Regional separatism in Russia: Ethnic mobilisation or power grab?

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 51, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 245-274

  Gorenburg, Dmitry ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

REGIONAL POLITICS; SELF GOVERNMENT; SEPARATISM; SOVEREIGNTY;

RUSSIAN FEDERATION;

EID: 0032991370     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09668139999029     Document Type: Article

References (155)

1. For example Philip Roeder, 'Post-Soviet Institutions and Ethnopolitics', paper presented at 1994 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, p. 18.
2. In addition to the scholars discussed below, the view that ethnic mobilisation was primarily a tool for increasing the power of local élites has recently been endorsed by Valery Tishkov, the director of Russia's leading institute concerned with the study of ethnic politics, in Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict in and After the Soviet Union (London, 1997).
3. Roeder, p. 18
4. Ibid., p. 17.
5. Daniel Treisman, 'The Politics of Intergovernmental Transfers in Post-Soviet Russia', British Journal of Political Science, 26, 2, 1996, pp. 299-335 at p. 327. Italics in the original.
6. Steven Solnick, 'Federal Bargaining in Russia', East European Constitutional Review, 4, 4, 1995, pp. 52-58, at p. 57.
7. Jean-Robert Raviot, 'Tipy natsionalizma, obshchestvo i politika v Tatarstane', Polis, 1992, 5-6, pp. 42-58 at p. 53.
8. See also Jean-Robert Raviot, 'Territoire et Ethnicite au Tatarstan', Archives Européenes de Sociologie, 34, 1993, pp. 169-195.
9. Raviot, 'Tipy ...', p. 49.
10. I view the transition period as beginning in 1988, when glasnost' first spread to Russia's ethnic regions, and ending in 1993-94, with the adoption of the Russian Constitution and the signing of the first bilateral treaties between Russia and its constituent ethnic republics.
11. For more detailed descriptions, see the articles by Gail Fondahl and Allen Frank and Ronald Wixman in Ian Bremmer & Ray Taras (eds), New States, New Politics: Building the Post-Soviet Nations (New York, 1997).
12. Discussion of subsidies throughout this article is based on 1992 data found in Christine Wallich, Russia and the Challenge of Fiscal Federalism (Washington, DC, 1992). For 1995 data that show a similar picture, see Alastair McAuley, 'The Determinants of Russian Federal-Regional Fiscal Relations: Equity or Political Influence?', Europe-Asia Studies, 49, 3, 1997, pp. 431-444. See also Treisman. I am grateful to Daniel Treisman for providing me with unpublished data on total financial transfers to the regions.
13. Discussion of subsidies throughout this article is based on 1992 data found in Christine Wallich, Russia and the Challenge of Fiscal Federalism (Washington, DC, 1992). For 1995 data that show a similar picture, see Alastair McAuley, 'The Determinants of Russian Federal-Regional Fiscal Relations: Equity or Political Influence?', Europe-Asia Studies, 49, 3, 1997, pp. 431-444. See also Treisman. I am grateful to Daniel Treisman for providing me with unpublished data on total financial transfers to the regions.
14. Discussion of subsidies throughout this article is based on 1992 data found in Christine Wallich, Russia and the Challenge of Fiscal Federalism (Washington, DC, 1992). For 1995 data that show a similar picture, see Alastair McAuley, 'The Determinants of Russian Federal-Regional Fiscal Relations: Equity or Political Influence?', Europe-Asia Studies, 49, 3, 1997, pp. 431-444. See also Treisman. I am grateful to Daniel Treisman for providing me with unpublished data on total financial transfers to the regions.
15. The most recent census figures show Russians with 43% of the population and Tatars with 49%.
16. For more on Tatar history, see Azade-Ayse Rorlich, The Volga Tatars (Stanford, CA, 1986).
17. In 1992 subventions formed 30% of the republic's budget (Wallich, p. 277). By 1995, Chuvashia's dependence on central subsidies had decreased - only 20% of the republic budget came from receipts from the federal budget (McAuley, p. 442).
18. In 1992 subventions formed 30% of the republic's budget (Wallich, p. 277). By 1995, Chuvashia's dependence on central subsidies had decreased - only 20% of the republic budget came from receipts from the federal budget (McAuley, p. 442).
19. The territory of Khakassia is in fact the place of origin for all Turkic peoples.
20. By 1995 Khakassia had lost some of this financial independence, depending on subsidies for 13% of its budget (McAuley, p. 442).
21. Likhachev served as vice-president in 1991-95, parliament speaker in 1995-98, and was appointed Russia's representative to the European Union in May 1998.
22. For a discussion of the impact of a strong nationalist movement on local government policies, see Mary McAuley, Russia's Politics of Uncertainty (New York, 1997).
23. Although Chuvashia signed a bilateral treaty with the central government in May 1996, its relations with Moscow were settled much earlier and the treaty was merely a product of Moscow's policy of separating powers between centre and periphery by treaty. For more on bilateral treaties, see Solnick.
24. M. Shaimiev, 'O suverenitete Tatarstana', Sovetskaya Tatariya, 30 August 1990; M. Shaimiev, 'Nasha pozitsiya ostaetsya neizmennoi, no suverenitet respubliki Tatarstan ne budet imet' natsional'noi okraski', Rossiiskaya gazeta, 17 August 1991.
25. M. Shaimiev, 'O suverenitete Tatarstana', Sovetskaya Tatariya, 30 August 1990; M. Shaimiev, 'Nasha pozitsiya ostaetsya neizmennoi, no suverenitet respubliki Tatarstan ne budet imet' natsional'noi okraski', Rossiiskaya gazeta, 17 August 1991.
26. M. Sabirov, 'Suverenizatsiya Tatarstana - protsess neobratimyi', Izvestiya Tatarstana, 12 October 1991.
27. 'Shaimiev, O suverenitete ... '; Sabinov, 'Suverenizatsiya ...'.
28. 'Shaimiev, O suverenitete ... '; Sabinov, 'Suverenizatsiya ...'.
29. Shaimiev 'Nasha pozitsiya ...'.
30. Sabirov, 'Suverenizatsiya ...'.
31. Shaimiev, 'Nasha pozitsiya ...'.
32. A. Chelnokov, interview with Shaimiev, 'Vopros suvereniteta - delo nashego naroda', Nezavisimaya gazeta, 25 July 1991.
33. See R. Batyrshin, interview with Shaimiev, 'Vyshe resheniya naroda nichego byt' ne mozhet', Nezavisimaya gazeta, 27 March 1992; R. Batyrshin, 'Mintimer Shaimiev - za assotsiatsiyu s Rossiei', Nezavisimaya gazeta, 26 June 1992; A. Khasanov & A. Gagua, interview with Shaimiev, 'My nanizany na edinuyu nit' ', Nezavisimaya gazeta, 10 December 1993.
34. See R. Batyrshin, interview with Shaimiev, 'Vyshe resheniya naroda nichego byt' ne mozhet', Nezavisimaya gazeta, 27 March 1992; R. Batyrshin, 'Mintimer Shaimiev - za assotsiatsiyu s Rossiei', Nezavisimaya gazeta, 26 June 1992; A. Khasanov & A. Gagua, interview with Shaimiev, 'My nanizany na edinuyu nit' ', Nezavisimaya gazeta, 10 December 1993.
35. See R. Batyrshin, interview with Shaimiev, 'Vyshe resheniya naroda nichego byt' ne mozhet', Nezavisimaya gazeta, 27 March 1992; R. Batyrshin, 'Mintimer Shaimiev - za assotsiatsiyu s Rossiei', Nezavisimaya gazeta, 26 June 1992; A. Khasanov & A. Gagua, interview with Shaimiev, 'My nanizany na edinuyu nit' ', Nezavisimaya gazeta, 10 December 1993.
36. Farid Mukhametshin, 'Politika Tatarstana vsegda byla posledovatel'noi i chestnoi', Supreme Soviet speech, 19 March 1992, in Respublika Tatarstan: Ot Referenduma do Dogovora (Kazan, 1995), pp. 20-21.
37. Vasilii Likhachev, 'Respublika Tatarstan - mezhdunarodnoe izmerenie', Nezavisimaya gazeta, 5 June 1993.
38. Mukhametshin, p. 7; R. Batyrshin, interview with Sabirov, 'Kazan zaklyuchit soglasheniya so vsemi gosudarstvami SNG', Nezavisimaya gazeta, 25 February 1993; Shaimiev, 'Nam na krestyanina molitsya ne nado', Niva, 1993, 10; M. Shaimiev, 'Ya vospityvalsya na Bashkirskoi muzyke', Izvestiya Bashkortostana, 1 September 1993.
39. Mukhametshin, p. 7; R. Batyrshin, interview with Sabirov, 'Kazan zaklyuchit soglasheniya so vsemi gosudarstvami SNG', Nezavisimaya gazeta, 25 February 1993; Shaimiev, 'Nam na krestyanina molitsya ne nado', Niva, 1993, 10; M. Shaimiev, 'Ya vospityvalsya na Bashkirskoi muzyke', Izvestiya Bashkortostana, 1 September 1993.
40. Mukhametshin, p. 7; R. Batyrshin, interview with Sabirov, 'Kazan zaklyuchit soglasheniya so vsemi gosudarstvami SNG', Nezavisimaya gazeta, 25 February 1993; Shaimiev, 'Nam na krestyanina molitsya ne nado', Niva, 1993, 10; M. Shaimiev, 'Ya vospityvalsya na Bashkirskoi muzyke', Izvestiya Bashkortostana, 1 September 1993.
41. Mukhametshin, p. 7; R. Batyrshin, interview with Sabirov, 'Kazan zaklyuchit soglasheniya so vsemi gosudarstvami SNG', Nezavisimaya gazeta, 25 February 1993; Shaimiev, 'Nam na krestyanina molitsya ne nado', Niva, 1993, 10; M. Shaimiev, 'Ya vospityvalsya na Bashkirskoi muzyke', Izvestiya Bashkortostana, 1 September 1993.
42. 'Na voprosy Tatar ile otvechaet sovetnik Prezidenta respubliki Tatarstan, politolog Rafael Khakimov', Tatar Ile, 1992, 7.
43. Khasanov & Gagua, 'My nanizany ...'.
44. Farid Mukhametshin, 'Osobaya pozitsiya - ne privilegiya, a otvetstvennost' ', in Respublika ..., pp. 122-142.
45. 'Vystuplenie na plenume TsK KPSS', Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 22 September 1989.
46. 'Rakhimov: O suverenitete', Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 30 August 1990.
47. 'Doklad Rakhimova', Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 12 October 1990.
48. Ibid.
49. 'Rakhimov ...'.
50. 'Zhiznennaya neobkhodimost' ', Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 29 September 1990.
51. 'Ne unizhaya malykh, vyigraete v bol'shom', Leninets, 8 February 1992.
52. 'O tretei godovshchine dcklaratsii o gosudarstvennom suverenitete Respubliki Bashkortostan', Izvestiya Bashkortostana, 12 October 1993.
53. Interview with Ildar Yulbarisov, 8 December 1995.
54. 'U nas s russkim narodom odna sud'ba', Otechestvo, 1993, 23 (originally published in Rossiiskaya gazela).
55. 'Ne terzayas nasiliem sud'by', Vechernyaya Ufa, 4 December 1993.
56. 'O tretei godovshchine ...'.
57. 'O chetvertoi godovshchine deklaratsii o gosudarstvennom suverenitete respubliki Bashkortostan', Izvestiya Bashkortostana, 13 October 1994; reprinted in Bashkortostan - Vybor Puti (Ufa, 1995), pp. 57-69.
58. 'O chetvertoi godovshchine deklaratsii o gosudarstvennom suverenitete respubliki Bashkortostan', Izvestiya Bashkortostana, 13 October 1994; reprinted in Bashkortostan - Vybor Puti (Ufa, 1995), pp. 57-69.
59. 'Nasha tsel' - soglasie, vozrozhdenie, progress', Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 3 June 1995.
60. 'K vsemirnomu Kurultayu Bashkir', Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 30 May 1995.
61. See Murtaza Rakhimov, 'Istoricheskoe sobytie v zhizni mnogonatsionalnogo naroda respubliki Bashkortostan ', and M. Zaitsev, 'Pyat' let po puti suvereniteta, demokratii i reform', Izvestiya Bashkortostana, 11 October 1995.
62. See Murtaza Rakhimov, 'Istoricheskoe sobytie v zhizni mnogonatsionalnogo naroda respubliki Bashkortostan ', and M. Zaitsev, 'Pyat' let po puti suvereniteta, demokratii i reform', Izvestiya Bashkortostana, 11 October 1995.
63. A. M. Leontiev, 'O gosudarstvennom suverenitete sovctskoi Chuvashii', Sovetskaya Chuvashiya, 24 October 1990.
64. 'Pervaya godovshchina suvereniteta', Sovetskaya Chuvashiya, 25 October 1991.
65. Leontiev.
66. 'Vozrozhdenie Chuvashskoi natsii - pervaya neobkhodimost' ', Sovetskaya Chuvashiya, 9 October 1992.
67. Leontiev.
68. 'Vozrozhdenie ...'.
69. Ibid.
70. This statement was made in a pre-election interview meant to define the candidate's most important policy goals. 'Na budushchee smotryu s optimizmom', Chavash en, 1993, 52.
71. 'Budu rabotat', utverzhdaya svobodu', Sovetskaya Chuvashiya, 22 January 1994.
72. 'Nado menyat' predstavlenie Rossii i mira o Chuvashii', Chavash en, 1995, 7.
73. Ibid.
74. First deputy chairman of republic executive committee, V. Torosov, 'Khakassii nuzhna real'naya samostoyatel'nost' ', Sovetskaya Khakassiya, 11 April 1991.
75. 'Za konsolidatsiyu deistvii', Sovetskaya Khakassiya, 28 November 1989.
76. 'Avtonomii Khakassii - zakonodatel'nuyu opredelennost' ', Sovetskaya Khakassiya, 19 October 1989.
77. 'Ya veryu v svoyu Khakassiyu', Sovetskaya Khakassiya, 15 May 1991.
78. 'Doverie, iskrennost', velikodushie dolzhny napolnyat' nashi mezhnatsional'nye otnosheniya', Sovetskaya Khakassiya, 29 October 1989.
79. 'Za konsolidatsiyu ...'.
80. 'Obretenie samostoyatel'nosti', Sovetskaya Khakassiya, 30 November 1991.
81. 'Avtonomii Khakassii ...'.
82. 'Doverie, iskrennost' ...'.
83. 'Obretenie samostoyatel'nosti ...'.
84. 'Ya veryu ...'.
85. 'Deklaratsiya - ne samotsel' ', Sovetskaya Khakassiya, 27 February 1992.
86. 'Shagni, respublika, vpered', Sovetskaya Khakassiya, 29 April 1992.
87. Mukhametshin, in Respublika ..., pp. 144-145.
88. Republic of Tatarstan Constitution, articles 160-162.
89. 'Law on Languages', Vedomosti Verkhovnogo Soveta Tatarstana, 1992, 6, pp. 3-10.
90. This salary bonus was implemented in 1997 for workers in the education and culture sectors.
91. Vedomosti Verkhovnogo Soveta Tatarstana, 1994, 8-9, pp. 3-19.
92. Jamestown Monitor, 1 July 1998.
93. Interviews and personal observation during research trips in November 1995 and April 1996.
94. Hafeez Malik, 'Tatarstan's Treaty with Russia', Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, 18, 2, 1994, pp. 1-36, at p. 30.
95. F. G. Garipova, 'Toponyms', in Mezhetnicheskie i mezhkonfessional'nye otnosheniya v respublike Tatarstan (Kazan, 1993), p. 214.
96. Personal observation and N. Kh. Sharypova, 'Problema izucheniya Tatarskogo yazyka v Respublike', in ibid., p. 194.
97. Republic of Tatarstan Ministry of Education data; see also Vasil Gaifullin, Tatarstan, 1995, 7-8, p. 15.
98. Vestnik Ministerstva Narodnogo Obrazovaniya Respubliki Tatarstan, August 1993, pp. 10, 51-55.
99. Vasil Gaifullin, 'Natsional'noe obrazovanic v rcspublike Tatarstan', conference speech, text in author's possession.
100. Panorama, 1991, 8, pp. 15-30.
101. Vedomosti Verkhovnogo Soveta Tatarstana, 1992, 6, pp 3-10; Vedomosti Verkhovnogo Soveta Tatarstana, 1993, 10, pp. 4-31.
102. Vedomosti Verkhovnogo Soveta Tatarstana, 1992, 6, pp 3-10; Vedomosti Verkhovnogo Soveta Tatarstana, 1993, 10, pp. 4-31.
103. See Mezhetnicheskie i mezhkonfessional'nye ..., sections 1 and 2.
104. 'Natsional'noe obrazovanic'; 'Plan for the development of Tatar education' (section XII); 'Language development programme'.
105. The Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation has recently suspended a similar language provision in Bashkortostan, on the grounds that Bashkortostan has no legislation specifying the required level of language proficiency. However, it refused to issue a general ruling against such provisions. See RFE/RL Newswire, 29 April 1998.
106. I. A. Spirin, 'Etnokratiya v Tatarstane', in Etnopolitika na poroge XXI veka (Kazan, 1995), p. 87; similar data are provided in John Löwenhardt, 'The 1996 Presidential Elections in Tatarstan', Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 13, 1, 1997, pp. 132-144.
107. I. A. Spirin, 'Etnokratiya v Tatarstane', in Etnopolitika na poroge XXI veka (Kazan, 1995), p. 87; similar data are provided in John Löwenhardt, 'The 1996 Presidential Elections in Tatarstan', Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 13, 1, 1997, pp. 132-144.
108. Alexander Kasimov, 'Tatarstan', Politicheskii monitor, 1993, 5, p. 78.
109. Who made up respectively 40% and 28% of the population.
110. Adopted on 11 October 1990. Mikhail Guboglo (ed.), Etnopoliticheskaya mozaika Bashkortostana, vol. 1 (Moscow, 1992), pp. 141-143.
111. Konstitutsiya Respubliki Bashkortostan (Ufa, 1995). The constitution was adopted on 24 December 1993.
112. Zakony Respubliki Bashkortostan, Vyp. V (Ufa, 1993), pp. 16-67.
113. Guboglo (ed.), Etnopoliticheskaya mozaika ..., pp. 235-243.
114. Ildar Yulbarisov, interview, 8 December 1995.
115. Approximately 75% of Bashkirs are considered Bashkir-speaking. The rest are predominantly Tatar-speaking. For 1989 data see Fail Safin, Printsipy Etnopoliticheskogo Razvitya Bashkortostana, (Moscow, 1997); data from Ministry of Education; data up to 1994 have been published in Bashkortostan i Bashkiry v zerkale statistiki (Ufa, 1995).
116. Approximately 75% of Bashkirs are considered Bashkir-speaking. The rest are predominantly Tatar-speaking. For 1989 data see Fail Safin, Printsipy Etnopoliticheskogo Razvitya Bashkortostana, (Moscow, 1997); data from Ministry of Education; data up to 1994 have been published in Bashkortostan i Bashkiry v zerkale statistiki (Ufa, 1995).
117. 'Radi garmonizatsii mezhnatsional'nykh otnoshenii', Vechernyaya Ufa, 2 July 1993.
118. 'Strasti po yazyku', Ekonomika i my, 1993, 26; 'V uchebnye plany vneseny korrektivy', Vechernyaya Ufa, 14 October 1993.
119. 'Strasti po yazyku', Ekonomika i my, 1993, 26; 'V uchebnye plany vneseny korrektivy', Vechernyaya Ufa, 14 October 1993.
120. Ministry of Education data for 1992-93 and 1995-96 school years.
121. Bashkortostan Constitution, article 92.
122. Safin: 16 of 26 ministers, 18 of 30 members of presidential advisory council; interview with Sergei Fufaev, local freelance journalist, 1 December 1995: 30 of 38 government leaders.
123. Interview, 8 December 1995.
124. Interview, 8 December 1995.
125. Sergei Filatov & Aleksandr Shehipkov, 'Bashkortostan: religiya i vlast' ', Druzhba narodov, 1996, 5, p. 99.
126. 'O polozhenii Tatar v Bashkirii', Bashkortostan Tatar Public Centre report, 1994, p. 1.
127. Proekt: Gosudarstvennaya programma vozrozhdenie i razvitie bashkirskogo naroda (Ufa, 1995), pp. 33, 53, 71.
128. The extent to which Rakhimov controls political life in the republic was demonstrated in the June 1998 presidential election, in which all serious challengers to the president were refused registration as candidates by a Rakhimov-controlled electoral commission. IEWS Russian Regional Report, 25 June 1998.
129. The declaration was adopted on 24 October 1990. Text in author's possession.
130. Sovetskaya Chuvashiya, 12 April 1995.
131. Sovetskaya Chuvashiya, 26 December 1990.
132. See Express Inform, 14 January 1992 and Chavash En-Express Vypusk, 3 June 1992, for representations and descriptions of these symbols.
133. See Express Inform, 14 January 1992 and Chavash En-Express Vypusk, 3 June 1992, for representations and descriptions of these symbols.
134. 'Zakon o yazykakh Respubliki Chuvashiya', Sovetskaya Chuvashiya, 27 October 1990.
135. 'Polozhenie o Komissii Presidiuma Verkhovnogo Soveta Chuvashskoi Respubliki po realizatsii zakona "O yazykakh v Chuvashskoi Respublike" ', 18 April 1991, in Problemy vozrozhdeniya i razvitiya Chuvashskogo yazyka (Cheboksary, 1993), p. 32.
136. Ibid., pp. 40-41.
137. Ibid., pp. 58-73.
138. 'Na kontrole - zakon o yazykakh', Narodnaya shkola, 1992, 2.
139. S. Yu. 'Chuvashiya', Politicheskii monitor, 1993, 5, p. 72.
140. S. Malyutin, 'O programme vozrozhdeniya i razvitiya naroda', Vestnik Chuvashskoi Natsional'noi Akademii, 1994, 2, p. 15.
141. 1990 and 1993 numbers from Obrazovanie v Rossiiskoi Federatsii (Moscow, 1995), p. 92. 1995 numbers from Chuvash Ministry of Education.
142. Article 109.2 of the current constitution, and article 34 of the proposed one.
143. V. R. Filippov, 'Etnopoliticheskaya situatsiya v Chuvashii', Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Working Paper #59, 1994, p. 5.
144. S.Yu. 'Chuvashiya', Politicheskii monitor, 1994, 1, p. 91.
145. Adopted on 6 March 1992. Text in author's possession.
146. Khakassiya, 22 June 1995.
147. Khakass Language Law. Text in author's possession.
148. 'O statuse S"ezda Khakasskogo naroda', Khakassiya, 7 May 1994.
149. Gosudarstvennaya programma sokhraneniya i razvitiya yazykov narodov Respubliki Khakassiya (Abakan, 1994); 'Programma vozrozhdeniya i dukhovnogo razvitiya Khakasskogo etnosa', Vestnik Khakassii, 1995, 51; and Programma razvitiya kul'tury Respubliki Khakassiya (Abakan, 1996).
150. Gosudarstvennaya programma sokhraneniya i razvitiya yazykov narodov Respubliki Khakassiya (Abakan, 1994); 'Programma vozrozhdeniya i dukhovnogo razvitiya Khakasskogo etnosa', Vestnik Khakassii, 1995, 51; and Programma razvitiya kul'tury Respubliki Khakassiya (Abakan, 1996).
151. Gosudarstvennaya programma sokhraneniya i razvitiya yazykov narodov Respubliki Khakassiya (Abakan, 1994); 'Programma vozrozhdeniya i dukhovnogo razvitiya Khakasskogo etnosa', Vestnik Khakassii, 1995, 51; and Programma razvitiya kul'tury Respubliki Khakassiya (Abakan, 1996).
152. These observations come from field work carried out in Khakassia in June 1996.
153. Data provided by the Khakass Ministry of Education.
154. For a discussion of Soviet nationalities policies and their basis in a primordialist conception of ethnicity, see Tishkov, pp. 1-31; and Yuri Slezkine, 'The USSR as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism', Slavic Review 53, 2, 1994, pp. 414-452.
155. For a discussion of Soviet nationalities policies and their basis in a primordialist conception of ethnicity, see Tishkov, pp. 1-31; and Yuri Slezkine, 'The USSR as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism', Slavic Review 53, 2, 1994, pp. 414-452.