions in the models. Farmers were excluded from these analyses, because their class position is undefined in the later tables which contain no, or very few, farmers. Conclusions based on analyses with heterogeneous class positions did not differ from those based on analyses with homogeneous class positions.
168. Another possibility would be to carry out separate analyses for the tables before 1906 and the tables after 1926. However, an analysis including all tables and correcting for the measurement breach has two advantages. Technically, it is a more powerful test of changes in relative mobility. Moreover, research has shown that if relative mobility changes, this happens slowly. Therefore, data covering a long period are necessary to detect any change.
169. It is, for instance, possible that the turbulent history of Berlin produced a higher openness than in more tranquil regions. This does not invalidate the conclusions for Berlin, and, moreover, only more historical research could demonstrate whether this is true or not.