Ethnicity and equality in post-communist economic transition: Evidence from Russia's Republics

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 54, Issue 5, 2002, Pages 673-699

  Bahry, Donna ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ETHNICITY; POST-COMMUNISM; SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS; TRANSITIONAL ECONOMY;

NORTH OSSETIA; RUSSIAN FEDERATION; SAKHA; TATARSTAN;

EID: 0036329901     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09668130220147001     Document Type: Article

References (80)

1. Data for this study were collected with support from the National Science Foundation (SBR 9601417 and OPP 0082781) and the National Council for Eurasian and East European Research. Thanks are due to the Institute for European, Russian and Eurasian Studies of The George Washington University, and the staff of the European Reading Room of the Library of Congress for their research support.
2. The term is from Michael Hechter, 'Group Formation and the Cultural Division of Labor', American Journal of Sociology, 84, 2, 1978, pp. 293-318.
3. Julian Birch notes, for example, that North Ossetia has relied heavily on aid from Moscow to cope with refugees from the South, and on political support from Moscow in the ongoing battle with Ingushetia; see his 'Ossetiya - Land of Uncertain Frontiers and Manipulative Elites', Central Asian Survey, 18, 4, 1999, pp. 501-534.
4. Branko Milanovic, Income, Inequality and Poverty During the Transition from Planned to Market Economy (Washington, DC, World Bank, 1999), p. 197; European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Transition Report 2000: Employment, Skills and Transition (London, EBRD, 2000), p. 65.
5. Branko Milanovic, Income, Inequality and Poverty During the Transition from Planned to Market Economy (Washington, DC, World Bank, 1999), p. 197; European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Transition Report 2000: Employment, Skills and Transition (London, EBRD, 2000), p. 65.
6. Ibid.
7. Reported unemployment rates are from Regiony Rossii: Statisticheskii sbornik 1998, vol. 2 (Moscow, Goskomstat, 1998), p. 89; and Regiony Rossii: Statisticheskii sbornik 1999, vol. 2 (Moscow, Goskomstat, 1999), p. 97. These volumes give slightly different figures for the same year, but the differences are extremely small.
8. Reported unemployment rates are from Regiony Rossii: Statisticheskii sbornik 1998, vol. 2 (Moscow, Goskomstat, 1998), p. 89; and Regiony Rossii: Statisticheskii sbornik 1999, vol. 2 (Moscow, Goskomstat, 1999), p. 97. These volumes give slightly different figures for the same year, but the differences are extremely small.
9. Milanovic, Income, Inequality and Poverty, p. 41.
10. Regiony Rossii: Statisticheskii sbornik 1999, p. 134. The EBRD reports a poverty level for 2000 of 35% (Transition Report 2000, p. 204).
11. Regiony Rossii: Statisticheskii sbornik 1999, p. 134. The EBRD reports a poverty level for 2000 of 35% (Transition Report 2000, p. 204).
12. Jeanine D. Braithwaite, 'The Old and New Poor in Russia', in Jeni Klugman (ed.), Poverty in Russia: Public Policy and Private Responses (Washington, DC, World Bank, 1997), pp. 29-64; Michael Lokshin & Barry Popkin, 'The Emerging Underclass in the Russian Federation: Income Dynamics, 1992-1996', Economic Development and Cultural Change, 47, 1999, pp. 803-829.
13. Jeanine D. Braithwaite, 'The Old and New Poor in Russia', in Jeni Klugman (ed.), Poverty in Russia: Public Policy and Private Responses (Washington, DC, World Bank, 1997), pp. 29-64; Michael Lokshin & Barry Popkin, 'The Emerging Underclass in the Russian Federation: Income Dynamics, 1992-1996', Economic Development and Cultural Change, 47, 1999, pp. 803-829.
14. The 12 republics with poverty levels of 30% or more in 1997 (and the total percentage of the population below the poverty line) included Ingushetia (76.9), Tyva (62.4), Dagestan (53.9), Mari-El (52.1), Kalmykia (46), Buryatia (44.3), Karachaevo-Cherkessk (41), Adygeia (40.2), Kabardino-Balkaria (39.8), Altai republic (39.2), Mordovia (38.6) and North Ossetia (33.9). Seven of these are in the North Caucasus. (No data are available for Chechnya.) The nine Russian regions with poverty levels of 30% were Chita ablast' (61.2), Altai krai (45.7), Kurgan oblast' (42.6), Novosibirsk oblast' (39.3), Penza oblast' (38), Stavropol' krai (34.8), Sakhalin oblast' (32.8), Saratov ablast' (32.1) and Kirov oblast' (30.8) (see Regiony Rossii, Statisticheskii sbornik, 1999, pp. 134-135).
15. I am using the terms 'titular' and 'indigenous' interchangeably, to avoid repeating the same term. Note though that there is some controversy on the question of who should be counted as 'indigenous', since many local Russians - and other nationalities - have long-established roots in each region.
16. A. B. Dzadziev, 'Otraslevoi sostav zanyatogo naseleniya Severnoi Osetii (1959-1989 gg.)', in Voprosy sotsiologii Severnoi Osetii (Vladikavkaz, 1993), p. 45; and L. K. Gostieva & A. B. Dzadziev, 'Ocherki ob etnopoliticheskoi situatsii', in Severnaya Osetiya: etnopoliticheskie protsessy 1990-1994. Ocherki. Dokumenty. Khronika. Tom I (Moscow, Institut etnologii i antropologii, 1995), pp. 14-76. Dzadziev & Gostieva calculated representation across economic branches from the 1989 census data, by taking the proportion of a nationality group employed in a given branch and dividing it by the proportion of all employed in that branch within the republic.
17. A. B. Dzadziev, 'Otraslevoi sostav zanyatogo naseleniya Severnoi Osetii (1959-1989 gg.)', in Voprosy sotsiologii Severnoi Osetii (Vladikavkaz, 1993), p. 45; and L. K. Gostieva & A. B. Dzadziev, 'Ocherki ob etnopoliticheskoi situatsii', in Severnaya Osetiya: etnopoliticheskie protsessy 1990-1994. Ocherki. Dokumenty. Khronika. Tom I (Moscow, Institut etnologii i antropologii, 1995), pp. 14-76. Dzadziev & Gostieva calculated representation across economic branches from the 1989 census data, by taking the proportion of a nationality group employed in a given branch and dividing it by the proportion of all employed in that branch within the republic.
18. Viktoriya Koroteeva, Ekonomicheskie interesy i natsionalizm (Moscow, Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi gumanitarnyi universitet, 2000), p. 151. Roza Musina provides additional data in 'The Problems of Sovereignty and Interethnic Relations in the Republic of Tatarstan', in Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer (ed.), Culture Incarnate: Native Anthropology from Russia (Armonk, NY, M. E. Sharpe, 1995), pp. 113-122.
19. Viktoriya Koroteeva, Ekonomicheskie interesy i natsionalizm (Moscow, Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi gumanitarnyi universitet, 2000), p. 151. Roza Musina provides additional data in 'The Problems of Sovereignty and Interethnic Relations in the Republic of Tatarstan', in Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer (ed.), Culture Incarnate: Native Anthropology from Russia (Armonk, NY, M. E. Sharpe, 1995), pp. 113-122.
20. V. B. Ignat'eva, 'Promyshlennoe osvoenie Yakutii i ego vliyanie na sotsial'noe razvitie korennykh narodov', in Natsional'naya politika v regione. Po materialam Respubliki Sakha (Yakutiya) (Yakutsk, Yakutskii nauchnyi tsentr Sibirskogo otdeleniya RAN, 1993), p. 46; and V. B. Ignat'eva, Natsional'nyi sostav naseleniya Yakutii (Yakutsk, Yakutskii nauchnyi tsentr Sibirskogo otdeleniya RAN, 1994), p. 99. Ignat'eva's data are calculated in the same way as those by Dzadziev & Gostieva.
21. V. B. Ignat'eva, 'Promyshlennoe osvoenie Yakutii i ego vliyanie na sotsial'noe razvitie korennykh narodov', in Natsional'naya politika v regione. Po materialam Respubliki Sakha (Yakutiya) (Yakutsk, Yakutskii nauchnyi tsentr Sibirskogo otdeleniya RAN, 1993), p. 46; and V. B. Ignat'eva, Natsional'nyi sostav naseleniya Yakutii (Yakutsk, Yakutskii nauchnyi tsentr Sibirskogo otdeleniya RAN, 1994), p. 99. Ignat'eva's data are calculated in the same way as those by Dzadziev & Gostieva.
22. Michael Hechter, 'Nationalism as Group Solidarity', Ethnic and Racial Studies, 10, 4, October 1987, pp. 415-226; see also Ronald Rogowski, 'Causes and Varieties of Nationalism: A Rationalist Account', in Edward Tiryakian & Ronald Rogowski (eds), New Nationalisms of the Developed West: Toward Explanation (Boston, Allen and Unwin, 1985), pp. 87-108.
23. Michael Hechter, 'Nationalism as Group Solidarity', Ethnic and Racial Studies, 10, 4, October 1987, pp. 415-226; see also Ronald Rogowski, 'Causes and Varieties of Nationalism: A Rationalist Account', in Edward Tiryakian & Ronald Rogowski (eds), New Nationalisms of the Developed West: Toward Explanation (Boston, Allen and Unwin, 1985), pp. 87-108.
24. Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1996).
25. Milton Esman, 'Ethnic Politics and Economic Power', Comparative Politics, 19, 1987, pp. 295-318.
26. Ibid.
27. Daniel Shapiro & Morton Stelcner, 'Language and Earnings in Quebec: Trends over Twenty Years, 1970-1990', Canadian Public Policy - Analyse de Politiques, 23, 2, 1997, pp. 115-140.
28. Hugh McRoberts, 'Language and Mobility: A Comparison of Three Groups', in Monica Boyd et al., (eds), Ascription and Achievement: Studies in Mobility and Status Attainment in Canada (Ottawa, Carleton University Press, 1985), pp. 335-356; Christopher Taucar, Canadian Federalism and Quebec Sovereignty (New York, Peter Lang, 2000); Richard Wanner, 'Expansion and Ascription: Trends in Educational Opportunity in Canada, 1920-1994', The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 36, 1999, pp. 409-442
29. Hugh McRoberts, 'Language and Mobility: A Comparison of Three Groups', in Monica Boyd et al., (eds), Ascription and Achievement: Studies in Mobility and Status Attainment in Canada (Ottawa, Carleton University Press, 1985), pp. 335-356; Christopher Taucar, Canadian Federalism and Quebec Sovereignty (New York, Peter Lang, 2000); Richard Wanner, 'Expansion and Ascription: Trends in Educational Opportunity in Canada, 1920-1994', The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 36, 1999, pp. 409-442
30. Hugh McRoberts, 'Language and Mobility: A Comparison of Three Groups', in Monica Boyd et al., (eds), Ascription and Achievement: Studies in Mobility and Status Attainment in Canada (Ottawa, Carleton University Press, 1985), pp. 335-356; Christopher Taucar, Canadian Federalism and Quebec Sovereignty (New York, Peter Lang, 2000); Richard Wanner, 'Expansion and Ascription: Trends in Educational Opportunity in Canada, 1920-1994', The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 36, 1999, pp. 409-442
31. Esman, 'Ethnic Politics'.
32. Goh Ban Lee, 'Restructuring Society in Malaysia: Its Impact on Employment and Investment', in S.W. R. de A. Samarasinghe & Reed Coughlan (eds), Economic Dimensions of Ethnic Conflict (London, Pinter, 1991), pp. 74-95.
33. Charles Hirschman, 'Political Independence and Educational Opportunity in Peninsular Malaysia', Sociology of Education, 52, 1979, pp. 67-83; Su-ling Pong, 'Preferential Policies and Secondary School Attainment in Peninsular Malaysia', Sociology of Education, 66, 1993, pp. 245-261.
34. Charles Hirschman, 'Political Independence and Educational Opportunity in Peninsular Malaysia', Sociology of Education, 52, 1979, pp. 67-83; Su-ling Pong, 'Preferential Policies and Secondary School Attainment in Peninsular Malaysia', Sociology of Education, 66, 1993, pp. 245-261.
35. Lee, 'Restructuring Society', pp. 80-93.
36. Leslie Laczko, 'Language, Region, Race, Gender and Income: Perceptions of Inequalities in Quebec and English Canada', in Alan Frizzell & Jon Pammett (eds), Social Inequality in Canada (Ottawa, Carleton University Press, 1996), pp. 107-126.
37. Lee, 'Restructuring Society', pp. 91-92.
38. Darrell Slider, 'Privatization in Russia's Regions', Post-Soviet Affairs, 10, 1994, pp. 367-396.
39. Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer, 'Homelands, Leadership and Self Rule: Observations on Interethnic Relations in the Sakha Republic', Polar Geography, 19, 1995, pp. 284-305; Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer & Uliana Alekseevna Vinokurova, 'Nationalism, Interethnic Relations and Federalism: the Case of the Sakha Republic', Europe-Asia Studies, 48, 1, 1996, pp. 101-120; Oleg Morozov, Tatarstanskaya model' sotsial'no-ekonomicheskikh reform', in Ekonomicheskie reformy v regionakh Rossiiskoi Federatsii: Opyt i perspektivy (Moscow, Institut sovremennoi politiki, 1998), pp. 85-95; Katherine Graney, 'Institutionalizing National Communities in Post-Soviet Russia: The Politics of State Symbols, Public Space, and Culture in Tatarstan and Bashkortostan', American Political Science Association annual meeting, 1998.
40. Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer, 'Homelands, Leadership and Self Rule: Observations on Interethnic Relations in the Sakha Republic', Polar Geography, 19, 1995, pp. 284-305; Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer & Uliana Alekseevna Vinokurova, 'Nationalism, Interethnic Relations and Federalism: the Case of the Sakha Republic', Europe-Asia Studies, 48, 1, 1996, pp. 101-120; Oleg Morozov, Tatarstanskaya model' sotsial'no-ekonomicheskikh reform', in Ekonomicheskie reformy v regionakh Rossiiskoi Federatsii: Opyt i perspektivy (Moscow, Institut sovremennoi politiki, 1998), pp. 85-95; Katherine Graney, 'Institutionalizing National Communities in Post-Soviet Russia: The Politics of State Symbols, Public Space, and Culture in Tatarstan and Bashkortostan', American Political Science Association annual meeting, 1998.
41. Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer, 'Homelands, Leadership and Self Rule: Observations on Interethnic Relations in the Sakha Republic', Polar Geography, 19, 1995, pp. 284-305; Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer & Uliana Alekseevna Vinokurova, 'Nationalism, Interethnic Relations and Federalism: the Case of the Sakha Republic', Europe-Asia Studies, 48, 1, 1996, pp. 101-120; Oleg Morozov, Tatarstanskaya model' sotsial'no-ekonomicheskikh reform', in Ekonomicheskie reformy v regionakh Rossiiskoi Federatsii: Opyt i perspektivy (Moscow, Institut sovremennoi politiki, 1998), pp. 85-95; Katherine Graney, 'Institutionalizing National Communities in Post-Soviet Russia: The Politics of State Symbols, Public Space, and Culture in Tatarstan and Bashkortostan', American Political Science Association annual meeting, 1998.
42. Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer, 'Homelands, Leadership and Self Rule: Observations on Interethnic Relations in the Sakha Republic', Polar Geography, 19, 1995, pp. 284-305; Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer & Uliana Alekseevna Vinokurova, 'Nationalism, Interethnic Relations and Federalism: the Case of the Sakha Republic', Europe-Asia Studies, 48, 1, 1996, pp. 101-120; Oleg Morozov, Tatarstanskaya model' sotsial'no-ekonomicheskikh reform', in Ekonomicheskie reformy v regionakh Rossiiskoi Federatsii: Opyt i perspektivy (Moscow, Institut sovremennoi politiki, 1998), pp. 85-95; Katherine Graney, 'Institutionalizing National Communities in Post-Soviet Russia: The Politics of State Symbols, Public Space, and Culture in Tatarstan and Bashkortostan', American Political Science Association annual meeting, 1998.
43. The strategy in outlined in Perspektivy razvitiya regionov Rossii: Formula Tatarstana (Kazan', Tsentr ekonomicheskikh i sotsial'nykh issledovanii pri Kabinete Ministrov RT, 2001).
44. Vremya i den'gi (Kazan'), 22 June 2000, p. 2.
45. The speaker of the republic parliament, Farid Mukhametshin, noted in a speech to the World Congress of Tatars in 1999 that the republic had avoided the worst fallout of the 1998 financial crisis by retaining golden stakes in enterprises and excluding non-local banks from setting up shop in the republic (author's notes, Kazan', June 1999).
46. Koroteeva, Ekonomicheskie interesy, p. 118.
47. Birch, 'Ossetiya'. Note that the expulsion of the Ingush created the opportunity to resettle southern refugees in abandoned areas.
48. Nezavisimaya gazeta, 8 July 1992, p. 3. North Ossetia has also faced substantial problems with alcohol smuggling from the South. (Raw alcohol is trucked in for processing and bottling in North Ossetia.) One estimate suggested that bootleggers smuggled in some $600 million in raw alcohol during 1996. See Obshchaya gazeta, 31 July-6 August 1997, p. 2.
49. Nezavisimaya gazeta, 8 July 1992, p. 3. North Ossetia has also faced substantial problems with alcohol smuggling from the South. (Raw alcohol is trucked in for processing and bottling in North Ossetia.) One estimate suggested that bootleggers smuggled in some $600 million in raw alcohol during 1996. See Obshchaya gazeta, 31 July-6 August 1997, p. 2.
50. Note, though, that the pattern of political indigenisation has varied across the republics as a whole. In some, the indigenous nationality actually lost ground in legislative elections. See Robert Kaiser, 'Political Indigenization and Homeland-Making in Russia's Republics', Report to the National Council for Eurasian and East European Research, March 2000.
51. The Tatar share was roughly the same in 2000 (95 out of 130 seats), according to Liliya Sagitova, 'Neravenstvo', unpublished ms., Institut Istorii AN RT, Kazan', 2001. By unofficial accounts, the Tatar share of the population by then was slightly over 50%. Earlier data on public office are more difficult to locate, but one source suggests that the Tatar share of party and government posts had been closer to half just before the onset of perestroika. See K. S. Idyatullina, Regional'noe politicheskoe liderstvo v Rossii: Put' evolyutsii (Kazan', Karpol, 1997).
52. For example, Tatars outnumbered Russians by a factor of two or three to one in councils of the four largest cities in the mid-1990s - including predominantly Russian cities such as Kazan' and Naberezhnye Chelny. See Tatarstan: Osnovy politicheskogo ustroistva i kratkaya kharakteristika ekonomiki (Moscow, Panorama, 1996). (This breakdown by nationality is based on coding of Tatar and Russian names.) 38 I could not find published information on how the ethnic make-up of the republic population changed, but unofficial data suggest that Russians had dropped from 30% in 1989 to 26% by 2000.
53. I. E. Spiridonova, 'Aktual'nye problemy etnokul'turnogo vzaimodeistviya v RS (Ya): 90-e gody XX veka', in V. N. Ivanov (ed.), Etnosotsial'noe razvitie respubliki Sakha (Yakutiya) (Novosibirsk, Nauka, 2000), p. 204. Spiridonova puts the Yakut share of the population at 40% in 1996. Another source gives the proportions for 1994 as 39.6% Yakut and 45.5% Russian. See Respublika Sakha v tsifrakh. Kratkii statisticheskii sbornik (Yakutsk, Goskomstat RS, 1998), p. 12.
54. I. E. Spiridonova, 'Aktual'nye problemy etnokul'turnogo vzaimodeistviya v RS (Ya): 90-e gody XX veka', in V. N. Ivanov (ed.), Etnosotsial'noe razvitie respubliki Sakha (Yakutiya) (Novosibirsk, Nauka, 2000), p. 204. Spiridonova puts the Yakut share of the population at 40% in 1996. Another source gives the proportions for 1994 as 39.6% Yakut and 45.5% Russian. See Respublika Sakha v tsifrakh. Kratkii statisticheskii sbornik (Yakutsk, Goskomstat RS, 1998), p. 12.
55. Explanations for political indigenisation vary. Kaiser, 'Political Indigenization', suggests that it may be the product of network and clan politics, and these predictably lead to greater representation for the indigenous nationalities. John Löwenhardt highlights more overt efforts to control public office by manipulating electoral returns in his 'The 1996 Presidential Elections in Tatarstan', Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 13, 1, March 1997, pp. 132-144 and The Village Votes: The December 1999 Elections in Tatarstan's Pestretsy District', Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 16, 3, September 2000, pp. 113-122.
56. Explanations for political indigenisation vary. Kaiser, 'Political Indigenization', suggests that it may be the product of network and clan politics, and these predictably lead to greater representation for the indigenous nationalities. John Löwenhardt highlights more overt efforts to control public office by manipulating electoral returns in his 'The 1996 Presidential Elections in Tatarstan', Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 13, 1, March 1997, pp. 132-144 and The Village Votes: The December 1999 Elections in Tatarstan's Pestretsy District', Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 16, 3, September 2000, pp. 113-122.
57. Sagitova, 'Neravenstvo', and Liliya Sagitova, 'Osobennosti rynochnoi ekonomiki v RT', Zvezda povolzh'ya (Kazan'), 14 June 2000, p. 3.
58. T. P. Petrova & E. T. Myarikyanova, 'Tendentsii etnosotsial'nogo razvitya Sakha i Russkikh', in Ivanov (ed.), Etnosotsial'noe razvitie Respubliki Sakha (Yakutiya), pp. 135-162.
59. Koroteeva, Ekonomicheskie interesy.
60. I conducted interviews with public officials, journalists, scholars and others in Tatarstan each year from 1997 to 2001 and in Sakha in 1997 and 1999-2001. Travel to North Ossetia was ruled out due to the continuing violence there.
61. To facilitate comparisons, both the republic survey data and the RLMS are weighted here.
62. Only working-age respondents are included in the analysis, however.
63. In 1997, for example, the capital city, Yakutsk, had the second highest cost of living in the country (lower only than the capital of Chukotka) (RFE/RL Newsline, 25 August 1997, cited in Eastview Publications Universal Database of Russian Newspapers).
64. The RLMS also included a question on unpaid leave in the past year (the data were not included in Table 5 because the corresponding question for the republics focused on the previous two years). Among non-Russians, 8.9% had been sent on unpaid leave; among Russians, 7.6%.
65. Ian McAllister & Stephen White, 'The Legacy of the Nomenklatura: Economic Privilege in Postcommunist Russia', Coexistence, 32, 1995, pp. 217-239.
66. Note that these are not mutually exclusive, since some firms may have a mix of private and government ownership.
67. The one exception is in North Ossetia, where Russians were significantly more likely to work in government-owned organisations. This may be related to other facets of the CDL not captured in the data here - greater Russian concentration in defence production and in military/police units.
68. The 1997-98 data are from the republic surveys; the 1989 data from Dzadziev, 'Otraslevoi sostav'; Gostieva & Dzadziev, 'Ocherki'; Ignat'eva, 'Promyshlennoe osvoenie' and 'Natsional'nyi sostav'; and Koroteeva, Ekonomicheskie interesy.
69. The Russian regional statistical handbook lists the percentage of workers employed in 'state-owned' or 'mixed-ownership' workplaces as 58.4% for the Russian Federation in 1997, and 73.5% for Tatarstan, 71.0% for North Ossetia and 74.8% for Sakha (Regiony Rossii. Statisticheskii Sbornik 1999, pp. 86-87).
70. A statistical handbook for Sakha lists fewer employees, but it appears to include only federal and republic-level government workers and to exclude local government personnel. Respublika Sakha (Yakutiya) za gody suvereniteta (1990-2000 gg.) (Yakutsk, Goskomstat RS, 2000), p. 10.
71. Rossiiski statisticheskii ezhegodnik, 2000, pp. 19-21, 26-27.
72. Spiridonova reports that the share of students of Sakha nationality in higher education was actually lower by the end of the 1990s than it had been in 1989, due to the opening of filialy in predominantly Russian areas such as Mirnyi and Neryungri (see 'Aktual'nye problemy', p. 204).
73. Sakha ranked higher when it came to the proportion of adults with higher education, since many people simply went to universities or institutes outside the republic.
74. See Balzer & Vinokurova, 'Nationalism, Interethnic Relations and Federalism', pp. 108-111, for an account of such incidents.
75. Koroteeva, Ekonomicheskie interesy, pp. 165-167.
76. Mikk Titma, Nancy Brandon Tuma & Brian D. Silver, 'Winners and Losers in the Postcommunist Transition: New Evidence from Estonia', Post-Soviet Affairs, 12, 2, 1998, pp. 114-136. Aadne Aasland & Tone Flotten found similar evidence of economic differentiation in their surveys of Estonia and Latvia. Slavs were more likely to be unemployed or out of the labour force (net of age, gender, education and rural residence); see their 'Ethnicity and Social Exclusion in Estonia and Latvia', Europe-Asia Studies, 53, 7, 2001, pp. 1023-1049.
77. Mikk Titma, Nancy Brandon Tuma & Brian D. Silver, 'Winners and Losers in the Postcommunist Transition: New Evidence from Estonia', Post-Soviet Affairs, 12, 2, 1998, pp. 114-136. Aadne Aasland & Tone Flotten found similar evidence of economic differentiation in their surveys of Estonia and Latvia. Slavs were more likely to be unemployed or out of the labour force (net of age, gender, education and rural residence); see their 'Ethnicity and Social Exclusion in Estonia and Latvia', Europe-Asia Studies, 53, 7, 2001, pp. 1023-1049.
78. Esman, 'Ethnic Politics'.
79. Liliya Sagitova, Etnichnost' v sovremennom Tatarstane (Kazan', Tatpoligraf, 1998).
80. Dmitry Gorenburg, 'Regional Separatism in Russia: Ethnic Mobilisation or Power Grab?', Europe-Asia Studies, 51, 2, 1999, pp. 245-274.