Globalization and transnational diffusion between social movements: Reconceptualizing the dissemination of the Gandhian repertoire and the "coming out" routine

Theory and Society

Volumn 31, Issue 6, 2002, Pages 697-740

  Chabot, Sean ^a   Duyvendak, Jan Willem ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0036453774     PISSN: 03042421     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1021315215642     Document Type: Review

References (226)

1. See David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989); Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990), Roland Robertson, Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture (1992), and Manuel Castells, The Rise of the Network Society (Oxford: Blackwell Press, 1996).
2. See David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989); Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990), Roland Robertson, Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture (1992), and Manuel Castells, The Rise of the Network Society (Oxford: Blackwell Press, 1996).
3. See David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989); Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990), Roland Robertson, Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture (1992), and Manuel Castells, The Rise of the Network Society (Oxford: Blackwell Press, 1996).
4. See David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989); Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990), Roland Robertson, Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture (1992), and Manuel Castells, The Rise of the Network Society (Oxford: Blackwell Press, 1996).
5. As David Held puts it: "What is new about the modern global system is the chronic intensification of patterns of interconnectedness mediated by such phenomena as the modern communications industry and new information technology and the spread of globalization in and through new dimensions of interconnectedness: technological, organizational, administrative and legal, among others, each with their own logic and dynamic of change." David Held, Political Theory Today (Cambridge: Polity Press), 145.
6. See M. Kearney, "The Local and the Global: The Anthropology of Globalization and Transnationalism," Annual Review of Anthropology 24 (1995): 548-553; and Mauro F. Guillén, "Is Globalization Civilizing, Destructive or Feeble? A Critique of Five Key Debates in the Social Science Literature," Annual Review of Sociology 27 (2001): 235-260.
7. See M. Kearney, "The Local and the Global: The Anthropology of Globalization and Transnationalism," Annual Review of Anthropology 24 (1995): 548-553; and Mauro F. Guillén, "Is Globalization Civilizing, Destructive or Feeble? A Critique of Five Key Debates in the Social Science Literature," Annual Review of Sociology 27 (2001): 235-260.
8. Leslie Sklair, Sociology of the Global System (New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), and "Competing Conceptions of Globalization," Journal of World-Systems Research V/2 (1999): 143-162. Other adherents of what Sklair calls the "Global Capitalism model" include: William Robinson, "Globalisation: nine theses on our epoch," Race and Class 38/2 (1996): 13-31, R. Ross and K. Trachte, Global Capitalism: The New Leviathan (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1990), and P. McMichael, Development and Social Change: A Global Perspective (Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press, 1996).
9. Leslie Sklair, Sociology of the Global System (New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), and "Competing Conceptions of Globalization," Journal of World-Systems Research V/2 (1999): 143-162. Other adherents of what Sklair calls the "Global Capitalism model" include: William Robinson, "Globalisation: nine theses on our epoch," Race and Class 38/2 (1996): 13-31, R. Ross and K. Trachte, Global Capitalism: The New Leviathan (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1990), and P. McMichael, Development and Social Change: A Global Perspective (Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press, 1996).
10. Leslie Sklair, Sociology of the Global System (New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), and "Competing Conceptions of Globalization," Journal of World-Systems Research V/2 (1999): 143-162. Other adherents of what Sklair calls the "Global Capitalism model" include: William Robinson, "Globalisation: nine theses on our epoch," Race and Class 38/2 (1996): 13-31, R. Ross and K. Trachte, Global Capitalism: The New Leviathan (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1990), and P. McMichael, Development and Social Change: A Global Perspective (Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press, 1996).
11. Leslie Sklair, Sociology of the Global System (New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), and "Competing Conceptions of Globalization," Journal of World-Systems Research V/2 (1999): 143-162. Other adherents of what Sklair calls the "Global Capitalism model" include: William Robinson, "Globalisation: nine theses on our epoch," Race and Class 38/2 (1996): 13-31, R. Ross and K. Trachte, Global Capitalism: The New Leviathan (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1990), and P. McMichael, Development and Social Change: A Global Perspective (Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press, 1996).
12. Leslie Sklair, Sociology of the Global System (New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), and "Competing Conceptions of Globalization," Journal of World-Systems Research V/2 (1999): 143-162. Other adherents of what Sklair calls the "Global Capitalism model" include: William Robinson, "Globalisation: nine theses on our epoch," Race and Class 38/2 (1996): 13-31, R. Ross and K. Trachte, Global Capitalism: The New Leviathan (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1990), and P. McMichael, Development and Social Change: A Global Perspective (Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press, 1996).
13. Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996): 4, 21. As Richard G. Fox puts it: "Often … these approaches attribute the bumpy paths, the detours and twists, in global diffusion to structural inconsistencies and contradictions brought about by crosscurrent cultural flows…. But the nature of cultural flow itself remains unproblematic, because the assumption is that a steady and powerful diffusion stream … floods the globe with new cultural patterns…. Still to come, however, are theoretical forays … into the complex twists produced by a modern world that is saturated with transcultural knowledge and connection." Richard G. Fox, "Passage from India," in Richard G. Fox and Orin Starn, editors, Between Resistance and Revolution: Cultural Politics and Social Protest (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1997), 66. For a view on global cultural flows that closely resembles Appadurai's, see Ulf Hannerz, Cultural Complexity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992) and Transnational Connections: Culture, People, Places (London: Routledge Press, 1996).
14. Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996): 4, 21. As Richard G. Fox puts it: "Often … these approaches attribute the bumpy paths, the detours and twists, in global diffusion to structural inconsistencies and contradictions brought about by crosscurrent cultural flows…. But the nature of cultural flow itself remains unproblematic, because the assumption is that a steady and powerful diffusion stream … floods the globe with new cultural patterns…. Still to come, however, are theoretical forays … into the complex twists produced by a modern world that is saturated with transcultural knowledge and connection." Richard G. Fox, "Passage from India," in Richard G. Fox and Orin Starn, editors, Between Resistance and Revolution: Cultural Politics and Social Protest (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1997), 66. For a view on global cultural flows that closely resembles Appadurai's, see Ulf Hannerz, Cultural Complexity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992) and Transnational Connections: Culture, People, Places (London: Routledge Press, 1996).
15. Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996): 4, 21. As Richard G. Fox puts it: "Often … these approaches attribute the bumpy paths, the detours and twists, in global diffusion to structural inconsistencies and contradictions brought about by crosscurrent cultural flows…. But the nature of cultural flow itself remains unproblematic, because the assumption is that a steady and powerful diffusion stream … floods the globe with new cultural patterns…. Still to come, however, are theoretical forays … into the complex twists produced by a modern world that is saturated with transcultural knowledge and connection." Richard G. Fox, "Passage from India," in Richard G. Fox and Orin Starn, editors, Between Resistance and Revolution: Cultural Politics and Social Protest (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1997), 66. For a view on global cultural flows that closely resembles Appadurai's, see Ulf Hannerz, Cultural Complexity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992) and Transnational Connections: Culture, People, Places (London: Routledge Press, 1996).
16. Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996): 4, 21. As Richard G. Fox puts it: "Often … these approaches attribute the bumpy paths, the detours and twists, in global diffusion to structural inconsistencies and contradictions brought about by crosscurrent cultural flows…. But the nature of cultural flow itself remains unproblematic, because the assumption is that a steady and powerful diffusion stream … floods the globe with new cultural patterns…. Still to come, however, are theoretical forays … into the complex twists produced by a modern world that is saturated with transcultural knowledge and connection." Richard G. Fox, "Passage from India," in Richard G. Fox and Orin Starn, editors, Between Resistance and Revolution: Cultural Politics and Social Protest (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1997), 66. For a view on global cultural flows that closely resembles Appadurai's, see Ulf Hannerz, Cultural Complexity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992) and Transnational Connections: Culture, People, Places (London: Routledge Press, 1996).
17. John W. Meyer, John Boli, George M. Thomas, and Francisco O. Ramirez, 1997, "World society and the nation-state, "American Journal of Sociology 103/1 (1997): 144-181, George Thomas, John W. Meyer, Francisco O. Ramirez, editors, Institutional Structure: Constituting State, Society, and the Individual (Newbury Park: Sage Publications, 1987), and John W. Meyer and Michael T. Hannan, editors, National Development and the World System: Educational, Economic, and Political Change, 1950-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979).
18. John W. Meyer, John Boli, George M. Thomas, and Francisco O. Ramirez, 1997, "World society and the nation-state, "American Journal of Sociology 103/1 (1997): 144-181, George Thomas, John W. Meyer, Francisco O. Ramirez, editors, Institutional Structure: Constituting State, Society, and the Individual (Newbury Park: Sage Publications, 1987), and John W. Meyer and Michael T. Hannan, editors, National Development and the World System: Educational, Economic, and Political Change, 1950-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979).
19. John W. Meyer, John Boli, George M. Thomas, and Francisco O. Ramirez, 1997, "World society and the nation-state, "American Journal of Sociology 103/1 (1997): 144-181, George Thomas, John W. Meyer, Francisco O. Ramirez, editors, Institutional Structure: Constituting State, Society, and the Individual (Newbury Park: Sage Publications, 1987), and John W. Meyer and Michael T. Hannan, editors, National Development and the World System: Educational, Economic, and Political Change, 1950-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979).
20. Hannerz, for example, leaves no doubt that: "To repeat, there is now one world culture; all the variously distributed structures of meaning and expression are becoming interrelated, somehow, somewhere." Hannerz, Transnational Connections, 111. Taking this assumption as starting point, he then follows Strang and Meyer in exploring how transnational diffusion brings increasing coherence to globalization. Hannerz, Transnational Connections, 50-51 and David Strang and John W. Meyer, "Institutional Conditions for Diffusion," Theory and Society 22 (1993): 487-511.
21. Hannerz, for example, leaves no doubt that: "To repeat, there is now one world culture; all the variously distributed structures of meaning and expression are becoming interrelated, somehow, somewhere." Hannerz, Transnational Connections, 111. Taking this assumption as starting point, he then follows Strang and Meyer in exploring how transnational diffusion brings increasing coherence to globalization. Hannerz, Transnational Connections, 50-51 and David Strang and John W. Meyer, "Institutional Conditions for Diffusion," Theory and Society 22 (1993): 487-511.
22. Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World-System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1974), Roland Robertson, Globalization, and Paul Kennedy, Preparing for the Twenty-First Century (New York: Random House, 1993).
23. Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World-System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1974), Roland Robertson, Globalization, and Paul Kennedy, Preparing for the Twenty-First Century (New York: Random House, 1993).
24. Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World-System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1974), Roland Robertson, Globalization, and Paul Kennedy, Preparing for the Twenty-First Century (New York: Random House, 1993).
25. Which is not to say that these writers necessarily regard the Western sources of globalization (such as colonialism and imperialism) as progressive or admirable. See, for instance, Guillen, "Is Globalization Civilizing, Destructive or Feeble?" and David Held, Anthony McGrew, David Goldblatt, and Jonathan Perraton, Global Transformation: Politics, Economics and Culture (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1999).
26. Which is not to say that these writers necessarily regard the Western sources of globalization (such as colonialism and imperialism) as progressive or admirable. See, for instance, Guillen, "Is Globalization Civilizing, Destructive or Feeble?" and David Held, Anthony McGrew, David Goldblatt, and Jonathan Perraton, Global Transformation: Politics, Economics and Culture (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1999).
27. We use the term "essentialist diffusionism" instead of Blaut's "geographical diffusionism," to highlight that the biases of diffusionist theories are not only spatial, but also temporal and conceptual. J. Blaut, "Two views of diffusion," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 67 (1977): 343-349, and "Diffusionism: A uniformitarian critique," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 77 (1987): 30-47, "The theory of cultural racism," Antipode 24/4 (1992): 289-299, and The Colonizer's Model of the World: Geographical Diffusionism and Eurocentric History (New York: Guilford Press, 1993).
28. We use the term "essentialist diffusionism" instead of Blaut's "geographical diffusionism," to highlight that the biases of diffusionist theories are not only spatial, but also temporal and conceptual. J. Blaut, "Two views of diffusion," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 67 (1977): 343-349, and "Diffusionism: A uniformitarian critique," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 77 (1987): 30-47, "The theory of cultural racism," Antipode 24/4 (1992): 289-299, and The Colonizer's Model of the World: Geographical Diffusionism and Eurocentric History (New York: Guilford Press, 1993).
29. We use the term "essentialist diffusionism" instead of Blaut's "geographical diffusionism," to highlight that the biases of diffusionist theories are not only spatial, but also temporal and conceptual. J. Blaut, "Two views of diffusion," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 67 (1977): 343-349, and "Diffusionism: A uniformitarian critique," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 77 (1987): 30-47, "The theory of cultural racism," Antipode 24/4 (1992): 289-299, and The Colonizer's Model of the World: Geographical Diffusionism and Eurocentric History (New York: Guilford Press, 1993).
30. We use the term "essentialist diffusionism" instead of Blaut's "geographical diffusionism," to highlight that the biases of diffusionist theories are not only spatial, but also temporal and conceptual. J. Blaut, "Two views of diffusion," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 67 (1977): 343-349, and "Diffusionism: A uniformitarian critique," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 77 (1987): 30-47, "The theory of cultural racism," Antipode 24/4 (1992): 289-299, and The Colonizer's Model of the World: Geographical Diffusionism and Eurocentric History (New York: Guilford Press, 1993).
31. Blaut, Colonizer's Model, 14-17; "Diffusionism," 32; and "The theory of cultural racism."
32. Blaut calls this the "stop-or-go diffusion pattern" and argues that diffusionist scholars imply that: "If a trait is information-dependent, if it is patently useful, and if resources to adopt it are present, then it will diffuse nearly at the rate information spreads." Blaut, "Diffusionism," 36.
33. As Blaut notes: "Rogers was one of the leaders in a movement to sort out peasant mentalities into those that are prodevelopment ('cosmopolitan') and those that are noninnovative and 'laggard.' The crucial notion was the idea of the diffusion of rationality into rural non-European communities. The key to development (with some qualification) was the transmittal of new ideas to innovative 'adopters.' The fact that most of the ideas were not, themselves, workable (thus were not rational), and that adoption of them would have required of peasants not more knowledge, but more power and landownership, was ignored." Blaut, Colonizer's Model, 100 and "Diffusionism," 36-37.
34. As Blaut notes: "Rogers was one of the leaders in a movement to sort out peasant mentalities into those that are prodevelopment ('cosmopolitan') and those that are noninnovative and 'laggard.' The crucial notion was the idea of the diffusion of rationality into rural non-European communities. The key to development (with some qualification) was the transmittal of new ideas to innovative 'adopters.' The fact that most of the ideas were not, themselves, workable (thus were not rational), and that adoption of them would have required of peasants not more knowledge, but more power and landownership, was ignored." Blaut, Colonizer's Model, 100 and "Diffusionism," 36-37.
35. See, for example, Paul Lopes and Mary Durfee, "The Social Diffusion of Ideas and Things," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 566 (November 1999): 8-155 and David Strang and Sarah Soule, "Diffusion in Organizations and Social Movements: From Hybrid Corn to Poison Pills, "Annual Review of Sociology 24 (1998): 265-290.
36. See, for example, Paul Lopes and Mary Durfee, "The Social Diffusion of Ideas and Things," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 566 (November 1999): 8-155 and David Strang and Sarah Soule, "Diffusion in Organizations and Social Movements: From Hybrid Corn to Poison Pills, "Annual Review of Sociology 24 (1998): 265-290.
37. Everett Rogers, Diffusion of innovations (New York: Free Press, 1995 [1962]).
38. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations, 10.
39. Hannerz employs the same distinction between "cosmopolitans" and "locals" as classical diffusion theorists, but applies it to contemporary transnational cultures rather than empirical studies concerning the diffusion of innovations. Hannerz, Transnational Connections, 102-111.
40. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations, 19.
41. In fact, classical diffusion theorists assume that the adoption rate always resembles an S-curve; only the slopes of these S-curves vary from case to case. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations, 11.
42. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations, 285. See also, Elihu Katz and Paul Lazarsfeld, Personal Influence: The Part Played by People in the Flow of Mass Communications (New York: Free Press, 1955), and Elihu Katz, "The Two-Step Flow of Communication: An Up-to-Date Report on an Hypothesis," Public Opinion Quarterly 21 (1957): 61-78.
43. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations, 285. See also, Elihu Katz and Paul Lazarsfeld, Personal Influence: The Part Played by People in the Flow of Mass Communications (New York: Free Press, 1955), and Elihu Katz, "The Two-Step Flow of Communication: An Up-to-Date Report on an Hypothesis," Public Opinion Quarterly 21 (1957): 61-78.
44. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations, 285. See also, Elihu Katz and Paul Lazarsfeld, Personal Influence: The Part Played by People in the Flow of Mass Communications (New York: Free Press, 1955), and Elihu Katz, "The Two-Step Flow of Communication: An Up-to-Date Report on an Hypothesis," Public Opinion Quarterly 21 (1957): 61-78.
45. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations, 23-26, 37. Classical scholars assume, moreover, that when the receiving environment is favorable, diffusion obeys the "stop-or-go" pattern identified by Blaut, "Diffusionism," 36.
46. To clarify, classical diffusion theorists do not argue that all non-Western communities are receptive to Western innovations, but that Western innovations only diffuse to the limited number of non-Western communities that are receptive.
47. Or, in Blaut's words: "… diffusionism is in a double sense elitist: the center is at all times more progressive than is the periphery, and it is at all times more advanced…." Classical diffusion theory applies this hierarchical (top-down) view to all geographical levels: local community, country, region, as well as world system. Blaut, "Diffusionism," 31.
48. Kearney, "The Local and the Global," 554.
49. Kennedy, Preparing for the Twenty-first Century, 46; Anthony Giddens, Beyond Left and Right (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995), 84; and Benjamin R. Barber, Jihad vs. McWorld (New York: Times Books, 1995), 268-292.
50. Kennedy, Preparing for the Twenty-first Century, 46; Anthony Giddens, Beyond Left and Right (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995), 84; and Benjamin R. Barber, Jihad vs. McWorld (New York: Times Books, 1995), 268-292.
51. Kennedy, Preparing for the Twenty-first Century, 46; Anthony Giddens, Beyond Left and Right (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995), 84; and Benjamin R. Barber, Jihad vs. McWorld (New York: Times Books, 1995), 268-292.
52. Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Random House, 1979), and Culture and Imperialism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993), Janet Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony: The World System A. D. 1250-1350 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), Jack Goldstone, "The Rise of the West-or Not? A Revision to Socio-economic History," World History Association conference (June 1999), Kenneth Pomeranz, The Making of a Hinterland: State, Society, and Economy in Inland North China, 1853-1937 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), and The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), Samir Amin, Eurocentrism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1988), and Andre Gunder Frank, Reorient: Global Economy in the Asian Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
53. Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Random House, 1979), and Culture and Imperialism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993), Janet Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony: The World System A. D. 1250-1350 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), Jack Goldstone, "The Rise of the West-or Not? A Revision to Socio-economic History," World History Association conference (June 1999), Kenneth Pomeranz, The Making of a Hinterland: State, Society, and Economy in Inland North China, 1853-1937 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), and The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), Samir Amin, Eurocentrism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1988), and Andre Gunder Frank, Reorient: Global Economy in the Asian Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
54. Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Random House, 1979), and Culture and Imperialism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993), Janet Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony: The World System A. D. 1250-1350 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), Jack Goldstone, "The Rise of the West-or Not? A Revision to Socio-economic History," World History Association conference (June 1999), Kenneth Pomeranz, The Making of a Hinterland: State, Society, and Economy in Inland North China, 1853-1937 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), and The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), Samir Amin, Eurocentrism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1988), and Andre Gunder Frank, Reorient: Global Economy in the Asian Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
55. Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Random House, 1979), and Culture and Imperialism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993), Janet Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony: The World System A. D. 1250-1350 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), Jack Goldstone, "The Rise of the West-or Not? A Revision to Socio-economic History," World History Association conference (June 1999), Kenneth Pomeranz, The Making of a Hinterland: State, Society, and Economy in Inland North China, 1853-1937 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), and The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), Samir Amin, Eurocentrism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1988), and Andre Gunder Frank, Reorient: Global Economy in the Asian Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
56. Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Random House, 1979), and Culture and Imperialism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993), Janet Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony: The World System A. D. 1250-1350 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), Jack Goldstone, "The Rise of the West-or Not? A Revision to Socio-economic History," World History Association conference (June 1999), Kenneth Pomeranz, The Making of a Hinterland: State, Society, and Economy in Inland North China, 1853-1937 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), and The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), Samir Amin, Eurocentrism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1988), and Andre Gunder Frank, Reorient: Global Economy in the Asian Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
57. Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Random House, 1979), and Culture and Imperialism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993), Janet Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony: The World System A. D. 1250-1350 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), Jack Goldstone, "The Rise of the West-or Not? A Revision to Socio-economic History," World History Association conference (June 1999), Kenneth Pomeranz, The Making of a Hinterland: State, Society, and Economy in Inland North China, 1853-1937 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), and The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), Samir Amin, Eurocentrism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1988), and Andre Gunder Frank, Reorient: Global Economy in the Asian Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
58. Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Random House, 1979), and Culture and Imperialism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993), Janet Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony: The World System A. D. 1250-1350 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), Jack Goldstone, "The Rise of the West-or Not? A Revision to Socio-economic History," World History Association conference (June 1999), Kenneth Pomeranz, The Making of a Hinterland: State, Society, and Economy in Inland North China, 1853-1937 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), and The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), Samir Amin, Eurocentrism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1988), and Andre Gunder Frank, Reorient: Global Economy in the Asian Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
59. Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Random House, 1979), and Culture and Imperialism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993), Janet Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony: The World System A. D. 1250-1350 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), Jack Goldstone, "The Rise of the West-or Not? A Revision to Socio-economic History," World History Association conference (June 1999), Kenneth Pomeranz, The Making of a Hinterland: State, Society, and Economy in Inland North China, 1853-1937 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), and The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), Samir Amin, Eurocentrism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1988), and Andre Gunder Frank, Reorient: Global Economy in the Asian Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
60. Although somewhat cryptic, the following definition by McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly captures what we mean by contentious politics: "episodic, public, collective interaction among makers of claims and their objects when (a) at least one government is a claimant, an object of claims, or a party to the claims and (b) the claims would, if realized, affect the interests of at least one of the claimants. Roughly translated, the definition refers to collective political struggle." Doug McAdam, Sidney Tarrow, and Charles Tilly, Dynamics of Contention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 5.
61. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations, 10.
62. Doug McAdam and Dieter Rucht, "The Cross-National Diffusion of Movement Ideas," The Annals of The American Academy of Political and Social Science 528 (July 1993): 59.
63. Our view on essentialism (or what he calls substantialism) is closest to Emirbayer: "[it] takes as its point of departure the notion that it is substances of various kinds (things, beings, essences) that constitute the fundamental units of all inquiry. Systematic analysis is to begin with these self-subsistent entities, which come 'preformed' and only then to consider the dynamic flows in which they subsequently involve themselves." Mustafa Emirbayer, "Manifesto for a Relational Sociology," American Journal of Sociology 103/2 (September 1997): 281-317, 282-283. In Emirbayer's terms, the approach of McAdam and Rucht (and of classical diffusion theorists) is both substantialist and interactionist, because it regards self-subsistent structures or social systems as the main sources of action: "Proponents of these approaches … all too often fall back upon the assumption that it is durable, coherent entities that constitute the legitimate starting points of all sociological inquiry. Such entities possess emergent properties not reducible to the discrete elements of which they consist. Not individual persons, but groups, nations, cultures, and other reified substances do all of the acting in social life and account for its dynamism…. Processes as well as structures thus appear as self-acting entities in many concrete instances of social inquiry." Emirbayer, "Manifesto," 285.
64. Our view on essentialism (or what he calls substantialism) is closest to Emirbayer: "[it] takes as its point of departure the notion that it is substances of various kinds (things, beings, essences) that constitute the fundamental units of all inquiry. Systematic analysis is to begin with these self-subsistent entities, which come 'preformed' and only then to consider the dynamic flows in which they subsequently involve themselves." Mustafa Emirbayer, "Manifesto for a Relational Sociology," American Journal of Sociology 103/2 (September 1997): 281-317, 282-283. In Emirbayer's terms, the approach of McAdam and Rucht (and of classical diffusion theorists) is both substantialist and interactionist, because it regards self-subsistent structures or social systems as the main sources of action: "Proponents of these approaches … all too often fall back upon the assumption that it is durable, coherent entities that constitute the legitimate starting points of all sociological inquiry. Such entities possess emergent properties not reducible to the discrete elements of which they consist. Not individual persons, but groups, nations, cultures, and other reified substances do all of the acting in social life and account for its dynamism…. Processes as well as structures thus appear as self-acting entities in many concrete instances of social inquiry." Emirbayer, "Manifesto," 285.
65. McAdam and Rucht, "Cross-National Diffusion," 60, 66.
66. On this point, they follow neo-institutionalists Strang and Meyer, "Institutional Conditions," who assume that the main ingredients of modern global culture are Western rationality and Western institutions. See also, Strang and Soule, "Diffusion in Organizations and Social Movements."
67. They note, for example, that German students changed the slogan "Burn, baby, burn" into "Burn, warehouse, burn." McAdam and Rucht, "Cross-National Diffusion," 69. While they acknowledge the possibility of "emulative adaptation" at the edges of the diffusion item, therefore, they do not consider more fundamental "creative reinvention." For more on "emulative adaptation," see David Strang and Michael W. Macy, "In Search of Excellence: Fads, Success Stories, and Adaptive Emulation," American Journal of Sociology 107/1 (2001). For more on "creative reinvention," see Sean Chabot, "Transnational Diffusion and the African-American Reinvention of the Gandhian Repertoire," Mobilization: An International Journal 5 (2000): 201-216.
68. They note, for example, that German students changed the slogan "Burn, baby, burn" into "Burn, warehouse, burn." McAdam and Rucht, "Cross-National Diffusion," 69. While they acknowledge the possibility of "emulative adaptation" at the edges of the diffusion item, therefore, they do not consider more fundamental "creative reinvention." For more on "emulative adaptation," see David Strang and Michael W. Macy, "In Search of Excellence: Fads, Success Stories, and Adaptive Emulation," American Journal of Sociology 107/1 (2001). For more on "creative reinvention," see Sean Chabot, "Transnational Diffusion and the African-American Reinvention of the Gandhian Repertoire," Mobilization: An International Journal 5 (2000): 201-216.
69. They note, for example, that German students changed the slogan "Burn, baby, burn" into "Burn, warehouse, burn." McAdam and Rucht, "Cross-National Diffusion," 69. While they acknowledge the possibility of "emulative adaptation" at the edges of the diffusion item, therefore, they do not consider more fundamental "creative reinvention." For more on "emulative adaptation," see David Strang and Michael W. Macy, "In Search of Excellence: Fads, Success Stories, and Adaptive Emulation," American Journal of Sociology 107/1 (2001). For more on "creative reinvention," see Sean Chabot, "Transnational Diffusion and the African-American Reinvention of the Gandhian Repertoire," Mobilization: An International Journal 5 (2000): 201-216.
70. See, for example, Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action and Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), Marco Giugni, "The Other Side of the Coin: Explaining Cross-national Similarities Between Social Movements," Mobilization: An International Journal 3/1 (1998): 107-126, Sarah A. Soule, "The Diffusion of An Unsuccessful Innovation," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 566 (November 1999): 120-131, and Jeffrey M. Ayres, "From the Streets to the Internet: The Cyber-Diffusion of Contention, " The Annals of The American Academy of Political and Social Science 566 (November 1999): 132-143.
71. See, for example, Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action and Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), Marco Giugni, "The Other Side of the Coin: Explaining Cross-national Similarities Between Social Movements," Mobilization: An International Journal 3/1 (1998): 107-126, Sarah A. Soule, "The Diffusion of An Unsuccessful Innovation," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 566 (November 1999): 120-131, and Jeffrey M. Ayres, "From the Streets to the Internet: The Cyber-Diffusion of Contention, " The Annals of The American Academy of Political and Social Science 566 (November 1999): 132-143.
72. See, for example, Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action and Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), Marco Giugni, "The Other Side of the Coin: Explaining Cross-national Similarities Between Social Movements," Mobilization: An International Journal 3/1 (1998): 107-126, Sarah A. Soule, "The Diffusion of An Unsuccessful Innovation," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 566 (November 1999): 120-131, and Jeffrey M. Ayres, "From the Streets to the Internet: The Cyber-Diffusion of Contention, " The Annals of The American Academy of Political and Social Science 566 (November 1999): 132-143.
73. See, for example, Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action and Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), Marco Giugni, "The Other Side of the Coin: Explaining Cross-national Similarities Between Social Movements," Mobilization: An International Journal 3/1 (1998): 107-126, Sarah A. Soule, "The Diffusion of An Unsuccessful Innovation," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 566 (November 1999): 120-131, and Jeffrey M. Ayres, "From the Streets to the Internet: The Cyber-Diffusion of Contention, " The Annals of The American Academy of Political and Social Science 566 (November 1999): 132-143.
74. Blaut, Colonizer's Model, 100-101.
75. For the most part, the field of contentious politics favors relational and constructionist rather than essentialist approaches. Yet on the subject of diffusion, prominent scholars in the field remain nearly as essentialist as classical diffusion theorists.
76. McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly, Dynamics of Contention. While Tilly and other historical sociologists (including Tarrow and McAdam) were among the earliest and fiercest critics of modernization theory (in Tilly's case, since the 1960s), they did not provide a theoretical alternative for its essentialist diffusionism. Instead of reconceptualizing transnational relations between core and periphery, and between Western and non-Western countries, they focused almost exclusively on core countries in Europe and the United States and/or compared developments in non-Western countries with developments in Western countries without specifically analyzing relations between them. See especially Margaret R. Somers, "What's Political or Cultural about Political Culture and the Public Sphere? Toward an Historical Sociology of Concept Formation," Sociological Theory 13 (1995): 113-144.
77. McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly, Dynamics of Contention. While Tilly and other historical sociologists (including Tarrow and McAdam) were among the earliest and fiercest critics of modernization theory (in Tilly's case, since the 1960s), they did not provide a theoretical alternative for its essentialist diffusionism. Instead of reconceptualizing transnational relations between core and periphery, and between Western and non-Western countries, they focused almost exclusively on core countries in Europe and the United States and/or compared developments in non-Western countries with developments in Western countries without specifically analyzing relations between them. See especially Margaret R. Somers, "What's Political or Cultural about Political Culture and the Public Sphere? Toward an Historical Sociology of Concept Formation," Sociological Theory 13 (1995): 113-144.
78. McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly, Dynamics of Contention, 333-335.
79. In subsequent paragraphs, we argue that brokerage is actually one of the key mechanisms of diffusion.
80. Sidney Tarrow, "Cycles of Collective Action: Between Moments of Madness and the Repertoire of Contention," in Mark Traugott, editor, Repertoires and Cycles of Collective Action (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995), 91-115, 92.
81. Tarrow, "Cycles of Collective Action," 92-94. Although McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly now acknowledge the limitations of the protest cycle concept (2001: 65-67), they still argue that the diffusion mechanism is "virtually coterminous with protest cycles." McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly, Dynamics of Contention, 65-68. See also Peter Hedström, Rickard Sandell, and Charlotta Stern, "Mesolevel Networks and the Diffusion of Social Movements: The Case of the Swedish Social Democratic Party," American Journal of Sociology 106 (2000): 145-172, Daniel J. Myers, "The Diffusion of Collective Violence: Infectiousness, Susceptibility, and Mass Media Networks," American Journal of Sociology 106 (2000): 173-208, Pamela E. Oliver and Daniel J. Myers, "How Events Enter the Public Sphere: Conflict, Location and Sponsorship in Local Newspaper Coverage of Public Events, "American Journal of Sociology 105 (1999): 38-87, and Strang and Meyer, "Institutional Conditions." Note that Tarrow's conceptualization is not very different from that of globalization scholars like Leslie Sklair, Arjun Appadurai, Ulf Hannerz, and especially John Meyer.
82. Tarrow, "Cycles of Collective Action," 92-94. Although McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly now acknowledge the limitations of the protest cycle concept (2001: 65-67), they still argue that the diffusion mechanism is "virtually coterminous with protest cycles." McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly, Dynamics of Contention, 65-68. See also Peter Hedström, Rickard Sandell, and Charlotta Stern, "Mesolevel Networks and the Diffusion of Social Movements: The Case of the Swedish Social Democratic Party," American Journal of Sociology 106 (2000): 145-172, Daniel J. Myers, "The Diffusion of Collective Violence: Infectiousness, Susceptibility, and Mass Media Networks," American Journal of Sociology 106 (2000): 173-208, Pamela E. Oliver and Daniel J. Myers, "How Events Enter the Public Sphere: Conflict, Location and Sponsorship in Local Newspaper Coverage of Public Events, "American Journal of Sociology 105 (1999): 38-87, and Strang and Meyer, "Institutional Conditions." Note that Tarrow's conceptualization is not very different from that of globalization scholars like Leslie Sklair, Arjun Appadurai, Ulf Hannerz, and especially John Meyer.
83. Tarrow, "Cycles of Collective Action," 92-94. Although McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly now acknowledge the limitations of the protest cycle concept (2001: 65-67), they still argue that the diffusion mechanism is "virtually coterminous with protest cycles." McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly, Dynamics of Contention, 65-68. See also Peter Hedström, Rickard Sandell, and Charlotta Stern, "Mesolevel Networks and the Diffusion of Social Movements: The Case of the Swedish Social Democratic Party," American Journal of Sociology 106 (2000): 145-172, Daniel J. Myers, "The Diffusion of Collective Violence: Infectiousness, Susceptibility, and Mass Media Networks," American Journal of Sociology 106 (2000): 173-208, Pamela E. Oliver and Daniel J. Myers, "How Events Enter the Public Sphere: Conflict, Location and Sponsorship in Local Newspaper Coverage of Public Events, "American Journal of Sociology 105 (1999): 38-87, and Strang and Meyer, "Institutional Conditions." Note that Tarrow's conceptualization is not very different from that of globalization scholars like Leslie Sklair, Arjun Appadurai, Ulf Hannerz, and especially John Meyer.
84. Tarrow, "Cycles of Collective Action," 92-94. Although McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly now acknowledge the limitations of the protest cycle concept (2001: 65-67), they still argue that the diffusion mechanism is "virtually coterminous with protest cycles." McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly, Dynamics of Contention, 65-68. See also Peter Hedström, Rickard Sandell, and Charlotta Stern, "Mesolevel Networks and the Diffusion of Social Movements: The Case of the Swedish Social Democratic Party," American Journal of Sociology 106 (2000): 145-172, Daniel J. Myers, "The Diffusion of Collective Violence: Infectiousness, Susceptibility, and Mass Media Networks," American Journal of Sociology 106 (2000): 173-208, Pamela E. Oliver and Daniel J. Myers, "How Events Enter the Public Sphere: Conflict, Location and Sponsorship in Local Newspaper Coverage of Public Events, "American Journal of Sociology 105 (1999): 38-87, and Strang and Meyer, "Institutional Conditions." Note that Tarrow's conceptualization is not very different from that of globalization scholars like Leslie Sklair, Arjun Appadurai, Ulf Hannerz, and especially John Meyer.
85. Tarrow, "Cycles of Collective Action," 92-94. Although McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly now acknowledge the limitations of the protest cycle concept (2001: 65-67), they still argue that the diffusion mechanism is "virtually coterminous with protest cycles." McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly, Dynamics of Contention, 65-68. See also Peter Hedström, Rickard Sandell, and Charlotta Stern, "Mesolevel Networks and the Diffusion of Social Movements: The Case of the Swedish Social Democratic Party," American Journal of Sociology 106 (2000): 145-172, Daniel J. Myers, "The Diffusion of Collective Violence: Infectiousness, Susceptibility, and Mass Media Networks," American Journal of Sociology 106 (2000): 173-208, Pamela E. Oliver and Daniel J. Myers, "How Events Enter the Public Sphere: Conflict, Location and Sponsorship in Local Newspaper Coverage of Public Events, "American Journal of Sociology 105 (1999): 38-87, and Strang and Meyer, "Institutional Conditions." Note that Tarrow's conceptualization is not very different from that of globalization scholars like Leslie Sklair, Arjun Appadurai, Ulf Hannerz, and especially John Meyer.
86. Tarrow, "Cycles of Collective Action," 92-94. Although McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly now acknowledge the limitations of the protest cycle concept (2001: 65-67), they still argue that the diffusion mechanism is "virtually coterminous with protest cycles." McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly, Dynamics of Contention, 65-68. See also Peter Hedström, Rickard Sandell, and Charlotta Stern, "Mesolevel Networks and the Diffusion of Social Movements: The Case of the Swedish Social Democratic Party," American Journal of Sociology 106 (2000): 145-172, Daniel J. Myers, "The Diffusion of Collective Violence: Infectiousness, Susceptibility, and Mass Media Networks," American Journal of Sociology 106 (2000): 173-208, Pamela E. Oliver and Daniel J. Myers, "How Events Enter the Public Sphere: Conflict, Location and Sponsorship in Local Newspaper Coverage of Public Events, "American Journal of Sociology 105 (1999): 38-87, and Strang and Meyer, "Institutional Conditions." Note that Tarrow's conceptualization is not very different from that of globalization scholars like Leslie Sklair, Arjun Appadurai, Ulf Hannerz, and especially John Meyer.
87. See also, Sean Scalmer, "Translating Contention: Culture, History, and the Circulation of Collective Action," Alternatives 25 (2000): 491-514, and "The Labour of Diffusion: The Peace Pledge Union and the Translation of the Gandhian Repertoire," unpublished manuscript, and Chabot, "Transnational Diffusion."
88. See also, Sean Scalmer, "Translating Contention: Culture, History, and the Circulation of Collective Action," Alternatives 25 (2000): 491-514, and "The Labour of Diffusion: The Peace Pledge Union and the Translation of the Gandhian Repertoire," unpublished manuscript, and Chabot, "Transnational Diffusion."
89. Doug McAdam, "Initiator and Spin-off Movements: Diffusion Processes in Protest Cycles," in Mark Traugott, editor, Repertoire and Cycles of Collective Action (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995), 217-239, 219.
90. McAdam, "Initiator and Spinoff Movements," 224.
91. Ibid., 229-233.
92. Ibid., 227.
93. See also, Peter Hedström, "Contagious collectivities: On the spatial diffusion of Swedish trade unions, 1890-1940, " American Journal of Sociology 99 (1994): 1157-1179.
94. McAdam, "Initiator and Spinoff Movements," 219, 232-233.
95. A few years later, McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly (in Lichbach and Zuckerman 1997: 159, fn 17) referred to Western liberal democracies as "the heartland" of social movement theory, and promise to incorporate analysis of social movements in "nondemocratic" and "non-western countries" in future work. Doug McAdam, Sidney Tarrow, and Charles Tilly, "Toward an Integrated Perspective on Social Movements and Revolutions," in Mark Irving Lichbach and Alan S. Zuckerman, editors, Comparative Politics: Rationality, Culture, and Structure (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 142-173.
96. Sidney Tarrow, Democracy and Disorder: Protest and Politics in Italy, 1965-1975 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1989), Power in Movement; "Cycles of Collective Action," and Sarah A. Soule and Sidney Tarrow, "Acting Collectively: How the Repertoire of Collective Action Changed and Where It Happened," annual conference of Social Science History Association (1991).
97. Sidney Tarrow, Democracy and Disorder: Protest and Politics in Italy, 1965-1975 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1989), Power in Movement; "Cycles of Collective Action," and Sarah A. Soule and Sidney Tarrow, "Acting Collectively: How the Repertoire of Collective Action Changed and Where It Happened," annual conference of Social Science History Association (1991).
98. McAdam, "Initiator and Spinoff Movement," 219; Anthony Oberschall, "Opportunities and Framing in the Eastern European Revolts of 1989," in Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald, editors, Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 1996), 93-121; and McAdam and Rucht, "Cross-National Diffusion."
99. McAdam, "Initiator and Spinoff Movement," 219; Anthony Oberschall, "Opportunities and Framing in the Eastern European Revolts of 1989," in Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald, editors, Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 1996), 93-121; and McAdam and Rucht, "Cross-National Diffusion."
100. McAdam, "Initiator and Spinoff Movement," 219; Anthony Oberschall, "Opportunities and Framing in the Eastern European Revolts of 1989," in Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald, editors, Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 1996), 93-121; and McAdam and Rucht, "Cross-National Diffusion."
101. Ruud Koopmans, "The Dynamics of Protest Waves," in Hanspeter Kriesi, Ruud Koopmans, Jan Willem Duyvendak, and Marco G. Giugni, New Social Movements in Western Europe (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), 111-142, Marco Giugni, "The Cross-National Diffusion of Protest," in Hanspeter Kriesi, Ruud Koopmans, Jan Willem Duyvendak, and Marco G. Giugni, New Social Movements in Western Europe, 181-206, and "The Other Side of the Coin," Sarah A. Soule, "The Student Divestment Movement in the United States and the Shantytown: Diffusion of a Protest Tactic," Social Forces 75 (March 1997): 855-883, and "Diffusion of an Unsuccessful Innovation."
102. Ruud Koopmans, "The Dynamics of Protest Waves," in Hanspeter Kriesi, Ruud Koopmans, Jan Willem Duyvendak, and Marco G. Giugni, New Social Movements in Western Europe (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), 111-142, Marco Giugni, "The Cross-National Diffusion of Protest," in Hanspeter Kriesi, Ruud Koopmans, Jan Willem Duyvendak, and Marco G. Giugni, New Social Movements in Western Europe, 181-206, and "The Other Side of the Coin," Sarah A. Soule, "The Student Divestment Movement in the United States and the Shantytown: Diffusion of a Protest Tactic," Social Forces 75 (March 1997): 855-883, and "Diffusion of an Unsuccessful Innovation."
103. Ruud Koopmans, "The Dynamics of Protest Waves," in Hanspeter Kriesi, Ruud Koopmans, Jan Willem Duyvendak, and Marco G. Giugni, New Social Movements in Western Europe (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), 111-142, Marco Giugni, "The Cross-National Diffusion of Protest," in Hanspeter Kriesi, Ruud Koopmans, Jan Willem Duyvendak, and Marco G. Giugni, New Social Movements in Western Europe, 181-206, and "The Other Side of the Coin," Sarah A. Soule, "The Student Divestment Movement in the United
104. Jeffrey M. Ayres, "From National to Popular Sovereignty? The Evolving Globalization of Protest Activity in Canada," International Journal of Canadian Studies 16 (1997): 107-123, and "From the Streets to the Internet," David A. Snow and Robert D. Benford, "Alternative Types of Cross-national Diffusion in the Social Movement Arena," in Donatella della Porta, Hanspeter Kriesi, and Dieter Rucht, editors, Social Movements in a Globalizing World (London: MacMillan, 1999), 23-39, and John A. Guidry, Michael D. Kennedy, and Mayer N. Zald, Globalizations and Social Movements: Culture, Power, and the Transnational Public Sphere (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000). Although their approach is perhaps closest to ours, Guidry, Kennedy, and Zald still retain a hint of essentialist diffusionism by stressing that non-Western participation in the transnational public sphere (and, therefore, diffusion from core to periphery, or vice versa) is exceptional: "The transnational public sphere is thus an opportunity structure that is recognized most clearly in the core countries of the industrialized West, but it is appreciated even in relatively marginalized sites in the non-Western world as well." Guidry, Kennedy, and Zald, Globalizations and Social Movements, 9 (emphasis ours).
105. Jeffrey M. Ayres, "From National to Popular Sovereignty? The Evolving Globalization of Protest Activity in Canada," International Journal of Canadian Studies 16 (1997): 107-123, and "From the Streets to the Internet," David A. Snow and Robert D. Benford, "Alternative Types of Cross-national Diffusion in the Social Movement Arena," in Donatella della Porta, Hanspeter Kriesi, and Dieter Rucht, editors, Social Movements in a Globalizing World (London: MacMillan, 1999), 23-39, and John A. Guidry, Michael D. Kennedy, and Mayer N. Zald, Globalizations and Social Movements: Culture, Power, and the Transnational Public Sphere (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000). Although their approach is perhaps closest to ours, Guidry, Kennedy, and Zald still retain a hint of essentialist diffusionism by stressing that non-Western participation in the transnational public sphere (and, therefore, diffusion from core to periphery, or vice versa) is exceptional: "The transnational public sphere is thus an opportunity structure that is recognized most clearly in the core countries of the industrialized West, but it is appreciated even in relatively marginalized sites in the non-Western world as well." Guidry, Kennedy, and Zald, Globalizations and Social Movements, 9 (emphasis ours).
106. Jeffrey M. Ayres, "From National to Popular Sovereignty? The Evolving Globalization of Protest Activity in Canada," International Journal of Canadian Studies 16 (1997): 107-123, and "From the Streets to the Internet," David A. Snow and Robert D. Benford, "Alternative Types of Cross-national Diffusion in the Social Movement Arena," in Donatella della Porta, Hanspeter Kriesi, and Dieter Rucht, editors, Social Movements in a Globalizing World (London: MacMillan, 1999), 23-39, and John A. Guidry, Michael D. Kennedy, and Mayer N. Zald, Globalizations and Social Movements: Culture, Power, and the Transnational Public Sphere (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000). Although their approach is perhaps closest to ours, Guidry, Kennedy, and Zald still retain a hint of essentialist diffusionism by stressing that non-Western participation in the transnational public sphere (and, therefore, diffusion from core to periphery, or vice versa) is exceptional: "The transnational public sphere is thus an opportunity structure that is recognized most clearly in the core countries of the industrialized West, but it is appreciated even in relatively marginalized sites in the non-Western world as well." Guidry, Kennedy, and Zald, Globalizations and Social Movements, 9 (emphasis ours).
107. Jeffrey M. Ayres, "From National to Popular Sovereignty? The Evolving Globalization of Protest Activity in Canada," International Journal of Canadian Studies 16 (1997): 107-123, and "From the Streets to the Internet," David A. Snow and Robert D. Benford, "Alternative Types of Cross-national Diffusion in the Social Movement Arena," in Donatella della Porta, Hanspeter Kriesi, and Dieter Rucht, editors, Social Movements in a Globalizing World (London: MacMillan, 1999), 23-39, and John A. Guidry, Michael D. Kennedy, and Mayer N. Zald, Globalizations and Social Movements: Culture, Power, and the Transnational Public Sphere (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000). Although their approach is perhaps closest to ours, Guidry, Kennedy, and Zald still retain a hint of essentialist diffusionism by stressing that non-Western participation in the transnational public sphere (and, therefore, diffusion from core to periphery, or vice versa) is exceptional: "The transnational public sphere is thus an opportunity structure that is recognized most clearly in the core countries of the industrialized West, but it is appreciated even in relatively marginalized sites in the non-Western world as well." Guidry, Kennedy, and Zald, Globalizations and Social Movements, 9 (emphasis ours).
108. Of course, globalization scholars generally argue that diffusion spreads within one global system.
109. Thomas Rochon, Culture Moves: Ideas, Activism, and Changing Values (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), 22-25. (See also the comparable "subaltern counterpublics" concept in Nancy Fraser, "Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy," in Craig Calhoun, editor, Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1992), 109-142, 124. In addition to interpersonal networks, these critical communities often employ internal (or even mainstream) media channels to communicate viewpoints, (re)construct collective identities, develop strategies, and build organizations.
110. Thomas Rochon, Culture Moves: Ideas, Activism, and Changing Values (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), 22-25. (See also the comparable "subaltern counterpublics" concept in Nancy Fraser, "Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy," in Craig Calhoun, editor, Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1992), 109-142, 124. In addition to interpersonal networks, these critical communities often employ internal (or even mainstream) media channels to communicate viewpoints, (re)construct collective identities, develop strategies, and build organizations.
111. See, for instance, Mimi Sheller, "The Mechanisms of Mobility and Liquidity: Rethinking the Movement in Social Movements," http://www.comp.lancaster.ac.uk/ sociology/soc076ms.html (2001), and Sean Chabot, "Transnational Ties That Bind: The Gandhian Repertoire's Passage from India to the American Civil Rights Movement," Amsterdam Sociologisch Tijdschrift 29 (2002): 313-339.
112. See, for instance, Mimi Sheller, "The Mechanisms of Mobility and Liquidity: Rethinking the Movement in Social Movements," http://www.comp.lancaster.ac.uk/ sociology/soc076ms.html (2001), and Sean Chabot, "Transnational Ties That Bind: The Gandhian Repertoire's Passage from India to the American Civil Rights Movement," Amsterdam Sociologisch Tijdschrift 29 (2002): 313-339.
113. We suggest that there are two distinct fields of diffusion: the field of transmission and the field of reception. We stress the fluidity and permeability of these fields, not their internal order or external borders. In our case studies, moreover, we concentrate primarily on the field of reception rather than the field of transmission. For more on the field concept, see especially the interview with Pierre Bourdieu in Loic J. D. Wacquant, "Towards a Reflexive Sociology: A Workshop with Pierre Bourdieu," Sociological Theory 7/1 (Spring 1989): 26-63, 38-41, and Pierre Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990). Our relational approach is closest to Mustafa Emirbayer, "Manifesto."
114. We suggest that there are two distinct fields of diffusion: the field of transmission and the field of reception. We stress the fluidity and permeability of these fields, not their internal order or external borders. In our case studies, moreover, we concentrate primarily on the field of reception rather than the field of transmission. For more on the field concept, see especially the interview with Pierre Bourdieu in Loic J. D. Wacquant, "Towards a Reflexive Sociology: A Workshop with Pierre Bourdieu," Sociological Theory 7/1 (Spring 1989): 26-63, 38-41, and Pierre Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990). Our relational approach is closest to Mustafa Emirbayer, "Manifesto."
115. Blaut, "Diffusionism," 34.
116. Fox, "Passage from India," 67.
117. Although we once again borrow the terms dislocation and relocation from Fox ("Passage from India," 75-79), our interpretation of the latter concept is slightly different. Whereas Fox highlights the role of individual intellectuals in achieving relocation, we put more emphasis on receivers' collective and practical experimentations with the diffusion item in specific locations.
118. Chabot, "Transnational Diffusion," Scalmer, "Labour of Diffusion," and Mustafa Emirbayer and Ann Mische, "What is Agency?" American Journal of Sociology 103 (1998): 962-1023.
119. In other words, these diffusion mechanisms are dual in the sense that they both enable and constrain transnational diffusion. Empirical and historical evidence needs to bear out whether the diffusion mechanisms as a whole facilitate or hinder the transnational diffusion process. For more on duality, see especially William H. Sewell, Jr., "A Theory of Structure: Duality, Agency, and Social Transformation," American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992): 1-29.
120. Although we borrow heavily from McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly, we modify their definitions of brokerage and what they call "social appropriation" to suit the study of transnational diffusion between social movements. Furthermore, whereas they emphasize the social appropriation of existing institutions and collective identities, we argue that collective appropriation may also involve and lead to new groups. McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly, Dynamics of Contention, 26, 102, 47-48.
121. Chabot, "Transnational Ties That Bind."
122. We borrow the notion of "oppositional" from Stuart Hall, "The Television Discourse-Encoding and Decoding," Education and Culture 5 (1974).
123. Mohandas K. Gandhi, Satyagraha in South Africa (Madras: Ganesan, 1928), chapter 12.
124. Like Charles Tilly, we define repertoire as a set of routines that a protest group learns, shares, and applies in its interactions with opponents, potential followers, and bystanders. Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (New York: Random House, 1978), and "Contentious Repertoires in Great Britain, 1758-1834," in Mark Traugott, editor, Repertoires and Cycles of Collective Action (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995), 15-42.
125. Like Charles Tilly, we define repertoire as a set of routines that a protest group learns, shares, and applies in its interactions with opponents, potential followers, and bystanders. Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (New York: Random House, 1978), and "Contentious Repertoires in Great Britain, 1758-1834," in Mark Traugott, editor, Repertoires and Cycles of Collective Action (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995), 15-42.
126. See, for instance, Joan Bondurant, Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971 [1958]), Bhikhu Parekh, Colonialism, Tradition and Reform: An Analysis of Gandhi's Political Discourse (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1989), and Dennis Dalton, Mahatma Gandhi: Nonviolent Power in Action (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).
127. See, for instance, Joan Bondurant, Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971 [1958]), Bhikhu Parekh, Colonialism, Tradition and Reform: An Analysis of Gandhi's Political Discourse (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1989), and Dennis Dalton, Mahatma Gandhi: Nonviolent Power in Action (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).
128. See, for instance, Joan Bondurant, Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971 [1958]), Bhikhu Parekh, Colonialism, Tradition and Reform: An Analysis of Gandhi's Political Discourse (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1989), and Dennis Dalton, Mahatma Gandhi: Nonviolent Power in Action (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).
129. Ravinder Kumar, editor, Essays on Gandhian Politics: The Rowlatt Satyagraha of 1919 (London: Oxford University Press, 1971).
130. For more on forms of action, see Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution and "Contentious Repertoires in Great Britain." For more on organizational style, see Elisabeth Clemens, "Organizational Form as Frame: Collective Identity and Political Strategy in the American Labor Movement, 1880-1920," in McAdam, McCarthy, and Zald, Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements, 205-226. And for more on discursive language, see Marc W. Steinberg, "Repertoires of Discourse: The Case of the Spitalfields Silk Weavers and the Moral Economy of Conflict," in Traugott, Cycles and Repertoire of Collective Action, 57-88, and "The Talk and Back Talk of Collective Action: A Dialogic Analysis of Repertoires of Discourse among Nineteenth-Century English Cotton Spinners," American Journal of Sociology 105 (1999): 736-380.
131. For more on forms of action, see Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution and "Contentious Repertoires in Great Britain." For more on organizational style, see Elisabeth Clemens, "Organizational Form as Frame: Collective Identity and Political Strategy in the American Labor Movement, 1880-1920," in McAdam, McCarthy, and Zald, Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements, 205-226. And for more on discursive language, see Marc W. Steinberg, "Repertoires of Discourse: The Case of the Spitalfields Silk Weavers and the Moral Economy of Conflict," in Traugott, Cycles and Repertoire of Collective Action, 57-88, and "The Talk and Back Talk of Collective Action: A Dialogic Analysis of Repertoires of Discourse among Nineteenth-Century English Cotton Spinners," American Journal of Sociology 105 (1999): 736-380.
132. For more on forms of action, see Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution and "Contentious Repertoires in Great Britain." For more on organizational style, see Elisabeth Clemens, "Organizational Form as Frame: Collective Identity and Political Strategy in the American Labor Movement, 1880-1920," in McAdam, McCarthy, and Zald, Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements, 205-226. And for more on discursive language, see Marc W. Steinberg, "Repertoires of Discourse: The Case of the Spitalfields Silk Weavers and the Moral Economy of Conflict," in Traugott, Cycles and Repertoire of Collective Action, 57-88, and "The Talk and Back Talk of Collective Action: A Dialogic Analysis of Repertoires of Discourse among Nineteenth-Century English Cotton Spinners," American Journal of Sociology 105 (1999): 736-380.
133. For more on forms of action, see Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution and "Contentious Repertoires in Great Britain." For more on organizational style, see Elisabeth Clemens, "Organizational Form as Frame: Collective Identity and Political Strategy in the American Labor Movement, 1880-1920," in McAdam, McCarthy, and Zald, Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements, 205-226. And for more on discursive language, see Marc W. Steinberg, "Repertoires of Discourse: The Case of the Spitalfields Silk Weavers and the Moral Economy of Conflict," in Traugott, Cycles and Repertoire of Collective Action, 57-88, and "The Talk and Back Talk of Collective Action: A Dialogic Analysis of Repertoires of Discourse among Nineteenth-Century English Cotton Spinners," American Journal of Sociology 105 (1999): 736-380.
134. Horace Alexander, Gandhi Through Western Eyes (Philadelphia: New Society Publishers, 1969). For more on the significance of the Salt March, see Gene Sharp, Gandhi Wields the Weapon of Moral Power: Three Case Histories (Ahmedabad: Navajivan, 1960), Dalton, Nonviolent Power in Action, and Thomas Weber, On the Salt March: The Historiography of Gandhi's March to Dandi (New Delhi: HarperCollins, 1997). For more on the decline during the 1940s, see Richard G. Fox, Gandhian Utopia: Experiments with Culture (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989).
135. Horace Alexander, Gandhi Through Western Eyes (Philadelphia: New Society Publishers, 1969). For more on the significance of the Salt March, see Gene Sharp, Gandhi Wields the Weapon of Moral Power: Three Case Histories (Ahmedabad: Navajivan, 1960), Dalton, Nonviolent Power in Action, and Thomas Weber, On the Salt March: The Historiography of Gandhi's March to Dandi (New Delhi: HarperCollins, 1997). For more on the decline during the 1940s, see Richard G. Fox, Gandhian Utopia: Experiments with Culture (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989).
136. Horace Alexander, Gandhi Through Western Eyes (Philadelphia: New Society Publishers, 1969). For more on the significance of the Salt March, see Gene Sharp, Gandhi Wields the Weapon of Moral Power: Three Case Histories (Ahmedabad: Navajivan, 1960), Dalton, Nonviolent Power in Action, and Thomas Weber, On the Salt March: The Historiography of Gandhi's March to Dandi (New Delhi: HarperCollins, 1997). For more on the decline during the 1940s, see Richard G. Fox, Gandhian Utopia: Experiments with Culture (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989).
137. Horace Alexander, Gandhi Through Western Eyes (Philadelphia: New Society Publishers, 1969). For more on the significance of the Salt March, see Gene Sharp, Gandhi Wields the Weapon of Moral Power: Three Case Histories (Ahmedabad: Navajivan, 1960), Dalton, Nonviolent Power in Action, and Thomas Weber, On the Salt March: The Historiography of Gandhi's March to Dandi (New Delhi: HarperCollins, 1997). For more on the decline during the 1940s, see Richard G. Fox, Gandhian Utopia: Experiments with Culture (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989).
138. Horace Alexander, Gandhi Through Western Eyes (Philadelphia: New Society Publishers, 1969). For more on the significance of the Salt March, see Gene Sharp, Gandhi Wields the Weapon of Moral Power: Three Case Histories (Ahmedabad: Navajivan, 1960), Dalton, Nonviolent Power in Action, and Thomas Weber, On the Salt March: The Historiography of Gandhi's March to Dandi (New Delhi: HarperCollins, 1997). For more on the decline during the 1940s, see Richard G. Fox, Gandhian Utopia: Experiments with Culture (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989).
139. See also, Chabot, "Transnational Diffusion."
140. Dennis Altman, Homosexual: Oppression and Liberation (New York: Outerbridge and Dienstfrey, 1971), 2.
141. The SHC had branches throughout Germany and one in the Netherlands. Jeffrey Weeks, Coming Out: Homosexual Politics in Britain, from the Nineteenth Century to the Present (London: Quartet Books, 1977), 6, 129.
142. Weeks, Coming Out, 132-137.
143. Only Der Kreis in neutral Switzerland was able to survive the war.
144. Weeks, Coming Out, 154-155.
145. Steven Epstein, "Gay and Lesbian Movements in the United States: Dilemmas of Identity, Diversity, and Political Strategy," in Barry D. Adam, Jan Willem Duyvendak, and André Krouwel, editors, The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics: National imprints of a Worldwide Movement (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999), 30-90, 35-36; John D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1940-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983); and Harry Hay, Radically Gay: Gay Liberation in the Words of Its Founder (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996).
146. Steven Epstein, "Gay and Lesbian Movements in the United States: Dilemmas of Identity, Diversity, and Political Strategy," in Barry D. Adam, Jan Willem Duyvendak, and André Krouwel, editors, The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics: National imprints of a Worldwide Movement (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999), 30-90, 35-36; John D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1940-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983); and Harry Hay, Radically Gay: Gay Liberation in the Words of Its Founder (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996).
147. Steven Epstein, "Gay and Lesbian Movements in the United States: Dilemmas of Identity, Diversity, and Political Strategy," in Barry D. Adam, Jan Willem Duyvendak, and André Krouwel, editors, The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics: National imprints of a Worldwide Movement (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999), 30-90, 35-36; John D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1940-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983); and Harry Hay, Radically Gay: Gay Liberation in the Words of Its Founder (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996).
148. Weeks, Coming Out, 188-189.
149. Ibid., 192.
150. Ibid., 206. Steven Epstein similarly argues that although the gay and lesbian movement continued to grow in the early 1970s, the role of radical activists declined after 1971: "Gay liberation impelled a rapid proliferation of gay organizations: at the time of Stonewall, there were only about fifty lesbian or gay groups in the entire United States; by the end of 1973, there were more than a thousand …. But the groups with a radical and comprehensive political agenda soon faded from the scene. By 1971, New York's GLF had splintered into factions, and within a few years GLF … chapters had disbanded around the country." Epstein, "Gay and Lesbian Movements in the United States," 41.
151. Ibid., 206. Steven Epstein similarly argues that although the gay and lesbian movement continued to grow in the early 1970s, the role of radical activists declined after 1971: "Gay liberation impelled a rapid proliferation of gay organizations: at the time of Stonewall, there were only about fifty lesbian or gay groups in the entire United States; by the end of 1973, there were more than a thousand …. But the groups with a radical and comprehensive political agenda soon faded from the scene. By 1971, New York's GLF had splintered into factions, and within a few years GLF … chapters had disbanded around the country." Epstein, "Gay and Lesbian Movements in the United States," 41.
152. As Altman notes: "The creation of the 'person with AIDS' as a specific identity clearly drew on earlier gay models of 'coming out' …" Dennis Altman, Global Sex (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 74.
153. Altman, Global Sex.
154. Gay and lesbian activism in Africa has remained very limited, particularly due to high levels of state repression and social intolerance. The only possible exception is South Africa, but here homosexual protest groups such as the Organisation for Lesbian and Gay Action (OLGA) emerged as a result of their alignment with the ANC, not in response to the AIDS epidemic. Mai Palmberg, "Emerging Visibility of Gays and Lesbians in Southern Africa: Contrasting Contexts," in Adam, Duyvendak, Krouwel, The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics, 266-292, 272. See also, Matthew Roberts, "Emergence of Gay Identity and Gay Social Movements in Developing Countries: The AIDS Crisis as Catalyst," Alternatives 20 (1995): 243-264, and Neville Hoad, "Between the White Man's Burden and the White Man's Disease: Tracking Lesbian and Gay Human Rights in Southern Africa," in Povinelli and Chauncey, GLQ: Thinking Sexuality Transnationally, 559-581.
155. Gay and lesbian activism in Africa has remained very limited, particularly due to high levels of state repression and social intolerance. The only possible exception is South Africa, but here homosexual protest groups such as the Organisation for Lesbian and Gay Action (OLGA) emerged as a result of their alignment with the ANC, not in response to the AIDS epidemic. Mai Palmberg, "Emerging Visibility of Gays and Lesbians in Southern Africa: Contrasting Contexts," in Adam, Duyvendak, Krouwel, The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics, 266-292, 272. See also, Matthew Roberts, "Emergence of Gay Identity and Gay Social Movements in Developing Countries: The AIDS Crisis as Catalyst," Alternatives 20 (1995): 243-264, and Neville Hoad, "Between the White Man's Burden and the White Man's Disease: Tracking Lesbian and Gay Human Rights in Southern Africa," in Povinelli and Chauncey, GLQ: Thinking Sexuality Transnationally, 559-581.
156. Gay and lesbian activism in Africa has remained very limited, particularly due to high levels of state repression and social intolerance. The only possible exception is South Africa, but here homosexual protest groups such as the Organisation for Lesbian and Gay Action (OLGA) emerged as a result of their alignment with the ANC, not in response to the AIDS epidemic. Mai Palmberg, "Emerging Visibility of Gays and Lesbians in Southern Africa: Contrasting Contexts," in Adam, Duyvendak, Krouwel, The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics, 266-292, 272. See also, Matthew Roberts, "Emergence of Gay Identity and Gay Social Movements in Developing Countries: The AIDS Crisis as Catalyst," Alternatives 20 (1995): 243-264, and Neville Hoad, "Between the White Man's Burden and the White Man's Disease: Tracking Lesbian and Gay Human Rights in Southern Africa," in Povinelli and Chauncey, GLQ: Thinking Sexuality Transnationally, 559-581.
157. For more on this critical community, see especially Lawrence Wittner, Rebels Against War: The American Peace Movement, 1941-1960 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969).
158. For more on the correspondence between Holmes and Gandhi, see E. S. Reddy, editor, Mahatma Gandhi: Letters to Americans (New Delhi: Bhavan's Book University, 1998).
159. In contrast to the religious-pacifist critical community, this critical community relied almost exclusively on Du Bois. See, for instance, Elliott W. Rudwick, W. E. B. Du Bois: Propagandist of the Negro Protest (New York: MacMillan, 1968), and George M. Fredrickson, Black Liberation: A Comparative History of Black Ideologies in the United States and South Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995). Other members had similar affiliations as Du Bois-particularly the African-American universities and bourgeois civic associations like the NAACP and the NUL-and also belonged to the African-American cultural elite that emerged with the Harlem Renaissance during the 1920s and 1930s. See especially, Nathan Huggins, Harlem Renaissance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971).
160. In contrast to the religious-pacifist critical community, this critical community relied almost exclusively on Du Bois. See, for instance, Elliott W. Rudwick, W. E. B. Du Bois: Propagandist of the Negro Protest (New York: MacMillan, 1968), and George M. Fredrickson, Black Liberation: A Comparative History of Black Ideologies in the United States and South Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995). Other members had similar affiliations as Du Bois-particularly the African-American universities and bourgeois civic associations like the NAACP and the NUL-and also belonged to the African-American cultural elite that emerged with the Harlem Renaissance during the 1920s and 1930s. See especially, Nathan Huggins, Harlem Renaissance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971).
161. In contrast to the religious-pacifist critical community, this critical community relied almost exclusively on Du Bois. See, for instance, Elliott W. Rudwick, W. E. B. Du Bois: Propagandist of the Negro Protest (New York: MacMillan, 1968), and George M. Fredrickson, Black Liberation: A Comparative History of Black Ideologies in the United States and South Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995). Other members had similar affiliations as Du Bois-particularly the African-American universities and bourgeois civic associations like the NAACP and the NUL-and also belonged to the African-American cultural elite that emerged with the Harlem Renaissance during the 1920s and 1930s. See especially, Nathan Huggins, Harlem Renaissance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971).
162. Richard Gregg, The Power of Nonviolence (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1934).
163. Krishnalal Shridharani, War Without Violence: A Study of Gandhi's Method and its Accomplishments (New York: Harcourt and Brace, 1939).
164. Behind the scenes, Rustin (perhaps the most inventive Gandhian in the United States) was the architect of the SCLC. See, for instance, David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (New York: Vintage Books, 1986).
165. In drafting the statement of purpose, the students were led by African-American minister and FOR member James Lawson, a dedicated Gandhian. Lawson had lived in India at the beginning of the 1950s and learned about satyagraha from the Indian Gandhians who remained active after Gandhi's death in 1948. See especially, David Halberstam, The Children (New York: Random House, 1998).
166. Epstein, "Gay and Lesbian Movements in the United States," 53.
167. Ibid., 55-56.
168. Olivier Fillieule and Jan Willem Duyvendak, "Gay and Lesbian Activism in France: Between Integration and Community-Oriented Movements," in Adam, Duyvendak, Krouwel, The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics, 184-213.
169. Quoted in Altman, Global Sex, 126.
170. James N. Green, "More Love and More Desire: The Building of a Brazilian Movement," in Adam, Duyvendak, Krouwel, The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics, 91-109, 102-106, and
171. Sean Patrick Larvie, "Queerness and the Specter of Brazilian National Ruin," in Elizabeth A. Povinelli and George Chauncey, GLQ: Thinking Sexuality Transnationally 5/4 (1999): 527-558.
172. Geoffrey Woolcock and Dennis Altman, "The Largest Street Party in the World: The Gay and Lesbian Movement in Australia," in Adam Duyvendak, Krouwel, The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics, 326-343, 337-338.
173. Woolcock and Altman, "Largest Street Party," 341, and Dennis Altman, Power and Community: Organizational and Cultural Responses to AIDS (London: Falmer, 1994). We might add that these homosexual itinerants from Puerto Rico and Asia, in turn, could be important sources for new homosexual ideas and practices in the United States, Australia, and Europe. To make this potential for cross-fertilization come true, however, Western activists will need to adapt the non-Western innovations to their own environment.
174. Woolcock and Altman, "Largest Street Party," 341, and Dennis Altman, Power and Community: Organizational and Cultural Responses to AIDS (London: Falmer, 1994). We might add that these homosexual itinerants from Puerto Rico and Asia, in turn, could be important sources for new homosexual ideas and practices in the United States, Australia, and Europe. To make this potential for cross-fertilization come true, however, Western activists will need to adapt the non-Western innovations to their own environment.
175. The New York Times, for instance, repeatedly stressed that satyagraha could only work in India. In 1921, it claimed that Gandhi was a traditional "ascetic … whose popularity among the Hindus appeared to have attained almost Messianistic proportions" (May 17: 2, 7). And in 1924, it argued that Gandhi's fasts for political purposes symbolized the "difference between East and West" (September 20: 14, 6). See also, Fox, "Passage from India," 71-72.
176. Fox, "Passage from India," 72.
177. Ibid., 73.
178. W. E. B. Du Bois, "As the Crow Flies," New York Amsterdam News (March 13, 1943).
179. W. E. B. Du Bois, "The Immediate Program of the American Negro," The Crisis IX/6 (April 1915): 310-312.
180. Howard Thurman, With Head and Heart: The Autobiography of Howard Thurman (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1976).
181. Benjamin Mays, "Gandhi and Non-Violence," Norfolk Journal and Guide (May 22, 1937): 8.
182. James Farmer, Lay Bare the Heart: An Autobiography of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: New American Library, 1985), 74.
183. Farmer argued that since most African Americans were not pacifists his organization would have to accept nonpacifists as well. Farmer, Lay Bare the Heart, 356.
184. Farmer, Lay Bare the Heart, 112. See also, August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement, 1942-1968 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973).
185. Farmer, Lay Bare the Heart, 112. See also, August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement, 1942-1968 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973).
186. A. Philip Randolph, "Keynote Address to the Policy Conference of the March on Washington Movement," in March on Washington Movement: Proceedings of Conference Held in Detroit, September 26-27, (1942): 4-11. See also
187. Francis L. Broderick and August Meier, editors, Negro Protest Thought in the Twentieth Century (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1965), 206-207.
188. See Scalmer, "Translation" and Chabot, "Transnational Diffusion."
189. See Scalmer, "Translation" and Chabot, "Transnational Diffusion."
190. See, for example, Jan Willem Duyvendak, The Power of Politics: New Social Movements in France (Boulder: Westview, 1995).
191. ACT UP!-Paris, Le SIDA: Combien de devisions? (Paris: Dagorno, 1994), 111-112, 209-210. See also, Fillieule and Duyvendak, "Gay and Lesbian Activism in France," 199-200.
192. ACT UP!-Paris, Le SIDA: Combien de devisions? (Paris: Dagorno, 1994), 111-112, 209-210. See also, Fillieule and Duyvendak, "Gay and Lesbian Activism in France," 199-200.
193. Like American political institutions, Dutch political institutions are pluralist in that they recognize demands made by minority groups, whereas French political institutions are republican in that they primarily respond to demands made by individual citizens acting in the name of French society as a whole. Fillieule and Duyvendak," Gay and Lesbian Activism in France," 186, 205.
194. As Duyvendak notes, rapid and easy successes for the Dutch ACT UP! in its negotiations with the government contributed to gay and lesbian activists' apathy, cooptation, and lack of radicalization. Thus, homophobia in the United States and France inspired relatively militant AIDS protest, while lack of homophobia in the Netherlands helped prevent it. Jan Willem Duyvendak, "De Hollandse aanpakvan een epidemie: Of waarom ACT UP! In Nederland niet kon doorbreken," Acta Politica 30/2 (1995): 189-214, 200-201.
195. Lisa Rofel, "Qualities of Desire: Imagining Gay Identities in China," in Povinelli and Chauncey, GLQ: Thinking Sexuality Transnationally, 451-474, 461-467.
196. Frances Negrón-Muntaner, "When I Was a Puerto Rican Lesbian: Meditations on Brincando el charco: Portrait of a Puerto Rican," in Povinelli and Chauncey, GLQ: Thinking Sexuality Transnationally, 511-526. This is an obvious example of transnational diffusion from the core (the United States) to the periphery (Puerto Rico), and from the Western colonizer to the non-Western colonized.
197. Negrón-Muntaner, "When I Was a Puerto Rican Lesbian," 523.
198. South Africa is a partial exception, although here gay and lesbian activist groups such as the National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality primarily made progress by entering into an alliance with the ANC, not by adopting the most recent form of "coming out." See Palmberg, "Gays and Lesbians in Southern Africa," 274 and Hoad, "Between the White Man's Burden and the White Man's Disease."
199. See Palmberg, "Gays and Lesbians in Southern Africa," 275-282, and Hoad, "Between the White Man's Burden and the White Man's Disease."
200. Quoted in Palmberg, "Gays and Lesbians in Southern Africa," 284.
201. Unlike in the United States and France, therefore, homophobia in Zimbabwe and Namibia discourages experimentation with (or even consideration of) the diffusion item, despite the horrific number of AIDS victims in these and other African countries.
202. Jervis Anderson, Bayard Rustin: Troubles I've Seen (New York, HarperCollins, 1997), 71.
203. Farmer, Lay Bare the Heart, 94 and Meier and Rudwick, CORE.
204. Paula Pfeffer, A. Philip Randolph: Pioneer of the Civil Rights Movement (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1990), 58-60, and Herbert Garfinkel, When Negroes March (New York: Atheneum, 1959).
205. Paula Pfeffer, A. Philip Randolph: Pioneer of the Civil Rights Movement (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1990), 58-60, and Herbert Garfinkel, When Negroes March (New York: Atheneum, 1959).
206. Lohia was one of the few activists who remained Gandhian after Gandhi's death in 1948. See Fox, Gandhian Utopia.
207. Wittner, Rebels Against War. The NAACP's most dramatic legal victory during these years was the Supreme Court's Brown versus Board of Education decision in 1954.
208. Stewart Burns, editor, Daybreak of Freedom: The Montgomery Bus Boycott (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
209. See, for example, Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), Halberstam, The Children, and John Lewis, Walking with the Wind: A Memoir of the Movement (San Diego: Harcourt Brace, 1998).
210. See, for example, Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), Halberstam, The Children, and John Lewis, Walking with the Wind: A Memoir of the Movement (San Diego: Harcourt Brace, 1998).
211. See, for example, Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), Halberstam, The Children, and John Lewis, Walking with the Wind: A Memoir of the Movement (San Diego: Harcourt Brace, 1998).
212. The majority of CORE members did not lose faith in nonviolence until the mid-1960s, when Black Power became the slogan (and method) of choice. See Meier and Rudwick, CORE, and Inge Powell Bell, CORE and the Strategy of Nonviolence (New York: Random House, 1968).
213. The majority of CORE members did not lose faith in nonviolence until the mid-1960s, when Black Power became the slogan (and method) of choice. See Meier and Rudwick, CORE, and Inge Powell Bell, CORE and the Strategy of Nonviolence (New York: Random House, 1968).
214. In fact, the SCLC was Bayard Rustin's brainchild. He designed the SCLC as a vehicle for the leadership of King and other African-American ministers. See Garrow, Bearing the Cross.
215. Altman, Homosexual.
216. Woolcock and Altman, "Largest Street Party," 341, and Altman, Global Sex.
217. Woolcock and Altman, "Largest Street Party," 341, and Altman, Global Sex.
218. If we look beyond Dennis Altman himself, moreover, we find that brokerage and collective appropriation among American and Australian homosexuals did not proceed smoothly or cumulatively.
219. Rofel, "Qualities of Desire," 451-453, 467-471.
220. Ibid., 459-462.
221. Ibid., 470.
222. Scalmer, "Translation" and "Labour of Diffusion."
223. For a similar critique of John Meyer and the world society approach (or what they call world polity theory), see Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998): 33.
224. Blaut refers to this assumption as uniformitarianism: "that all communities have equal potential for invention and innovation, regardless of whether for the landscape as a whole the overall propensity is low or high … all human beings share the same basic psychological attributes and capabilities." Blaut, "Diffusionism," 34.
225. Arjun Appadurai, "Global Ethnoscapes: Notes and Queries for a Transnational Anthropology," in Richard G. Fox, editor, Recapturing Anthropology (Santa Fe: School for American Research Press, 1991), 191-210, 200.
226. Hannerz expresses support for David Strang and John Meyer's view of world culture's influence on transnational diffusion, and writes that: "In modernity, the right things, at least, can get from anywhere to anywhere (although that tends to mean from center to periphery)." Hannerz, Transnational Connections, 51 (emphasis ours). He also accepts Robert Merton's distinction between locals and cosmopolitans, despite its elitist implications: "When locals were influential, Robert Merton … found in his classic study, their influence rested not so much on what they knew as on whom they knew. Cosmopolitans, in contrast, based whatever influence they had on a knowledge less tied to particular others, or to the unique community setting. They came equipped with special knowledge, and they could leave and take it with them without devaluing it." Hannerz, Transnational Connections, 108. Of course, Merton's work was one of the main sources for classical diffusion theory (and Rogers's Diffusion of Innovations) in particular and modernization theory in general.