Management of gastrointestinal pain

Veterinary Clinics of North America - Equine Practice

Volumn 18, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 133-158

  Malone, Erin ^a   Graham, Lynelle ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANALGESIC AGENT;

ANALGESIA; ANIMAL; ANIMAL DISEASE; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASE; HORSE; HORSE DISEASE; PAIN; POSTOPERATIVE PAIN; REVIEW; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

ANALGESIA; ANALGESICS; ANIMALS; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASES; HORSE DISEASES; HORSES; PAIN; PAIN, POSTOPERATIVE; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 0036527510     PISSN: 07490739     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0749-0739(01)00004-9     Document Type: Article

References (179)

1. Ahn H., Bronge A., Johansson K., et al. Effect of continuous postoperative epidural analgesia on intestinal motility. Br J Surg 75 (1988) 1176-1178
2. Ala-Kokko T.I., Pienimaki P., Lampela E., et al. Transfer of clonidine and dexmedetomidine across the isolated perfused human placenta. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 41 (1997) 313-319
3. Arlander E., Ost A., Stahlberg D., et al. Ropivacaine gel in active distal ulcerative colitis and proctitis-a pharmacokinetic and exploratory clinical study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 10 (1996) 73-81
4. Asai T., Mapleson W.W., and Power I. Differential effects of clonidine and dexmedetomidine on gastric emptying and gastrointestinal transit in the rat. Br J Anaesth 78 (1997) 301-307
5. Aziba P.I., Bass D., and Elegbe Y. Pharmacological investigation of Ocimum gratissimum in rodents. Phytother Res 13 (1999) 427-429
6. Barlas P., Lowe A.S., Walsh D.M., et al. Effect of acupuncture upon experimentally induced ischemic pain: a sham-controlled single-blind study. Clin J Pain 16 (2000) 25-64
7. Betley M., Sutherland S.F., Gregoricka M.J., et al. The analgesic effect of ketoprofen for use in treating equine colic as compared to flunixin meglumine. Equine Pract 13 (1991) 11-16
8. Bonaz B., Riviere P.J., Sinniger V., et al. Fedotozine, a kappa-opioid agonist, prevents spinal and supraspinal Fos expression induced by a noxious visceral stimulus in the rat. Neurogastroenterol Motil 12 (2000) 135-147
9. Breuhaus B.A., DeGraves F.J., Honore E.K., et al. Pharmacokinetics of ibuprofen after intravenous and oral administration and assessment of safety of administration to healthy foals. Am J Vet Res 60 (1999) 1066-1073
10. Brockway M.S., Bannister J., McClure J.H., et al. Comparison of extradural ropivacaine and bupivacaine. Br J Anaesth 66 (1991) 31-37
11. Brown D.R., and Miller R.J. Adrenergic mediation of the intestinal antisecretory action of opiates administered into the central nervous system. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 231 (1984) 114-119
12. Bueno A.C., Seahorn T.L., and Moore R.M. Diagnosis and treatment of right dorsal colitis in horses. Compend Contin Educ Pract Vet 22 (2000) 173-180
13. Bueno A.C., Cornick-Seahorn J., Seahorn T., et al. Cardiopulmonary and sedative effects of intravenous administration of low doses of medetomidine and xylazine to adult horses. Am J Vet Res 60 (1999) 1371-1376
14. Campbell N.B., and Blikslager A.T. The role of cyclooxygenase inhibitors in repair of ischaemic-injured jejunal mucosa in the horse. Equine Vet J Suppl 32 (2000) 59-64
15. Carrick J.B., Papich M.G., Middleton D.M., et al. Clinical and pathological effects of flunixin meglumine administration to neonatal foals. Can J Vet Res 53 (1989) 195-201
16. Chan K., Islam M.W., Kamil M., et al. The analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of Portulaca oleracea L. subsp Sativa (Haw.) Celak. J Ethnopharmacol 73 (2000) 445-451
17. Chang E.B., Field M., and Miller R.J. α2-adrenergic receptor regulation of ion transport in rabbit ileum. Am J Physiol 242 (1982) G237-G242
18. Cheng Q. Remission of abdominal colic during enteroscopy by injecting vitamin K3 into Zusanli (ST 36) acupoint. J Trad Chin Med 20 (2000) 271-272
19. Christie M.J., Connor M., Vaughan C.W., et al. Cellular actions of opioids and other analgesics: implications for synergism in pain relief. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 27 (2000) 520-523
20. Clark E.S., Thompson S.A., Becht J.L., et al. Effects of xylazine on cecal mechanical activity and cecal blood flow in healthy horses. Am J Vet Res 49 (1988) 720-723
21. Clark J.O., and Clark T.P. Analgesia. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 15 (1999) 705-723
22. Clark K.W., and Baton B.S. Combined use of detomidine and romifidine in horses. Equine Vet J 20 (1988) 331-334
23. 2. Am J Vet Res 46 (1985) 1605-1615
24. Collins S.M. The immunomodulation of enteric neuromuscular function: implications for motility and inflammatory disorders. Gastroenterology 111 (1996) 1683-1699
25. Covino B.G. Toxicity and systemic effects of local anesthetic agents. In: Strichartz G.R. (Ed). Local Anesthetics (1987), Springer-Verlag, Berlin 187-212
26. Crews J.C., Hord A.H., Denson D.D., et al. A comparison of the analgesic efficacy of 0.25% levobupivacaine combined with 0.005% morphine, 0.25% levobupivacaine alone, or 0.005% morphine alone for the management of postoperative pain in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Anesth Analg 89 (1999) 1504-1509
27. Crisman MV, Sams RA, Irby MH. The disposition of phenylbutazone in lactating mares and its effect on nursing foals. In: Proceedings of the 35th Annual Convention of the American Association of Equine Practitioners, Boston, 1989. p. 127-131.
28. Crisman M.V., Wilcke J.R., Sams R.A., et al. Concentrations of phenylbutazone and oxyphenbutazone in post-parturient mares and their neonatal foals. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 14 (1991) 330-334
29. Dajani E.Z., Larsen K.R., Taylor J., et al. 1′,1′-Dimethylheptyl-delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol-11-oic acid: a novel, orally effective cannabinoid with analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 291 (1999) 31-38
30. Davis L.E. Review of the clinical pharmacology of the equine digestive system. J Equine Med Surg 1 (1977) 27-35
31. Decock M., Gautier P., Pavlopoulou A., et al. Epidural clonidine or bupivacaine as the sole analgesic agent during and after abdominal surgery: a comparative study. Anesthesiology 90 (1999) 1354-1362
32. Deihl D.L. Acupuncture for gastrointestinal and hepatobiliary disorders: A review. J Altern Complement Med 5 (1999) 27-45
33. De Jesus R.A., Cechenil-Filho V., Oliveira A.E., et al. Analysis of the antinociceptive properties of marrubiin isolated from Marrubium vulgare. Phytomedicine 7 (2000) 111-115
34. Doherty T.J., and Frazier D.L. Effect of intravenous lidocaine on halothane minimum alveolar concentration in ponies. Equine Vet J 30 (1998) 300-303
35. Doherty T.J., Geiser D.R., and Rohrbach B.W. Effect of high volume epidural morphine, ketamine and butorphanol on halothane minimum alveolar concentration in ponies. Equine Vet J 29 (1997) 370-373
36. Doherty T.J., Andrews F.M., Provenza M.K., et al. The effect of sedation on gastric emptying of a liquid marker in ponies. Vet Surg 28 (1999) 375-379
37. Dubois R.N., Abramson S.B., Crofford L., et al. Cyclooxygenase in biology and disease. FASEB J 12 (1998) 1063-1073
38. Edens L.M., and Cargile J.L. Medical management of colic. In: Robinson N.E. (Ed). Current therapy in equine medicine. 4th edition (1997), WB Saunders, Philadelphia 182-191
39. Eisenach J.C., Lavand'homme P., Tong C., et al. Antinoceptive and hemodynamic effects of a novel alpha2-adrenergic agonist, MPV-2426, in sheep. Anesthesiology 91 (1999) 1425-1436
40. Elhakim M., Amine H., Kamel S., et al. Effects of intraperitoneal lidocaine combined with intravenous or intraperitoneal tenoxicam on pain relief and bowel recovery after laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 44 (2000) 929-933
41. Figueiredo J.M., Camara C.A., Amarante E.G., et al. Design and synthesis of novel potent antinociceptive agents: methyl-imidazolyl N-acylhydrazone derivatives. Bioorg Med Chem 8 (2000) 2243-2248
42. Foster R.H., and Markham A. Levobupivacaine: a review of its pharmacology and use as a local anesthetic. Drugs 59 (2000) 551-579
43. Freeman D.E. Effects of phenylbutazone on short-circuit current in equine right dorsal colon in vitro. Proceedings of the Sixth Equine Colic Research Symposium (1998), University of Georgia, Athens (GA) p. 26
44. Fuentes V.O. Sudden death in a stallion after xylazine medication. Vet Rec 102 (1978) 106
45. Gaffney G.R., and Williamson H.E. Effect of indomethacin and meclofenamate on canine mesenteric and celiac blood flow. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol 25 (1979) 165-168
46. Geisler D.R. Chemical restraint and analgesia in the horse. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 6 (1990) 495-512
47. Geor R.J. Acute renal failure. In: Robinson N.E. (Ed). Current therapy in equine medicine. 4th edition (1997), WB Saunders, Philadelphia 472-476
48. Gerhardt H., Seifert F., Buvari P., et al. Therapy of active Crohn disease with Boswellia serrata extract H 15. Z Gastroenterol 39 (2001) 11-17
49. 4 receptor antagonist, MK-571, in mice: possible involvement of opioidergic mechanism. Eur J Pharmacol 386 (1999) 195-200
50. Gray G.W., and Yamo B.L. A study of the actions of methampyrone and of a commercial intestinal extract preparation on intestinal motility. Am J Vet Res 36 (1975) 201-208
51. Greene S.A., and Thurmon J.C. Xylazine-a review of its pharmacology and use in veterinary medicine. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 11 (1988) 295-313
52. Gregoricka MJ, Busch KR, Pollet RA. Clinical evaluation of ketoprofen: a new nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug for use in horses. In: Proceedings of the 37th Annual Convention of the American Association of Equine Practitioners, San Francisco, 1991. p. 19-26.
53. Groudine S.B., Fisher H.A.G., Kaufman R.P., et al. Intravenous lidocaine speeds the return of bowel function, decreases postoperative pain, and shortens hospital stay in patients undergoing radical retropubic prostatectomy. Anesth Analg 86 (1998) 235-239
54. Grubb T.L., Muir III W.W., Bertone A.L., et al. Use of yohimbine to reverse prolonged effects of xylazine hydrochloride in a horse being treated with chloramphenicol. JAVMA 210 (1997) 1771-1773
55. Hajhashemi V., Sadraei H., Ghannadi A.R., et al. Antispasmodic and anti-diarrhoeal effect of Satureja hortensis essential oil. J Ethnopharmacol 71 (2000) 187-192
56. Hall J.E., Uhrich T.D., Barney J.A., et al. Sedative, amnestic and analgesic properties of small-dose dexmedetomidine infusions. Anesth Analg 90 (2000) 669-705
57. Hamm D., Turchi P., and Jochle W. Sedative and analgesic effects of detomidine and romifidine in horses. Vet Rec 136 (1995) 324-327
58. Hamm D., Turchi P., Johnson J.C., et al. Determination of an effective dose of eltenac and its comparison with that of flunixin meglumine in horses after experimentally induced carpitis. Am J Vet Res 58 (1997) 298-302
59. Hansten P.D., and Horn J.R. Drug Interactions and Updates Quarterly (1993), Applied Therapeutics, Vancouver
60. Hasler W.L. Visceral analgesia: an emerging concept for managing functional gastrointestinal disease. Gastroenterology 115 (1998) 1023-1024
61. Hay W.P., and Moore J.N. Management of pain in horses with colic. Compend Contin Educ Pract Vet 19 (1997) 987-990
62. He Y. Enterospasm treated by pressure on jimai acupoint. J Trad Chin Med 10 (1990) 19
63. Hills J.M., and Aaronson P.I. The mechanism of action of peppermint oil on gastrointestinal smooth muscle. An analysis using patch clamp electrophysiology and isolated tissue pharmacology in rabbit and guinea pig. Gastroenterology 101 (1991) 55-65
64. Hoffman P.E. Clinical evaluation of xylazine as a chemical restraining agent, sedative, and analgesic in horses. JAVMA 164 (1974) 42-45
65. Holte K., and Kehlet H. Postoperative ileus: a preventable event. Br J Surg 87 (2000) 1480-1493
66. Hosseinzadeh H., Ramezani M., and Salmani G. Antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory and acute toxicity effects of Zataria multiflora boiss extracts in mice and rats. J Ethnopharmacol 73 (2000) 379-385
67. Hubbell J.A.E., Hinchcliff K.W., Schmall L.M., et al. Cardiorespiratory and metabolic effects of xylazine, detomidine, and a combination of xylazine and acepromazine administered after exercise in horses. Am J Vet Res 60 (1999) 1271-1279
68. 1 on motility of the equine gut. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 8 (1985) 165-173
69. Hunt JM, Gerring EL. Effects of autonomic agonists on equine gastrointestinal electromechanical activity. In: Proceedings of the Second Equine Colic Research Symposium, Athens, GA, 1986. p. 210-3.
70. Jaraiz M.V., Rodriguez C., San Andres M.D., et al. Disposition and tolerance of suxibuzone in horses. Equine Vet J 31 (1999) 411-416
71. Jensen R.C., Fischer J.H., and Cwik M.J. Effect of age and training status on pharmacokinetics of flunixin meglumine in Thoroughbreds. Am J Vet Res 51 (1990) 591-594
72. Johnson C.B., Taylor P.M., Young S.S., et al. Postoperative analgesia using phenylbutazone, flunixin or carprofen in horses. Vet Rec 133 (1993) 336-338
73. Jones E.W., and Hamm D. Comparative efficacy of phenylbutazone and naproxen in induced equine myositis. J Equine Med Surg 2 (1978) 341-347
74. Jorgensen H., Fomsgaard J.S., Dirks J., et al. Effect of continuous epidural 0.2% ropivacaine vs 0.2% bupivacaine on postoperative pain, motor block and gastrointestinal function after abdominal hysterectomy. Br J Anaesth 84 (2000) 826-827
75. Kalff J.C., Schraut W.H., Simmons R.L., et al. Surgical manipulation of the gut elicits an intestinal muscularis inflammatory response resulting in postsurgical ileus. Ann Surg 228 (1998) 652-663
76. Kalpravidh M., Lumb W.V., Wright M., et al. Analgesic effects of butorphanol in horses: Dose-response studies. Am J Vet Res 45 (1984) 211-216
77. Kalpravidh M., Lumb W.V., Wright M., et al. Effects of butorphanol, flunixin, levorphanol, morphine and xylazine in ponies. Am J Vet Res 45 (1984) 217-223
78. Kamerling S., Wood T., DeQuick D., et al. Narcotic analgesics, their detection and pain measurement in the horse: A review. Equine Vet J 21 (1989) 4-12
79. Kamerling S.G., Hamra J.G., and Bagwell C.A. Naloxone-induced abdominal distress in the horse. Equine Vet J 22 (1990) 241-243
80. Katila T., and Oijala M. The effect of detomidine (Domosedan) on the management of equine pregnancy and foetal development: ten cases. Equine Vet J 20 (1988) 323-325
81. King J.N., and Gerring E.L. Antagonism of endotoxin-induced disruption of equine bowel motility by flunixin and phenylbutazone. Equine Vet J Suppl 7 (1989) 38-42
82. Kohn C.W., and Muir III W.W. Selected aspects of the clinical pharmacology of visceral analgesics and gut motility modifying drugs in the horse. J Vet Intern Med 2 (1988) 85-91
83. Kolesnikov Y.A., Chereshnev I., and Pasternak G.W. Analgesic synergy between topical lidocaine and topical opioids. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 295 (2000) 546-551
84. Kopacz D.J., Allen H.W., and Thompson G.E. A comparison of epidural levobupivacaine 0.75% with racemic bupivacaine for lower abdominal surgery. Anesth Analg 90 (2000) 642-648
85. Krieglstein C.F., Anthoni C., Rijcken E.J., et al. Acetyl-11-keto-beta-boswellic acid, a constituent of an herbal medicine from Boswellia serrata resin, attenuates experimental ileitis. Int J Colorectal Dis 16 (2001) 88-95
86. Lawrence C.J., Prinzen F.W., and deLange S. Hemodynamic and coronary vascular effects of dexmedetomidine in the anesthetized goat. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 41 (1997) 830-836
87. LeBlanc M.M., Hubbell J.A.E., and Smith H.C. The effects of xylazine hydrochloride on intrauterine pressure in the cow. Theriogenology 21 (1984) 681-690
88. Lees P., McKellar Q., May S.A., et al. Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of carprofen in the horse. Equine Vet J 26 (1994) 203-208
89. Lehmann K.A. Tramadol in acute pain. Drugs 53 suppl 2 (1997) 25-33
90. 2-adrenergic, cholinergic, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on myoelectric activity of ileum, cecum, and right ventral colon and on cecal emptying of radiolabeled markers in clinically normal ponies. Am J Vet Res 59 (1998) 320-327
91. Lis-Balchin M., and Hart S. Studies on the mode of action of the essential oil of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia P. miller). Phytother Res 13 (1999) 540-542
92. Liu S.S., Hodgson P.S., Carpenter R.I., et al. ADL 8-2698, a trans-3,4-dimethyl-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl) piperidine, prevents gastrointestinal effects of intravenous morphine without affecting analgesia. Clin Pharmacol Ther 69 (2001) 66-71
93. Lowe J.E. Xylazine, pentazocine, meperidine, and dipyrone for relief of balloon induced equine colic: A double blind comparative evaluation. J Equine Med Surg 2 (1978) 286-291
94. Lowe J.E., and Hilfiger J. Analgesic and sedative effects of detomidine compared to xylazine in a colic model using I.V. and I.M. routes of administration. Acta Vet Scand 82 (1986) 85-95
95. Lowe J.E., Sellers A.F., and Brondum J. Equine pelvic flexure impaction. A model used to evaluate motor events and compare drug response. Cornell Vet 70 (1980) 401-412
96. Luukkanen L., Katila T., and Koskinen E. Some effects of multiple administration of detomidine during the last trimester of equine pregnancy. Equine Vet J 29 (1997) 400-403
97. MacAllister C.G., Morgan S.J., Borne A.T., et al. Comparison of the adverse effects of phenylbutazone, flunixin meglumine, and ketoprofen in horses. JAVMA 202 (1993) 71-77
98. MacGregor R.R., Thorner R.E., and Wright D.M. Lidocaine inhibits granulocyte adherence and prevents granulocyte delivery to inflammatory sites. Blood 56 (1980) 203-209
99. MacKay R.J., Daniels C.A., Bleyaert H.F., et al. Effects of eltenac in horses with induced endotoxaemia. Equine Vet J Suppl 32 (2000) 26-31
100. MacKellar J.C. Procaine hydrochloride in the treatment of spasmodic colic in horses. Vet Rec 80 (1967) 444-445
101. Macoris DG, Gandolfi W. Intestinal transit in equine: effect of therapy with flunixin meglumine, combination dipyrone-hioscine, and mineral oil. In: Proceedings of the Sixth Equine Colic Research Symposium, Athens, GA, 1998. p. 27.
102. Malone E.D. Intravenous lidocaine: An unusual use for a common drug. MERC News 1 (2001) 5-6
103. Malone E.D., and Kannan M.S. Effects of intestinal ischemia on in vitro activity of adjacent jejunum in samples obtained from ponies. Am J Vet Res 62 (2001) 1973-1978
104. Malone E.D., Turner T.A., and Wilson J.H. Intravenous lidocaine for the treatment of equine ileus. Proceedings of the Sixth Equine Colic Research Symposium (1998), University of Georgia, Athens (GA) p. 42
105. Martin S., Farr L., and Murray E. Clinical use of detomidine hydrochloride. Equine Pract 17 (1995) 21-29
106. Matthews N.S., Peck K.E., and Mealy K.L. Transdermal fentanyl: absorption and plasma levels in horses. Proceedings of the Sixth International Congress of Veterinary Anesthesiology (1997), Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece p. 116
107. Mercier F.J., Dounas M., and Bouaziz H. The effect of adding a minidose of clonidine to intrathecal sufentanil for labor analgesia. Anesthesiology 89 (1998) 594-601
108. Merritt A.M., Burrow J.A., and Hartless C.S. Effect of xylazine, detomidine, and a combination of xylazine and butorphanol on equine duodenal motility. Am J Vet Res 59 (1998) 619-623
109. Merritt A.M., Campbell-Thompson M.L., and Lowrey S. Effect of xylazine treatment on equine proximal gastrointestinal tract myoelectrical activity. Am J Vet Res 50 (1989) 945-949
110. Merritt A.M., Campbell-Thompson M.L., and Lowrey S. Effect of butorphanol on equine antroduodenal motility. Equine Vet J Suppl 7 (1989) 21-23
111. Merritt AM, MacKay RJ, Burrow JR, et al. Anti-endotoxic effect of ketoprofen in horses [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the Fourth Equine Colic Research Symposium, Athens, GA; 1991. p. 56.
112. Mickelfield G.H., Greving I., and May B. Effects of peppermint oil and caraway oil on gastroduodenal motility. Phytother Res 14 (2000) 20-23
113. Moll H.D., and Slone D.E. Perineal lacerations and rectovestibular fistulas. In: Wolfe D.W., and Moll H.D. (Eds). Large animal urogenital surgery (1999), Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore 103-108
114. Moore J.N. Management of pain and shock in equine colic. Compend Contin Educ Pract Vet 7 Suppl (1985) S169-S175
115. Muir W.W. Anesthesia and pain management in horses. Equine Vet Educ 10 (1998) 335-340
116. Muir W.W., and Robertson J.T. Visceral analgesia: effects of xylazine, butorphanol, meperidine, and pentazocine in horses. Am J Vet Res 46 (1985) 2081-2084
117. Muir WW, Robertson JT, Wade A, et al. Pharmacological effects of intravenous butorphanol tartrate in horses. In: Proceedings of the Equine Colic Research Symposium. Athens, GA; 1982. p. 223-4.
118. Nakamura K., Hara S., and Tomizawa N. The effects of medetomidine and xylazine on gastrointestinal motility and gastrin release in the dog. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 20 (1997) 290-295
119. Natalini C.C., and Robinson E.P. Evaluation of the analgesic effects of epidurally administered morphine, alfentanil, butorphanol, tramadol and U0488H in horses. Am J Vet Res 61 (2000) 1579-1586
120. Naylor J.M., Garven E., and Fraser L. A comparison of romifidine and xylazine in foals: the effects on sedation and analgesia. Equine Vet Educ 9 (1997) 329-334
121. Nieto J.E., Rakestraw P.C., Snyder J.R., et al. In vitro effects of erythromycin, lidocaine, and metoclopramide on smooth muscle from the pyloric antrum, proximal portion of the duodenum, and middle portion of the jejunum in horses. Am J Vet Res 61 (2000) 413-419
122. Ostrop N.J., Lamb J., and Reid G. Intravaginal morphine: an alternative route of administration. Pharmacotherapy 18 (1998) 863-865
123. Palmoski M., and Brandt K. Effects of some nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs on proteoglycan metabolism and organization in canine articular cartilage. Arthritis Rheum 23 (1980) 1010-1020
124. Paneuf L.P., Grivel M.L., and Ruckebusch Y. Electromyoenterography during normal gastrointestinal activity, painful or non-painful colic and morphine analgesia in the horse. Can J Comp Med 36 (1972) 138-144
125. Paradis M.R. Prokinetic drugs in the treatment of proximal enteritis. Compend Contin Educ Pract Vet 21 (1999) 1147-1149
126. Pascoe P.J., and Dyson D.H. Analgesia after lateral thoracotomy in dogs: epidural morphine vs intercostal bupivacaine. Vet Surg 22 (1993) 141-147
127. Pippi N.L., and Lumb W.V. Objective tests of analgesic drugs in ponies. Am J Vet Res 40 (1979) 1082-1086
128. Plumb D.C. Veterinary drug handbook. 2nd edition (1995), Iowa State University Press, Ames
129. Reichert J.A., Daughters R.S., Rivard R., et al. Peripheral and preemptive opioid antinociception in a mouse visceral pain model. Pain 89 (2001) 221-227
130. Rimbäck G., Cassuto J., and Tollesson P.O. Treatment of postoperative paralytic ileus by intravenous lidocaine infusion. Anesth Analg 70 (1990) 414-419
131. Rimbäck G., Cassuto J., Faxen A., et al. Effect of intra-abdominal bupivacaine instillation on postoperative colonic motility. Gut 27 (1986) 170-175
132. Ripamonti C., and Bruera E. Rectal, buccal, and sublingual narcotics for the management of cancer pain. J Palliat Care 7 (1991) 30-35
133. Roberts M.C., and Argenzio A. Effects of amitraz, several opiate derivatives and anticholinergic agents on intestinal transit in ponies. Equine Vet J 18 (1986) 256-260
134. Robertson J.T., and Muir W.W. A new analgesic drug combination in the horse. Am J Vet Res 44 (1983) 1667-1669
135. 2-adrenoceptor-mediated responses in the pony. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 10 (1987) 310-318
136. Roger T., and Ruckebusch Y. Pharmacological modulation of postprandial colonic motor activity in the pony. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 10 (1987) 273-282
137. Roger T., Bardon T., and Ruckebusch Y. Comparative effects of mu and kappa opiate agonists on the cecocolic motility in the pony. Can J Vet Res 58 (1994) 163-166
138. Rohde C., Anderson D.E., Bertone A.L., et al. Effects of phenylbutazone on bone activity and formation in horses. Am J Vet Res 61 (2000) 537-543
139. Romussi G., Ciarallo G., Bisio A., et al. A new diterpenoid with antispasmodic activity from Salvia cinnabarina. Planta Med 67 (2001) 153-155
140. Ross M.W., Donawick W.J., and Sellers A.J. Normal and altered cecocolic motility patterns in ponies. [abstract]. Vet Surg 14 (1985) 63
141. Russell A.L., and McCarty M.F. DL-phenylalanine markedly potentiates opiate analgesia-an example of nutrient/pharmaceutical up-regulation of the endogenous analgesia system. Med Hypotheses 55 (2000) 283-288
142. Rutkowski J.A., Eades S.C., and Moore J.N. Effects of xylazine butorphanol on cecal arterial blood flow, cecal mechanical activity, and systemic hemodynamics in horses. Am J Vet Res 52 (1991) 1153-1158
143. Santos A.C., Arthur G.R., Wlody D., et al. Comparative systemic toxicity of ropivacaine and bupivacaine in nonpregnant and pregnant ewes. Anesthesiology 82 (1995) 734-740
144. Sayegh A.I., Adams S.B., Peter A.T., et al. Equine rectal tears: Causes and management. Compend Contin Educ Pract Vet 18 (1996) 1131-1139
145. Scanlon J.W., Brown W.E., Weiss J.B., et al. Neurochemical responses of newborn infants after maternal epidural anesthesia. Anesthesiology 40 (1974) 121-128
146. Schaub R.G., Moore J.N., Garner H.E., et al. Pulmonary vascular damage in the pony induced by endotoxin: effect of lidocaine. Proceedings of the Equine Endotoxemia and Laminitis Symposium, American Association of Equine Practitioners Newsletter, Atlanta, GA (1982), American Association of Equine Practitioners, Golden (CO) p. 87-96
147. Sellon D.C., Monroe V.L., Roberts M.C., et al. Pharmacokinetics and adverse effects of butorphanol administered by single intravenous injection or continuous intravenous infusion in horses. Am J Vet Res 62 (2001) 183-189
148. 2 in mares. Am J Vet Res 54 (1993) 1901-1905
149. Semrad S.D., Hardee G.E., Hardee M.M., et al. Low dose flunixin meglumine: effects on eicosanoid production and clinical signs induced by experimental endotoxaemia in horses. Equine Vet J 19 (1987) 201-206
150. Shnider S.M., and Way E.L. Plasma levels of lidocaine (Xylocaine) in mother and newborn following obstetrical conduction anesthesia: clinical applications. Anesthesiology 29 (1968) 951-958
151. Sodipo J.O.A., and Falaiye J.M. Acupuncture and gastric acid studies. Am J Chin Med 7 (1979) 356-361
152. Sojka J.E., Adams S.B., Lamar C.H., et al. Effect of butorphanol, pentazocine, meperidine, or metoclopramide on intestinal motility in female ponies. Am J Vet Res 49 (1988) 527-529
153. Soma L.R., Uboh C.E., Rudy J.A., et al. Plasma and synovial fluid kinetics, disposition, and urinary excretion of naproxen in horses. Am J Vet Res 56 (1995) 1075-1080
154. Spackman D.R., McLeod A.D.M., Prineas S.N., et al. Effect of epidural blockade on indicators of splanchnic perfusion and gut function in critically ill patients with peritonitis: a randomised comparison of epidural bupivacaine with systemic morphine. Intensive Care Med 26 (2000) 1638-1645
155. Stick J.A., Chou C.C., Derksen F.A., et al. Effects of xylazine on equine intestinal vascular resistance, motility, compliance and oxygen consumption. Am J Vet Res 46 (1985) 31-35
156. Stick J.A., Arden W.A., Chou C.C., et al. Effects of flunixin meglumine on jejunal blood flow, motility, and oxygen consumption in ponies. Am J Vet Res 49 (1988) 1173-1178
157. 2 uptake in halothane-anesthetized ponies. Am J Vet Res 50 (1989) 1202-1206
158. Stout RC, Priest GT. Clinical experience using butorphanol tartrate for relief of abdominal pain in the horse. In: Proceedings of the Second Equine Colic Research Symposium, Athens, GA; 1986. p. 68-70.
159. Subarnas A., and Wagner H. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of the proanthocyanidin shellegueain A from Polypodium feei METT. Phytomedicine 7 (2000) 401-405
160. Sung C.S., Lin S.H., Chan K.H., et al. Effect of oral clonidine premedication on perioperative hemodynamic response and postoperative analgesic requirement for patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 38 (2000) 23-29
161. Sysel A.M., Pleasant R.S., Jacobson J.D., et al. Efficacy of epidural combination of morphine and detomidine in alleviating experimentally induced hindlimb lameness in horses. Vet Surg 25 (1996) 511-518
162. Taylor P.M., Bennett R.C., Brearley J.C., et al. Comparison of detomidine and romifidine as premedicants before ketamine and halothane anesthesia in horses undergoing elective surgery. Am J Vet Res 62 (2001) 359-363
163. Templeton C.B., Bottoms G.D., Fessler J.F., et al. Endotoxin-induced hemodynamic and prostaglandin changes in ponies: Effects of flunixin meglumine, dexamethasone, and prednisolone. Circ Shock 23 (1987) 231-240
164. Tulimat M.A., Ishiguchi T., Kurosawa S., et al. The inhibitory effect of herbal medicine Dai Kenchu To (DKT) on the colonic motility in rats in vitro. Am J Chin Med 29 (2001) 111-118
165. Valle L., Pol O., and Puig M.M. Intestinal inflammation enhances the inhibitory effects of opioids on intestinal permeability in mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 296 (2001) 378-387
166. 2α on contractility of taenia of the large colon of horses. Am J Vet Res 60 (1999) 1004-1009
167. Vernimb G.D., and Hennessey P.W. Clinical studies on flunixin meglumine in the treatment of equine colic. J Equine Med Surg 1 (1977) 111-116
168. Vutyavanich T., Kraisarin T., and Ruangsri R. Ginger for nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 17 (2001) 577-582
169. Wallace J.L., Reuter B.K., and Cirino G. Nitric oxide-releasing non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. A novel approach for reducing gastrointestinal toxicity. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1 Suppl (1994) S40-S44
170. Wallin G., Cassuto J., Högström S., et al. Effects of lidocaine infusion on the sympathetic response to abdominal surgery. Anesth Analg 66 (1987) 1008-1013
171. Welling L.R., and Watson W.A. The emergency department treatment of dyspepsia with antacids and oral lidocaine. Ann Emerg Med 19 (1990) 785-788
172. White N.A. Medical management of the colic patient. Proceedings of the 34th Annual Convention of the American Association of Equine Practitioners (1988), American Association of Equine Practitioners, Golden (CO) p. 81-96
173. Wilder-Smith C.H., Hill L., Osler W., et al. Effect of tramadol and morphine on pain and gastrointestinal motor function in patients with chronic pancreatitis. Dig Dis Sci 44 (1999) 1107-1116
174. Wong G.Y., and Brown D.L. Celiac plexus block for cancer pain. In: Urmey W. (Ed). Techniques in regional anesthesia and pain management (1997), WB Saunders, Philadelphia 18-26
175. Wood T., Weckman T., Woods W.E., et al. Detomidine: a preliminary analysis of its duration of action in the horse by variable interval responding. Equine Vet J 20 (1988) 320-322
176. Woolf C.J., and Chong M. Preemptive analgesia-treating postoperative pain by preventing the establishment of central sensitization. Anesth Analg 77 (1993) 362-379
177. Xu S., Liu Z., and Xu M. Treatment of cancerous abdominal pain by acupuncture on zusanli (ST 36)-report of 92 cases. J Trad Chin Med 15 (1995) 189-191
178. Yaksh T.L., Provencher J.C., Rathbun M.L., et al. Pharmacokinetics and efficacy of epidurally delivered sustained-release encapsulated morphine in dogs. Anesthesiology 90 (1999) 1402-1412
179. Yamahara J., Mochizuki M., Rong H.Q., et al. The anti-ulcer effect in rats of ginger constituents. J Ethnopharmacol 23 (1988) 299-304