Curing the colonizers: Highland hydrotherapy in Guadeloupe

Social History of Medicine

Volumn 15, Issue 2, 2002, Pages 229-261

  Jennings, Eric T ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

French colonialism; Guadeloupe; Hill stations; Hydrotherapy; Mineral water cures; Race; Tropical medicine

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; FRANCE; GUADELOUPE; HISTORY; HYDROTHERAPY; POLITICAL SYSTEM; PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE; TROPICAL MEDICINE;

COLONIALISM; FRANCE; GUADELOUPE; HEALTH RESORTS; HISTORY, 17TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 18TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HYDROTHERAPY; TROPICAL MEDICINE;

EID: 0036706789     PISSN: 0951631X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/shm/15.2.229     Document Type: Review

References (192)

1. National Library of Medicine, G. Cuzent, Eau thermo-minérale de la Ravine-Chaude du Lamentin (Pointe-à-Pitre, 1864), p. 13.
2. On modern French thermalism, see G. Weisz, 'Water Cures and Science: The French Academy of Medicine and Mineral Waters in the Nineteenth Century', Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 64 (1990), 393-416;
3. D. Mackaman, Leisure Settings: Bourgeois Culture, Medicine and the Spa in Modern France (Chicago, 1998);
4. R. Porter (ed.), The Medical History of Waters and Spas (London, 1990);
5. C. Jamot, Thermalisme et villes thermales en France (Clermont-Ferrand, 1988);
6. A. Wallon, La Vie quotidienne dans les villes d'eaux, 1850-1914 (Paris, 1981).
7. On hydrotherapy in Britain, see R. Price, 'Hydrotherapy in England, 1840-1870', Medical History, 25 (1981), 269-80;
8. N. Coley, 'Physicians and the Chemical Analysis of Mineral Waters in Eighteenth-Century England', Medical History, 26 (1982), 123-44.
9. See L. Manderson, Science and the State: Health and Illness in Colonial Malaya, 1870-1940 (Cambridge, 1996);
10. M. Vaughan, Curing their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness (Stanford, 1991);
11. D. Arnold, Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India (Berkeley, 1993);
12. M. Lyons, The Colonial Disease: Sleeping Sickness and the Social History of Zaire, 1890-1939 (Cambridge, 1992);
13. S. Watts, Epidemics and History: Disease, Power and Imperialism (New Haven, 1997);
14. W. Anderson, 'Where is the Postcolonial History of Medicine?', Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 72 (1998), 522-30.
15. On resistance to colonial medicine, see L. White's recent book, Speaking with Vampires: Rumor and History in Colonial Africa (Berkeley, 2000).
16. A. Bashford, 'Is White Australia Possible? Race, Colonialism and Tropical Medicine', Ethnic and Racial Studies, 23 (2000), 248-71, pp. 248-9.
17. Regarding architecture, see G. Wright, The Politics of Design in French Colonial Urbanism (Chicago, 1991);
18. T. Metcalf, An Imperial Vision: Indian Architecture and Britain's Raj (Berkeley, 1989);
19. Z. Celik, Urban Forms and Colonial Confrontations: Algiers under French Rule (Berkeley, 1997).
20. On technologies, see M. Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, 1989);
21. D. Del Testa, 'Imperial Corridor: Association, Transportation and Power in French Colonial Indochina', Science, Technology and Society, 4 (1999), 319-53.
22. Peter Zinoman has recently struck a dissenting note, demonstrating that the colonies were not always laboratories of modernity, far from it. See P. Zinoman, The Colonial Bastille: A History of Imprisonment in Vietnam, 1862-1940 (Berkeley, 2001), p. 6.
23. Here Zinoman echoes Megan Vaughan's remarks on the archaic repression of the colonial apparatus. Vaughan, Curing Their Ills, p. 10,
24. and Zinoman, The Colonial Bastille, p. 6.
25. P. Curtin, Disease and Empire: the Health of European Troops in the Conquest of Africa (Cambridge, 1998);
26. P. Curtin, Death by Migration: Europe's Encounter with the Tropical World in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, 1989).
27. A. Memmi, Portrait du colonisé (Utrecht, 1966), p. 103.
28. Spas have admittedly played prominent roles in many cultures, from Greece to South Korea, but the blueprints reproduced in French colonies were those of Vichy, Royat, and Aix-les-Bains. A. Katsambas and C. Antoniou, 'Mineral Waters and Spas in Greece',
29. and Seung-Kyung Hann, 'Mineral Water and Spas in Korea', in Clinics in Dermatology (Special issue on hydrotherapy), 14 (November-December 1996), 615-8, 633-6.
30. National Library of Medicine, Washington DC; E. Leroux, 'Ressources climatiques et thermales d'une colonie française, la Guadeloupe' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Faculté de Médecine de Paris, 1926), p. 2.
31. Père J. B. Labat, Voyage aux Isles de l'Amérique (Antilles), 1693-1705, vol. 1 (Paris, 1931), pp. 270-1.
32. For a comparison with hydrotherapy in Spanish colonies during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, see P. A. Pastrana, "Tradicion y modernidad en la Nueva España. Esdudios sobre aguas minerales (S. XVII-XVIII)', Llull, 19 (1996), 325-45.
33. R. P. du Tertre, Histoire générale des Antilles, vol. 2 (Paris, 1667), p. 22.
34. I b i d.
35. I b i d.
36. I b i d.
37. Du Tertre, Histoire générale des Antilles, vol. 1, p. 81.
38. D. Livingstone, 'Tropical Climate arid Moral Hygiene: The Anatomy of a Victorian Debate', British Journal for the History of Science, 32 (March 1999), p. 94.
39. Philip Curtin makes this same point. Curtin, Death by Migration, p. 50.
40. On this same colonial spa phenomenon in Martinique, see J. Pope-Hennessy, The Baths of Absalom (London, 1954);
41. Conseil Général de la Martinique, Le Site thermal d'Absalon (Fort-de-France, 1989).
42. M. G. Levacher, Guide Médical des Antilles et des régions intertropicales à l'usage de tous les habitans de ces contrées (Paris, 1840), pp. 93-5.
43. French Colonial Archives (Archives nationales, centre des Archives d'outre-mer, Aixen-Provence) - hereafter CAOM, DFC Guadeloupe, Memoires, carton 31 # 663.
44. Ibid., # 664, 19 December 1823.
45. Ibid., #718, 27 May 1826.
46. I b i d.
47. Ibid., #785, 29 April 1829.
48. Ibid., carton 32 # 823, 'rapport sur le projet d'établir un cantonnement sanitaire à l'habitation Dolé', 9 March 1832.
49. I b i d.
50. I b i d.
51. Ibid., # 829, Conseil privé, October 1831.
52. Mackaman, Leisure Settings, p. 64.
53. A. Kermorgant, 'Sanatoria et camps de dissémination de nos colonies', Annales d'hygiène et de médecine coloniales, 2 (1899), 347.
54. For a recent study of Kermorgant, see B. Weiner and J. Flahaut, 'Alexandre Kermorgant (1843-1921), témoin de l'état sanitaire des anciennes colonies françaises', Histoire des Sciences médicales, 33 (1999), 267-74.
55. I b i d.
56. A present-day visitor to the French Caribbean will certainly be struck by the opulence of the highland 'administrative' quarter, be it at Didier in Martinique, or Saint-Claude in Guadeloupe.
57. Mackaman, Leisure Settings, pp. 36-66.
58. Ibid., pp. 68-72.
59. D. Taffin, 'A propos d'une épidémie de choléra: science médicale, société créole et pouvoir colonial à la Guadeloupe, 1865-66', Asclepio, 44 (1992), 220.
60. For a comparative perspective, see K. Kiple, 'Cholera and Race in the Caribbean', Journal of Latin American Studies, 17 (1985), 157-77.
61. Dr Pichon, 'Ressources sanitaires de la Guadeloupe', La Guadeloupéenne (January-February 1917), 18.
62. J. Wilson, Memoirs of West Indian Fever: Brief Notices Regarding the Treatment, Origin and Nature of the Disease Commonly called Yellow Fever (London, 1827), p. 134.
63. On St Claude, see G. Lafleur, St Claude, histoire d'une commune de la Guadeloupe (Paris, 1993).
64. G. Dryepont, La question des sanatoria dans les colonies (Bruxelles, 1900), pp. 84-5.
65. D. Kennedy, The Magic Mountains. Hill Stations and the British Raj (Berkeley, 1996), p. 19.
66. Anthony Pagden has underscored how climate, though important for Diderot and Montesquieu, was merely a 'limiting condition'. For Hume, meanwhile, it was barely a consideration at all. A. Pagden, European Encounters with the New World, from the Renaissance to Romanticism (New Haven, 1993), p. 146.
67. Robert Young argues that Herder combined climatic determinism with an even more ominous doctrine: 'Herder claims that individuals, and the character of nations, develop not only in relation to local climate (a common Enlightenment assertion) but also in intimate connection to the land and the specific popular traditions that develop out of it.' R. Young, Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Race and Culture (London, 1995), p. 38.
68. Diderot and D'Alembert, Encyclopédie, definition of 'women'; my thanks to Chantal Bertrand-Jennings for bringing this definition to my attention. Similarly, Anne McLintock has noted in her book Imperial Leather: 'Within this porno-tropic tradition, women figured as the epitome of sexual aberration and excess. Folklore saw them, even more than the men, as given to a lascivious venery so promiscuous as to border on the bestial.' A. McLintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (New York, 1995), p. 22.
69. Montesquieu, De l'Esprit des lois (Paris, 1995), p. 507.
70. Ibid., pp. 449, 764.
71. Ibid., p. 567.
72. Ibid., pp. 457-9.
73. Ibid., p. 693.
74. Pagden, European Encounters with the New World, p. 146.
75. This very point is made by Mark Harrison with regard to the Raj. M. Harrison, Climates and Constitutions: Health, Race, Environment and British Imperialism in India, 1600-1850 (Oxford, 1999), p. 204.
76. See, also, D. Arnold, Colonizing the Body, p. 36.
77. Harrison, Climates and Constitutions, pp. 3, 11-2.
78. See Young, Colonial Desire, pp. 68-82;
79. S. Gilman, The Jew's Body (New York, 1991).
80. B. Boyd, Rudolf Virchow: The Scientist as Citizen (New York, 1991), pp. 204, 244. Boyd even mentions how Virchow would later be condemned by the Nazis (p. 178).
81. See, also, E. Ackerknecht, Rudolf Virchow (New York, 1981), pp. 209, 215. Ackerknecht goes so far as to argue that '[Virchow] did not feel that there existed any proof for the superiority of any race or nation' (p. 215).
82. Such a reappraisal may already be under way. George Mosse, Stanley Payne, and Sander Gilman have all pointed to Virchow's use of racial categories as having legitimized racial taxonomies under the scientific umbrella of objectivity - sometimes, paradoxically, in the name of antiracism. G. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution: A History of European Racism (New York, 1975), pp. 90-1;
83. S. Payne, A History of Fascism (Madison, 1995), p. 30;
84. Gilman, The Jew's Body, p. 177.
85. For a more general critique of the use of race theory by late nineteenth-century German scientific 'progressives', see K. Repp, 'More Corporeal, More Concrete: Liberal Humanism, Eugenics, and German Progressives at the Last Fin de Siècle', The Journal of Modern History, 72 (2000), 683-730.
86. R. Virchow, 'L'acclimatement et les Européens aux colonies'. Revue Scientifique, 36 (1885), p. 742.
87. Ibid., pp. 742-6.
88. Ibid., p. 743.
89. Ibid.. p. 746.
90. Ibid., p. 746.
91. G. Treille, 'Questions d'hygiène coloniale', La Quinzaine coloniale (25 April 1897), 225.
92. It is interesting to note that such logic was equally prevalent in Britain in the 1890s. Thus, Sir John Kirk argued before the Sixth International Geographical Congress of 1895: 'Climate is the most important of all considerations in the choice of a home for Europeans in Central Africa'. Livingstone, 'Tropical Climate and Moral Hygiene', p. 99.
93. Scientific debates on tropical acclimatization have attracted the attention of several recent studies, most notably, Curtin, Death by Migration;
94. Livingstone, 'Tropical Climate and Moral Hygiene';
95. D. Livingstone, 'Human Acclimatization: Perspectives on a Contested Field of Enquiry in Science, Medicine and Geography', History of Science, 15 (1987), 359-94;
96. K. O. Kupperman, 'Fear of Hot Climates in the Anglo-American Colonial Experience', William and Mary Quarterly, 41 (1984), 213-40;
97. D. Kennedy, 'The Perils of the Midday Sun: Climatic Anxieties in the Colonial Tropics', in J. Mackenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester, 1990);
98. D. Arnold, Warm Climates and Western Medicine (Amsterdam, 1996);
99. W. Anderson, 'Climates of Opinion: Acclimatization in Nineteenth-century France and England', Victorian Studies, 35 (1992), 2-24;
100. M. Harrison, '"The Tender Frame of Man": Disease, Climate and Racial Difference in India and the West Indies, 1760-1860', Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 70 (1996), 68-93.
101. G. Treille, Principes d'hygiène coloniale (Paris, 1899), p. 251.
102. Curtin, Death by Migration, pp. xiii, 28.
103. Dryepont, La question des sanatoria, p. 42.
104. On the French treatment of malaria, see W. B. Cohen, 'Malaria and French Imperialism', Journal of African History, 24 (1983), 23-36.
105. See A. Guénel, 'The Creation of the First Overseas Pasteur Institute, or the Beginning of Albert Calmette's Pastorian Career', Medical History, 43 (1999), 1-25.
106. Dryepont, La question des sanatoria, p. 18.
107. Kermorgant, 'Sanatoria et camps de dissémination', p. 346.
108. Dr Drevon, 'Morbidité et mortalité du personnel militaire de la Gaudeloupe pendant l'année 1897', Annales d'hygiène et de médecine coloniales, 1 (1898), 366.
109. Dryepont, La question des sanatoria, p. 73.
110. On white morbidity in Jamaica, see T. Bumard, 'The Countrie Continues Sicklie: White Mortality in Jamaica, 1655-1780', Social History of Medicine, 12 (1999), 45-72.
111. Dr Drevon, 'Morbidité et mortalité', p. 362.
112. R. Pichevin, 'L'hygiène aux colonies d'Amérique', Quinzaine Coloniale, 24 (1907), 1097-101.
113. M. Léger, 'Quelques documents sur l'indice plasmodial du paludisme à la Guadeloupe', Bulletin de Pathologie exotique, 3 (1932), 214.
114. Literature on colonial hill stations includes: Kennedy, The Magic Mountains;
115. J. Kenny, 'Constructing an Imperial Hill Station: The Representation of British Authority in Ootacamund' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Syracuse University, 1990);
116. J. Kenny, 'Climate, Race and Imperial Authority: The Symbolic Landscape of the British Hill Station in India', Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 85 (1995), 694-714;
117. P. Kanwar, 'The Changing Profile of the Summer Capital of British India: Simla, 1864-1947', Modern Asian Studies, 18 (1984), 215-36;
118. S. Frenkel and J. Western, 'Pretext or Prophylaxis? Racial Segregation and Malarial Mosquitoes in a British Tropical Colony: Sierra Leone', Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 78 (1988), 211-18;
119. R. Aiken, 'Early Penang Hill Station', Geographical Review, 77 (1987), 421-39;
120. R. Reed, 'The Colonial Genesis of Hill Stations: The Genting Exception', Geographical Review, 69 (October 1979), 463-8;
121. B. Crossette, The Great Hill Stations of Asia (New York, 1998);
122. R. Bhasin, Simla, the Summer Capital of British India (London, 1992);
123. V. Bhatt, Resorts of the Raj: Hill Stations of India (Ahmedabad, 1997);
124. M. Bührlein, Nuwara Eliya: Hill Station und Zentraler Ort im Hochland der Insel Ceylon (Stuttgart, 1991);
125. N. Mitchell, The Indian Hill-Station: Kodaikanal (Chicago, 1972).
126. S. Abbatucci and J. J. Matignon, Le bréviaire thermal des coloniaux (Paris, 1923), p. 59.
127. Arnold, Colonizing the Body, p. 36.
128. C. Chesterman, Manuel du Dispensaire tropical (London, 1938), p. 110.
129. Abbatucci and Matignon, Le bréviaire thermal des coloniaux, p. 64.
130. Ibid., p. 69.
131. Dr Cazanove, 'Histoire étiologique, expérimentale et thérapeutique de la fièvre jaune', Outre-mer, revue générale de colonisation, 1 (1929), 502.
132. On this topic in the Americas more generally, see the chapter entitled 'Reinventing America/Reinventing Europe: Creole Self-Fashioning', in M. L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (New York, 1992), 172-97.
133. Serge Abbatucci, the most prominent French advocate of colonial thermalism, was also a staunch proponent of the colonial helmet. S. Abbatucci, 'L'Habitation coloniale', in J. L. Faure (ed.), La Vie aux colonies (Paris, 1938), 65-6.
134. Abbatucci and Matignon, Le bréviaire thermal des coloniaux, p. 2.
135. Abbatucci, 'Le Climat tropical: l'acclimatement', in J. L. Faure (ed.), La Vie aux colonies, p. 50.
136. See, for example, Dr L. Caillou, 'Les syndromes coloniaux à Vichy', Nutrition, 5 (1931), 493;
137. Dr R. Durand-Fardel, 'Les coloniaux à Vichy', Nutrition, 1 (1932), 43.
138. C. le Dentu, 'Dolé', Le Nouvelliste de la Guadeloupe (24 September 1932), 2.
139. La Guadeloupéenne (September-October 1921).
140. On the mechanisms and urban planning involved in French colonial segregation, see P. Curtin, 'Medical Knowledge and Urban Planning in Tropical Africa', American Historical Review, 90 (1985), 594-613;
141. G. Wright, The Politics of Design in French Colonial Urbanism (Chicago, 1991);
142. D. Prochaska, Making Algeria French: Colonialism in Bône, 1870-1920 (New York, 1990);
143. O. Goerg, 'From Hill Station (Freetown) to Downtown Conakry (First Ward): Comparing French and British Approaches to Segregation in Colonial Cities at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century', Canadian Journal of African Studies, 32 (1998), 1-31;
144. C. Coquery-Vidrovitch and O. Goerg (eds), La Ville européenne outremars: un modèh conquérant? (Paris, 1996).
145. P. Pollacchi, Atlas colonial français (Paris, 1929).
146. 'Les stations thermales des Antilles', Le Nouvelliste quotidien (23 February 1924).
147. C. Thionville, La Guadeloupe touristique (Paris, 1931), pp. 204-13.
148. A. Kermorgant, 'Eaux thermales et minérales des colonies françaises; la Guadeloupe', La Dépêche coloniale (16 February 1901), 2.
149. Sainte-Luce Banchelin, Guide du touriste aux Antilles françaises (Paris, 1913), pp. 185-288;
150. Cuzent, Eau thermo-minérale de la Ravine-Chaude, pp. 3-14.
151. Dr Pichon, 'Le tourisme aux Antilles et à la Guyane', La Guadeloupéenne (January-February 1921), 7;
152. Abbatucci and Matignon, Le bréviaire thermal, p. 129.
153. Kermorgant, 'Eaux thermales et minérales des colonies françaises', p. 2.
154. H. Pascaline arid J. J. Jeremie, Les ressources hydrominérales et le thermalisme en Guadeloupe et en Martinique (Pointe-à-Pitre, 1992), p. 35.
155. Cuzent, Eau thermo-minérale de la Ravine-Chaude, p. 35.
156. Leroux, 'Ressources climatiques et thermales', p. 11.
157. I b i d.
158. 'Le Skal-Club de la Guadeloupe: Eaux thermales à la Guadeloupe - extraits du rapport sur le thermalisme par le Dr. Edouard Chartol'. Archives départementales de la Guadeloupe, document kindly made available by Madame Ghislaine Bouchet, Director of Guadeloupe's archives.
159. Leroux, 'Ressources climatiques et thermales', p. 15.
160. Kermorgant, 'Eaux thermales et minérales des colonies françaises'.
161. P. Tamby, 'A propos des ressources hydro-minérales et du thermalisme en Guadeloupe', (unpublished Pharmacy thesis, Université de Bordeaux II, 1986), 30-1.
162. H. Pascaline, 'Géochimie des roches et des eaux de sources chaudes du massif de la Souffrière, Guadeloupe' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Université Paris-Sud, Orsay, 1980), 96.
163. Leroux, 'Ressources climatiques et thermales', p. 17.
164. Thionville, La Guadeloupe touristique, p. 193.
165. J. C. Pitat, 'Dolé-les-Bains: historique et perspectives actuelles', La Presse thermale et climatique, 129 (1992), 127-31.
166. Dr Pichon, 'Ressources sanitaires de la Guadeloupe', La Guadeloupéenne (January-February 1917), 16.
167. Dr Pichon, 'Le tourisme aux Antilles et à la Guyane', La Guadeloupéenne (January-February 1921), 7.
168. Abbatucci and Matignon, Le bréviaire thermal des coloniaux, p. 128.
169. Dr Pichon, 'Le tourisme aux Antilles et à la Guyane', La Guadeloupéenne (January-February 1921), 12.
170. Regarding the excursionniste in Guadeloupe, see J. Dumout, 'La Guadeloupe pittoresque de Léon le Boucher: naissance de l'excursion', Bulletin de la société d'histoire de la Guadeloupe, 112-13 (1997), 9-17.
171. Kermorgant, 'Eaux thermales et minérales des colonies françaises', p. 2.
172. Pascaline and Jeremie, Les ressources hydrominérales, p. 43.
173. L'Action (Guadeloupe), 25 December 1920, p. 1.
174. H. Naraindas, 'Poisons, Putrescence and the Weather: A Genealogy of the Advent of Tropical Medicine', in A. M. Moulin (ed.), 'Médecines et Santé', vol. 4 of Les Sciences hors d'occident au xxème siècle (Paris, 1995), p. 33.
175. Dr Carnot, preface of Abbatucci arid Matignon, Le bréviaire thermal des coloniaux, p. x.
176. Leroux, 'Ressources climatiques et thermales', p. 15.
177. Archives départementales de la Guadeloupe, 3N 118, Délibérations du Conseil Général, 22 November 1927, pp. 91-9.
178. 'Nos eaux thermales', La Démocratie sociale (Guadeloupe, 30 January 1944).
179. 'La saison de Vichy, 1937', Le Nouvelliste de la Guadeloupe (26 May 1937), 3.
180. On French Guiana as 'nature's revenge', see P. Redfield, Space in the Tropics: From Convicts to Rockets in French Guiana (Berkeley, 2000).
181. 'La Guyane et Dolé-les-Bains', Le Nouvelliste quotidien (Guadeloupe, 28 July 1924).
182. Archives départementales de la Guadeloupe, 3N 118, Délibérations du Conseil Général, 22 November 1927, pp. 91-9.
183. C. Thionville, 'Un hôtel touristique aux Bains Jaunes', L'Action (Guadeloupe, 26 October 1935), 2.
184. M. Laventure, 'Dolé-les-Bains, l' offensive de St. Claude', Le Nouvelliste quotidien (13 May 1933).
185. D. Kennedy, Islands of White, Settler Society and Culture in Southern Rhodesia (Durham, 1987).
186. Mackaman, Leisure Settings, pp. 76-8.
187. 'La Guyane et Dolé-les-Bains', Le Nouvelliste quotidien (28 July 1924).
188. D. Davis, 'Nevis as a West Indian Health Resort', Timehri: the Journal of the Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society, British Guyana 1 (1911), 285-94. My thanks to Juanita de Barros for bringing this article to my attention.
189. As the French government cuts back on thermal cure coverage (most notably for the treatment of rheumatism), it will be interesting to see whether Guadeloupean and metropolitan spas will be able once again to reinvent themselves. On cutbacks for thermal cures, see S. Thépot, 'Les stations thermales défendent leurs cures', Le Monde (14 July 1999), 11.
190. M. N. Blanquier, 'Approche d' une mise en valeur diversifiée du patrimoine hydrominéral guadeloupéen', La Presse thermale et climatique 129 (1992), 132-4.
191. I b i d.
192. Fodor's Guide to the Caribbean (1999), p. 355.