Ideology, Social Science, and Destiny: Modernization and the Kennedy-Era Alliance for Progress

Diplomatic History

Volumn 22, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 199-229

  Latham, Michael E ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0039559477     PISSN: 01452096     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1467-7709.00114     Document Type: Article

References (113)

1. W. W. Rostow memorandum to John F. Kennedy, 2 March 1961, President's Office Files (POF), box 64a, "Rostow, 3/61-5/61," John F. Kennedy Library, Boston, Massachusetts (JFKL).
2. Important works by the authors mentioned include W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge, England, 1960); Karl Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication (Cambridge, MA, 1953) and "Social Mobilization and Political Development," American Political Science Review 55 (September 1961): 493-514; Lucian Pye, Politics, Personality, and Nation-Building Burma's Search for Identity (New Haven, 1962); Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (New York, 1958); and Gabriel Almond and James Coleman, eds., The Politics of Developing Areas (Princeton, 1960). For a similar formulation of modernization theory's central points see Jeffrey C. Alexander, "Modern, Anti, Post, and Neo: How Social Theories Have Tried to Understand the 'New Problems' of 'Our Time,'" Zeitschrift für Soziologie 23 (June 1994): 168.
3. Important works by the authors mentioned include W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge, England, 1960); Karl Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication (Cambridge, MA, 1953) and "Social Mobilization and Political Development," American Political Science Review 55 (September 1961): 493-514; Lucian Pye, Politics, Personality, and Nation-Building Burma's Search for Identity (New Haven, 1962); Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (New York, 1958); and Gabriel Almond and James Coleman, eds., The Politics of Developing Areas (Princeton, 1960). For a similar formulation of modernization theory's central points see Jeffrey C. Alexander, "Modern, Anti, Post, and Neo: How Social Theories Have Tried to Understand the 'New Problems' of 'Our Time,'" Zeitschrift für Soziologie 23 (June 1994): 168.
4. Important works by the authors mentioned include W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge, England, 1960); Karl Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication (Cambridge, MA, 1953) and "Social Mobilization and Political Development," American Political Science Review 55 (September 1961): 493-514; Lucian Pye, Politics, Personality, and Nation-Building Burma's Search for Identity (New Haven, 1962); Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (New York, 1958); and Gabriel Almond and James Coleman, eds., The Politics of Developing Areas (Princeton, 1960). For a similar formulation of modernization theory's central points see Jeffrey C. Alexander, "Modern, Anti, Post, and Neo: How Social Theories Have Tried to Understand the 'New Problems' of 'Our Time,'" Zeitschrift für Soziologie 23 (June 1994): 168.
5. Important works by the authors mentioned include W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge, England, 1960); Karl Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication (Cambridge, MA, 1953) and "Social Mobilization and Political Development," American Political Science Review 55 (September 1961): 493-514; Lucian Pye, Politics, Personality, and Nation-Building Burma's Search for Identity (New Haven, 1962); Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (New York, 1958); and Gabriel Almond and James Coleman, eds., The Politics of Developing Areas (Princeton, 1960). For a similar formulation of modernization theory's central points see Jeffrey C. Alexander, "Modern, Anti, Post, and Neo: How Social Theories Have Tried to Understand the 'New Problems' of 'Our Time,'" Zeitschrift für Soziologie 23 (June 1994): 168.
6. Important works by the authors mentioned include W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge, England, 1960); Karl Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication (Cambridge, MA, 1953) and "Social Mobilization and Political Development," American Political Science Review 55 (September 1961): 493-514; Lucian Pye, Politics, Personality, and Nation-Building Burma's Search for Identity (New Haven, 1962); Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (New York, 1958); and Gabriel Almond and James Coleman, eds., The Politics of Developing Areas (Princeton, 1960). For a similar formulation of modernization theory's central points see Jeffrey C. Alexander, "Modern, Anti, Post, and Neo: How Social Theories Have Tried to Understand the 'New Problems' of 'Our Time,'" Zeitschrift für Soziologie 23 (June 1994): 168.
7. Important works by the authors mentioned include W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge, England, 1960); Karl Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication (Cambridge, MA, 1953) and "Social Mobilization and Political Development," American Political Science Review 55 (September 1961): 493-514; Lucian Pye, Politics, Personality, and Nation-Building Burma's Search for Identity (New Haven, 1962); Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (New York, 1958); and Gabriel Almond and James Coleman, eds., The Politics of Developing Areas (Princeton, 1960). For a similar formulation of modernization theory's central points see Jeffrey C. Alexander, "Modern, Anti, Post, and Neo: How Social Theories Have Tried to Understand the 'New Problems' of 'Our Time,'" Zeitschrift für Soziologie 23 (June 1994): 168.
8. Important works by the authors mentioned include W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge, England, 1960); Karl Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication (Cambridge, MA, 1953) and "Social Mobilization and Political Development," American Political Science Review 55 (September 1961): 493-514; Lucian Pye, Politics, Personality, and Nation-Building Burma's Search for Identity (New Haven, 1962); Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (New York, 1958); and Gabriel Almond and James Coleman, eds., The Politics of Developing Areas (Princeton, 1960). For a similar formulation of modernization theory's central points see Jeffrey C. Alexander, "Modern, Anti, Post, and Neo: How Social Theories Have Tried to Understand the 'New Problems' of 'Our Time,'" Zeitschrift für Soziologie 23 (June 1994): 168.
9. See especially Donald L. M. Blackmer and Max F. Millikan, eds., The Emerging Nations: Their Growth and United States Foreign Policy (Boston, 1961). A collection of essays on "development" and its "acceleration" originally prepared for international broadcast on the Voice of America, Myron Weiner, ed., Modernization: The Dynamics of Growth (New York, 1966), also provides an interesting case.
10. See especially Donald L. M. Blackmer and Max F. Millikan, eds., The Emerging Nations: Their Growth and United States Foreign Policy (Boston, 1961). A collection of essays on "development" and its "acceleration" originally prepared for international broadcast on the Voice of America, Myron Weiner, ed., Modernization: The Dynamics of Growth (New York, 1966), also provides an interesting case.
11. For examples of earlier criticism see Joseph R. Gusfield, "Tradition and Modernity: Misplaced Polarities in the Study of Social Change," American Journal of Sociology 72 (January 1967): 351-62; and Robert A. Nisbet, Social Change and History: Aspects of the Western Theory of Development (New York, 1969). James D. Cockcroft, Dale L. Johnson, and André Gunder Frank presented their dependency critique in Dependence and Underdevelopment: Latin America's Political Economy (Garden City, NY, 1972), and world systems theorist Immanuel Wallerstein wrote a damning epitaph with his "Modernization: requiescat in pace," in The Capitalist World Economy (Cambridge, England, 1979), 132-37. P. T. Bauer led the conservatives in Dissent on Development: Studies and Debates in Development Economics (Cambridge, MA, 1972). For an attempt to rehabilitate modernization see Alexander's reflections on a "neo-modern" analysis in "Modern, Anti, Post and Neo," 182-92. Francis X. Sutton, "Development Ideology: Its Emergence and Decline," Daedalus 118 (Winter 1989): 35-58; and Leonard Binder, "The Natural History of Development Theory," Comparative Studies in Society and History 28 (January 1986): 3-33, provide useful overviews of the concept's career. Kenneth Cmiel, "Destiny and Amnesia: The Vision of Modernity in Robert Wiebe's The Search for Order," Reviews in American History 21 (June 1993): 352-68, also provides an intriguing critique of modernization theory's European antecedents and their application to the writing of U.S. history.
12. For examples of earlier criticism see Joseph R. Gusfield, "Tradition and Modernity: Misplaced Polarities in the Study of Social Change," American Journal of Sociology 72 (January 1967): 351-62; and Robert A. Nisbet, Social Change and History: Aspects of the Western Theory of Development (New York, 1969). James D. Cockcroft, Dale L. Johnson, and André Gunder Frank presented their dependency critique in Dependence and Underdevelopment: Latin America's Political Economy (Garden City, NY, 1972), and world systems theorist Immanuel Wallerstein wrote a damning epitaph with his "Modernization: requiescat in pace," in The Capitalist World Economy (Cambridge, England, 1979), 132-37. P. T. Bauer led the conservatives in Dissent on Development: Studies and Debates in Development Economics (Cambridge, MA, 1972). For an attempt to rehabilitate modernization see Alexander's reflections on a "neo-modern" analysis in "Modern, Anti, Post and Neo," 182-92. Francis X. Sutton, "Development Ideology: Its Emergence and Decline," Daedalus 118 (Winter 1989): 35-58; and Leonard Binder, "The Natural History of Development Theory," Comparative Studies in Society and History 28 (January 1986): 3-33, provide useful overviews of the concept's career. Kenneth Cmiel, "Destiny and Amnesia: The Vision of Modernity in Robert Wiebe's The Search for Order," Reviews in American History 21 (June 1993): 352-68, also provides an intriguing critique of modernization theory's European antecedents and their application to the writing of U.S. history.
13. For examples of earlier criticism see Joseph R. Gusfield, "Tradition and Modernity: Misplaced Polarities in the Study of Social Change," American Journal of Sociology 72 (January 1967): 351-62; and Robert A. Nisbet, Social Change and History: Aspects of the Western Theory of Development (New York, 1969). James D. Cockcroft, Dale L. Johnson, and André Gunder Frank presented their dependency critique in Dependence and Underdevelopment: Latin America's Political Economy (Garden City, NY, 1972), and world systems theorist Immanuel Wallerstein wrote a damning epitaph with his "Modernization: requiescat in pace," in The Capitalist World Economy (Cambridge, England, 1979), 132-37. P. T. Bauer led the conservatives in Dissent on Development: Studies and Debates in Development Economics (Cambridge, MA, 1972). For an attempt to rehabilitate modernization see Alexander's reflections on a "neo-modern" analysis in "Modern, Anti, Post and Neo," 182-92. Francis X. Sutton, "Development Ideology: Its Emergence and Decline," Daedalus 118 (Winter 1989): 35-58; and Leonard Binder, "The Natural History of Development Theory," Comparative Studies in Society and History 28 (January 1986): 3-33, provide useful overviews of the concept's career. Kenneth Cmiel, "Destiny and Amnesia: The Vision of Modernity in Robert Wiebe's The Search for Order," Reviews in American History 21 (June 1993): 352-68, also provides an intriguing critique of modernization theory's European antecedents and their application to the writing of U.S. history.
14. For examples of earlier criticism see Joseph R. Gusfield, "Tradition and Modernity: Misplaced Polarities in the Study of Social Change," American Journal of Sociology 72 (January 1967): 351-62; and Robert A. Nisbet, Social Change and History: Aspects of the Western Theory of Development (New York, 1969). James D. Cockcroft, Dale L. Johnson, and André Gunder Frank presented their dependency critique in Dependence and Underdevelopment: Latin America's Political Economy (Garden City, NY, 1972), and world systems theorist Immanuel Wallerstein wrote a damning epitaph with his "Modernization: requiescat in pace," in The Capitalist World Economy (Cambridge, England, 1979), 132-37. P. T. Bauer led the conservatives in Dissent on Development: Studies and Debates in Development Economics (Cambridge, MA, 1972). For an attempt to rehabilitate modernization see Alexander's reflections on a "neo-modern" analysis in "Modern, Anti, Post and Neo," 182-92. Francis X. Sutton, "Development Ideology: Its Emergence and Decline," Daedalus 118 (Winter 1989): 35-58; and Leonard Binder, "The Natural History of Development Theory," Comparative Studies in Society and History 28 (January 1986): 3-33, provide useful overviews of the concept's career. Kenneth Cmiel, "Destiny and Amnesia: The Vision of Modernity in Robert Wiebe's The Search for Order," Reviews in American History 21 (June 1993): 352-68, also provides an intriguing critique of modernization theory's European antecedents and their application to the writing of U.S. history.
15. For examples of earlier criticism see Joseph R. Gusfield, "Tradition and Modernity: Misplaced Polarities in the Study of Social Change," American Journal of Sociology 72 (January 1967): 351-62; and Robert A. Nisbet, Social Change and History: Aspects of the Western Theory of Development (New York, 1969). James D. Cockcroft, Dale L. Johnson, and André Gunder Frank presented their dependency critique in Dependence and Underdevelopment: Latin America's Political Economy (Garden City, NY, 1972), and world systems theorist Immanuel Wallerstein wrote a damning epitaph with his "Modernization: requiescat in pace," in The Capitalist World Economy (Cambridge, England, 1979), 132-37. P. T. Bauer led the conservatives in Dissent on Development: Studies and Debates in Development Economics (Cambridge, MA, 1972). For an attempt to rehabilitate modernization see Alexander's reflections on a "neo-modern" analysis in "Modern, Anti, Post and Neo," 182-92. Francis X. Sutton, "Development Ideology: Its Emergence and Decline," Daedalus 118 (Winter 1989): 35-58; and Leonard Binder, "The Natural History of Development Theory," Comparative Studies in Society and History 28 (January 1986): 3-33, provide useful overviews of the concept's career. Kenneth Cmiel, "Destiny and Amnesia: The Vision of Modernity in Robert Wiebe's The Search for Order," Reviews in American History 21 (June 1993): 352-68, also provides an intriguing critique of modernization theory's European antecedents and their application to the writing of U.S. history.
16. For examples of earlier criticism see Joseph R. Gusfield, "Tradition and Modernity: Misplaced Polarities in the Study of Social Change," American Journal of Sociology 72 (January 1967): 351-62; and Robert A. Nisbet, Social Change and History: Aspects of the Western Theory of Development (New York, 1969). James D. Cockcroft, Dale L. Johnson, and André Gunder Frank presented their dependency critique in Dependence and Underdevelopment: Latin America's Political Economy (Garden City, NY, 1972), and world systems theorist Immanuel Wallerstein wrote a damning epitaph with his "Modernization: requiescat in pace," in The Capitalist World Economy (Cambridge, England, 1979), 132-37. P. T. Bauer led the conservatives in Dissent on Development: Studies and Debates in Development Economics (Cambridge, MA, 1972). For an attempt to rehabilitate modernization see Alexander's reflections on a "neo-modern" analysis in "Modern, Anti, Post and Neo," 182-92. Francis X. Sutton, "Development Ideology: Its Emergence and Decline," Daedalus 118 (Winter 1989): 35-58; and Leonard Binder, "The Natural History of Development Theory," Comparative Studies in Society and History 28 (January 1986): 3-33, provide useful overviews of the concept's career. Kenneth Cmiel, "Destiny and Amnesia: The Vision of Modernity in Robert Wiebe's The Search for Order," Reviews in American History 21 (June 1993): 352-68, also provides an intriguing critique of modernization theory's European antecedents and their application to the writing of U.S. history.
17. For examples of earlier criticism see Joseph R. Gusfield, "Tradition and Modernity: Misplaced Polarities in the Study of Social Change," American Journal of Sociology 72 (January 1967): 351-62; and Robert A. Nisbet, Social Change and History: Aspects of the Western Theory of Development (New York, 1969). James D. Cockcroft, Dale L. Johnson, and André Gunder Frank presented their dependency critique in Dependence and Underdevelopment: Latin America's Political Economy (Garden City, NY, 1972), and world systems theorist Immanuel Wallerstein wrote a damning epitaph with his "Modernization: requiescat in pace," in The Capitalist World Economy (Cambridge, England, 1979), 132-37. P. T. Bauer led the conservatives in Dissent on Development: Studies and Debates in Development Economics (Cambridge, MA, 1972). For an attempt to rehabilitate modernization see Alexander's reflections on a "neo-modern" analysis in "Modern, Anti, Post and Neo," 182-92. Francis X. Sutton, "Development Ideology: Its Emergence and Decline," Daedalus 118 (Winter 1989): 35-58; and Leonard Binder, "The Natural History of Development Theory," Comparative Studies in Society and History 28 (January 1986): 3-33, provide useful overviews of the concept's career. Kenneth Cmiel, "Destiny and Amnesia: The Vision of Modernity in Robert Wiebe's The Search for Order," Reviews in American History 21 (June 1993): 352-68, also provides an intriguing critique of modernization theory's European antecedents and their application to the writing of U.S. history.
18. For examples of earlier criticism see Joseph R. Gusfield, "Tradition and Modernity: Misplaced Polarities in the Study of Social Change," American Journal of Sociology 72 (January 1967): 351-62; and Robert A. Nisbet, Social Change and History: Aspects of the Western Theory of Development (New York, 1969). James D. Cockcroft, Dale L. Johnson, and André Gunder Frank presented their dependency critique in Dependence and Underdevelopment: Latin America's Political Economy (Garden City, NY, 1972), and world systems theorist Immanuel Wallerstein wrote a damning epitaph with his "Modernization: requiescat in pace," in The Capitalist World Economy (Cambridge, England, 1979), 132-37. P. T. Bauer led the conservatives in Dissent on Development: Studies and Debates in Development Economics (Cambridge, MA, 1972). For an attempt to rehabilitate modernization see Alexander's reflections on a "neo-modern" analysis in "Modern, Anti, Post and Neo," 182-92. Francis X. Sutton, "Development Ideology: Its Emergence and Decline," Daedalus 118 (Winter 1989): 35-58; and Leonard Binder, "The Natural History of Development Theory," Comparative Studies in Society and History 28 (January 1986): 3-33, provide useful overviews of the concept's career. Kenneth Cmiel, "Destiny and Amnesia: The Vision of Modernity in Robert Wiebe's The Search for Order," Reviews in American History 21 (June 1993): 352-68, also provides an intriguing critique of modernization theory's European antecedents and their application to the writing of U.S. history.
19. For examples of earlier criticism see Joseph R. Gusfield, "Tradition and Modernity: Misplaced Polarities in the Study of Social Change," American Journal of Sociology 72 (January 1967): 351-62; and Robert A. Nisbet, Social Change and History: Aspects of the Western Theory of Development (New York, 1969). James D. Cockcroft, Dale L. Johnson, and André Gunder Frank presented their dependency critique in Dependence and Underdevelopment: Latin America's Political Economy (Garden City, NY, 1972), and world systems theorist Immanuel Wallerstein wrote a damning epitaph with his "Modernization: requiescat in pace," in The Capitalist World Economy (Cambridge, England, 1979), 132-37. P. T. Bauer led the conservatives in Dissent on Development: Studies and Debates in Development Economics (Cambridge, MA, 1972). For an attempt to rehabilitate modernization see Alexander's reflections on a "neo-modern" analysis in "Modern, Anti, Post and Neo," 182-92. Francis X. Sutton, "Development Ideology: Its Emergence and Decline," Daedalus 118 (Winter 1989): 35-58; and Leonard Binder, "The Natural History of Development Theory," Comparative Studies in Society and History 28 (January 1986): 3-33, provide useful overviews of the concept's career. Kenneth Cmiel, "Destiny and Amnesia: The Vision of Modernity in Robert Wiebe's The Search for Order," Reviews in American History 21 (June 1993): 352-68, also provides an intriguing critique of modernization theory's European antecedents and their application to the writing of U.S. history.
20. This very issue is now starting to generate substantial interest among historians of science as well as scholars concerned with American foreign relations. See Ellen Herman, The Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in the Age of Experts (Berkeley, 1995); Allan A. Needell, "'Truth is Our Weapon': Project TROY, Political Warfare, and Government-Academic Relations in the National Security State," Diplomatic History 17 (Summer 1993): 399-420; as well as the collection of essays by Michael A. Bernstein, Stephen P. Waring, Ellen Herman, Deborah Welch Larson, Daniel Lee Kleinman, and Mark Solovey, "The Cold War and Expert Knowledge," Radical History Review 63 (Fall 1995).
21. This very issue is now starting to generate substantial interest among historians of science as well as scholars concerned with American foreign relations. See Ellen Herman, The Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in the Age of Experts (Berkeley, 1995); Allan A. Needell, "'Truth is Our Weapon': Project TROY, Political Warfare, and Government-Academic Relations in the National Security State," Diplomatic History 17 (Summer 1993): 399-420; as well as the collection of essays by Michael A. Bernstein, Stephen P. Waring, Ellen Herman, Deborah Welch Larson, Daniel Lee Kleinman, and Mark Solovey, "The Cold War and Expert Knowledge," Radical History Review 63 (Fall 1995).
22. This very issue is now starting to generate substantial interest among historians of science as well as scholars concerned with American foreign relations. See Ellen Herman, The Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in the Age of Experts (Berkeley, 1995); Allan A. Needell, "'Truth is Our Weapon': Project TROY, Political Warfare, and Government-Academic Relations in the National Security State," Diplomatic History 17 (Summer 1993): 399-420; as well as the collection of essays by Michael A. Bernstein, Stephen P. Waring, Ellen Herman, Deborah Welch Larson, Daniel Lee Kleinman, and Mark Solovey, "The Cold War and Expert Knowledge," Radical History Review 63 (Fall 1995).
23. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., in particular, claims that the alliance "came to an end with Kennedy's death." See his "Myth and Reality," in The Alliance for Progress: A Retrospective, ed. L. Ronald Scheman (New York, 1988), 71, in addition to his earlier arguments in A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (Boston, 1965). For other "orthodox" views see Harvey S. Perloff, Alliance for Progress: A Social Invention in the Making (Baltimore, 1969); Herbert K. May, Problems and Prospects of the Alliance for Progress (New York, 1968); and William D. Rogers, The Twilight Struggle: The Alliance for Progress and the Politics of Development in Latin America (New York, 1967). More aggressive in pointing out the program's limitations, Jerome Levinson and Juan de Onís still argued that "the democratic ideal of the Alliance is the true heading for this hemisphere's peace and development." See their The Alliance that Lost its Way (Chicago, 1970), long the standard work on the subject. Most of these authors, interestingly, were personally involved in either the alliance or its supervising body, the Agency for International Development (AID). Schlesinger served as an influential adviser throughout Kennedy's Latin American planning. Perloff worked on the Organization of American States Committee that prepared for the 1961 conference establishing the alliance and evaluated Latin American development plans. May served in the State Department as a deputy assistant secretary and assistant coordinator for the alliance, and Rogers worked as deputy assistant administrator of AID.
24. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., in particular, claims that the alliance "came to an end with Kennedy's death." See his "Myth and Reality," in The Alliance for Progress: A Retrospective, ed. L. Ronald Scheman (New York, 1988), 71, in addition to his earlier arguments in A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (Boston, 1965). For other "orthodox" views see Harvey S. Perloff, Alliance for Progress: A Social Invention in the Making (Baltimore, 1969); Herbert K. May, Problems and Prospects of the Alliance for Progress (New York, 1968); and William D. Rogers, The Twilight Struggle: The Alliance for Progress and the Politics of Development in Latin America (New York, 1967). More aggressive in pointing out the program's limitations, Jerome Levinson and Juan de Onís still argued that "the democratic ideal of the Alliance is the true heading for this hemisphere's peace and development." See their The Alliance that Lost its Way (Chicago, 1970), long the standard work on the subject. Most of these authors, interestingly, were personally involved in either the alliance or its supervising body, the Agency for International Development (AID). Schlesinger served as an influential adviser throughout Kennedy's Latin American planning. Perloff worked on the Organization of American States Committee that prepared for the 1961 conference establishing the alliance and evaluated Latin American development plans. May served in the State Department as a deputy assistant secretary and assistant coordinator for the alliance, and Rogers worked as deputy assistant administrator of AID.
25. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., in particular, claims that the alliance "came to an end with Kennedy's death." See his "Myth and Reality," in The Alliance for Progress: A Retrospective, ed. L. Ronald Scheman (New York, 1988), 71, in addition to his earlier arguments in A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (Boston, 1965). For other "orthodox" views see Harvey S. Perloff, Alliance for Progress: A Social Invention in the Making (Baltimore, 1969); Herbert K. May, Problems and Prospects of the Alliance for Progress (New York, 1968); and William D. Rogers, The Twilight Struggle: The Alliance for Progress and the Politics of Development in Latin America (New York, 1967). More aggressive in pointing out the program's limitations, Jerome Levinson and Juan de Onís still argued that "the democratic ideal of the Alliance is the true heading for this hemisphere's peace and development." See their The Alliance that Lost its Way (Chicago, 1970), long the standard work on the subject. Most of these authors, interestingly, were personally involved in either the alliance or its supervising body, the Agency for International Development (AID). Schlesinger served as an influential adviser throughout Kennedy's Latin American planning. Perloff worked on the Organization of American States Committee that prepared for the 1961 conference establishing the alliance and evaluated Latin American development plans. May served in the State Department as a deputy assistant secretary and assistant coordinator for the alliance, and Rogers worked as deputy assistant administrator of AID.
26. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., in particular, claims that the alliance "came to an end with Kennedy's death." See his "Myth and Reality," in The Alliance for Progress: A Retrospective, ed. L. Ronald Scheman (New York, 1988), 71, in addition to his earlier arguments in A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (Boston, 1965). For other "orthodox" views see Harvey S. Perloff, Alliance for Progress: A Social Invention in the Making (Baltimore, 1969); Herbert K. May, Problems and Prospects of the Alliance for Progress (New York, 1968); and William D. Rogers, The Twilight Struggle: The Alliance for Progress and the Politics of Development in Latin America (New York, 1967). More aggressive in pointing out the program's limitations, Jerome Levinson and Juan de Onís still argued that "the democratic ideal of the Alliance is the true heading for this hemisphere's peace and development." See their The Alliance that Lost its Way (Chicago, 1970), long the standard work on the subject. Most of these authors, interestingly, were personally involved in either the alliance or its supervising body, the Agency for International Development (AID). Schlesinger served as an influential adviser throughout Kennedy's Latin American planning. Perloff worked on the Organization of American States Committee that prepared for the 1961 conference establishing the alliance and evaluated Latin American development plans. May served in the State Department as a deputy assistant secretary and assistant coordinator for the alliance, and Rogers worked as deputy assistant administrator of AID.
27. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., in particular, claims that the alliance "came to an end with Kennedy's death." See his "Myth and Reality," in The Alliance for Progress: A Retrospective, ed. L. Ronald Scheman (New York, 1988), 71, in addition to his earlier arguments in A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (Boston, 1965). For other "orthodox" views see Harvey S. Perloff, Alliance for Progress: A Social Invention in the Making (Baltimore, 1969); Herbert K. May, Problems and Prospects of the Alliance for Progress (New York, 1968); and William D. Rogers, The Twilight Struggle: The Alliance for Progress and the Politics of Development in Latin America (New York, 1967). More aggressive in pointing out the program's limitations, Jerome Levinson and Juan de Onís still argued that "the democratic ideal of the Alliance is the true heading for this hemisphere's peace and development." See their The Alliance that Lost its Way (Chicago, 1970), long the standard work on the subject. Most of these authors, interestingly, were personally involved in either the alliance or its supervising body, the Agency for International Development (AID). Schlesinger served as an influential adviser throughout Kennedy's Latin American planning. Perloff worked on the Organization of American States Committee that prepared for the 1961 conference establishing the alliance and evaluated Latin American development plans. May served in the State Department as a deputy assistant secretary and assistant coordinator for the alliance, and Rogers worked as deputy assistant administrator of AID.
28. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., in particular, claims that the alliance "came to an end with Kennedy's death." See his "Myth and Reality," in The Alliance for Progress: A Retrospective, ed. L. Ronald Scheman (New York, 1988), 71, in addition to his earlier arguments in A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (Boston, 1965). For other "orthodox" views see Harvey S. Perloff, Alliance for Progress: A Social Invention in the Making (Baltimore, 1969); Herbert K. May, Problems and Prospects of the Alliance for Progress (New York, 1968); and William D. Rogers, The Twilight Struggle: The Alliance for Progress and the Politics of Development in Latin America (New York, 1967). More aggressive in pointing out the program's limitations, Jerome Levinson and Juan de Onís still argued that "the democratic ideal of the Alliance is the true heading for this hemisphere's peace and development." See their The Alliance that Lost its Way (Chicago, 1970), long the standard work on the subject. Most of these authors, interestingly, were personally involved in either the alliance or its supervising body, the Agency for International Development (AID). Schlesinger served as an influential adviser throughout Kennedy's Latin American planning. Perloff worked on the Organization of American States Committee that prepared for the 1961 conference establishing the alliance and evaluated Latin American development plans. May served in the State Department as a deputy assistant secretary and assistant coordinator for the alliance, and Rogers worked as deputy assistant administrator of AID.
29. William O. Walker III, "Mixing the Sweet with the Sour: Kennedy, Johnson, and Latin America," in The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decade: American Foreign Relations during the 1960s, ed. Diane B. Kunz (New York, 1994), 42; Joseph S. Tulchin, "The United States and Latin America in the 1960s," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 30 (Spring 1988): 1-36; Stephen G. Rabe, "Controlling Revolutions: Latin America, the Alliance for Progress, and Cold War Anti- Communism," in Kennedy's Quest for Victory: American foreign Policy, 1961-1963, ed. Thomas G. Paterson (New York, 1989), 105-22; Howard J. Wiarda, "Misreading Latin America - Again," Foreign Policy 65 (Winter 1986-87): 135-53. Interestingly enough, Edwin M. Martin, assistant secretary of state for Latin American affairs under Kennedy, reached similar conclusions regarding the Cold War's influence when reflecting back on his government service. See his "Haiti: A Case Study in Futility," SAIS Review 2 (1981): 61-70 and Kennedy and Latin America (Lanham, MD, 1994), 460. These views, one should also note, make the Kennedy period appear less anomalous and more a part of a larger trend of American expansion in the region. See Jules R. Benjamin, "The Framework of U.S. Relations with Latin America in the Twentieth Century: An Interpretive Essay," Diplomatic History 11 (Spring 1987): 91-112.
30. William O. Walker III, "Mixing the Sweet with the Sour: Kennedy, Johnson, and Latin America," in The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decade: American Foreign Relations during the 1960s, ed. Diane B. Kunz (New York, 1994), 42; Joseph S. Tulchin, "The United States and Latin America in the 1960s," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 30 (Spring 1988): 1-36; Stephen G. Rabe, "Controlling Revolutions: Latin America, the Alliance for Progress, and Cold War Anti- Communism," in Kennedy's Quest for Victory: American foreign Policy, 1961-1963, ed. Thomas G. Paterson (New York, 1989), 105-22; Howard J. Wiarda, "Misreading Latin America - Again," Foreign Policy 65 (Winter 1986-87): 135-53. Interestingly enough, Edwin M. Martin, assistant secretary of state for Latin American affairs under Kennedy, reached similar conclusions regarding the Cold War's influence when reflecting back on his government service. See his "Haiti: A Case Study in Futility," SAIS Review 2 (1981): 61-70 and Kennedy and Latin America (Lanham, MD, 1994), 460. These views, one should also note, make the Kennedy period appear less anomalous and more a part of a larger trend of American expansion in the region. See Jules R. Benjamin, "The Framework of U.S. Relations with Latin America in the Twentieth Century: An Interpretive Essay," Diplomatic History 11 (Spring 1987): 91-112.
31. William O. Walker III, "Mixing the Sweet with the Sour: Kennedy, Johnson, and Latin America," in The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decade: American Foreign Relations during the 1960s, ed. Diane B. Kunz (New York, 1994), 42; Joseph S. Tulchin, "The United States and Latin America in the 1960s," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 30 (Spring 1988): 1-36; Stephen G. Rabe, "Controlling Revolutions: Latin America, the Alliance for Progress, and Cold War Anti-Communism," in Kennedy's Quest for Victory: American foreign Policy, 1961-1963, ed. Thomas G. Paterson (New York, 1989), 105-22; Howard J. Wiarda, "Misreading Latin America - Again," Foreign Policy 65 (Winter 1986-87): 135-53. Interestingly enough, Edwin M. Martin, assistant secretary of state for Latin American affairs under Kennedy, reached similar conclusions regarding the Cold War's influence when reflecting back on his government service. See his "Haiti: A Case Study in Futility," SAIS Review 2 (1981): 61-70 and Kennedy and Latin America (Lanham, MD, 1994), 460. These views, one should also note, make the Kennedy period appear less anomalous and more a part of a larger trend of American expansion in the region. See Jules R. Benjamin, "The Framework of U.S. Relations with Latin America in the Twentieth Century: An Interpretive Essay," Diplomatic History 11 (Spring 1987): 91-112.
32. William O. Walker III, "Mixing the Sweet with the Sour: Kennedy, Johnson, and Latin America," in The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decade: American Foreign Relations during the 1960s, ed. Diane B. Kunz (New York, 1994), 42; Joseph S. Tulchin, "The United States and Latin America in the 1960s," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 30 (Spring 1988): 1-36; Stephen G. Rabe, "Controlling Revolutions: Latin America, the Alliance for Progress, and Cold War Anti- Communism," in Kennedy's Quest for Victory: American foreign Policy, 1961-1963, ed. Thomas G. Paterson (New York, 1989), 105-22; Howard J. Wiarda, "Misreading Latin America - Again," Foreign Policy 65 (Winter 1986-87): 135-53. Interestingly enough, Edwin M. Martin, assistant secretary of state for Latin American affairs under Kennedy, reached similar conclusions regarding the Cold War's influence when reflecting back on his government service. See his "Haiti: A Case Study in Futility," SAIS Review 2 (1981): 61-70 and Kennedy and Latin America (Lanham, MD, 1994), 460. These views, one should also note, make the Kennedy period appear less anomalous and more a part of a larger trend of American expansion in the region. See Jules R. Benjamin, "The Framework of U.S. Relations with Latin America in the Twentieth Century: An Interpretive Essay," Diplomatic History 11 (Spring 1987): 91-112.
33. William O. Walker III, "Mixing the Sweet with the Sour: Kennedy, Johnson, and Latin America," in The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decade: American Foreign Relations during the 1960s, ed. Diane B. Kunz (New York, 1994), 42; Joseph S. Tulchin, "The United States and Latin America in the 1960s," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 30 (Spring 1988): 1-36; Stephen G. Rabe, "Controlling Revolutions: Latin America, the Alliance for Progress, and Cold War Anti- Communism," in Kennedy's Quest for Victory: American foreign Policy, 1961-1963, ed. Thomas G. Paterson (New York, 1989), 105-22; Howard J. Wiarda, "Misreading Latin America - Again," Foreign Policy 65 (Winter 1986-87): 135-53. Interestingly enough, Edwin M. Martin, assistant secretary of state for Latin American affairs under Kennedy, reached similar conclusions regarding the Cold War's influence when reflecting back on his government service. See his "Haiti: A Case Study in Futility," SAIS Review 2 (1981): 61-70 and Kennedy and Latin America (Lanham, MD, 1994), 460. These views, one should also note, make the Kennedy period appear less anomalous and more a part of a larger trend of American expansion in the region. See Jules R. Benjamin, "The Framework of U.S. Relations with Latin America in the Twentieth Century: An Interpretive Essay," Diplomatic History 11 (Spring 1987): 91-112.
34. William O. Walker III, "Mixing the Sweet with the Sour: Kennedy, Johnson, and Latin America," in The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decade: American Foreign Relations during the 1960s, ed. Diane B. Kunz (New York, 1994), 42; Joseph S. Tulchin, "The United States and Latin America in the 1960s," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 30 (Spring 1988): 1-36; Stephen G. Rabe, "Controlling Revolutions: Latin America, the Alliance for Progress, and Cold War Anti- Communism," in Kennedy's Quest for Victory: American foreign Policy, 1961-1963, ed. Thomas G. Paterson (New York, 1989), 105-22; Howard J. Wiarda, "Misreading Latin America - Again," Foreign Policy 65 (Winter 1986-87): 135-53. Interestingly enough, Edwin M. Martin, assistant secretary of state for Latin American affairs under Kennedy, reached similar conclusions regarding the Cold War's influence when reflecting back on his government service. See his "Haiti: A Case Study in Futility," SAIS Review 2 (1981): 61-70 and Kennedy and Latin America (Lanham, MD, 1994), 460. These views, one should also note, make the Kennedy period appear less anomalous and more a part of a larger trend of American expansion in the region. See Jules R. Benjamin, "The Framework of U.S. Relations with Latin America in the Twentieth Century: An Interpretive Essay," Diplomatic History 11 (Spring 1987): 91-112.
35. William O. Walker III, "Mixing the Sweet with the Sour: Kennedy, Johnson, and Latin America," in The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decade: American Foreign Relations during the 1960s, ed. Diane B. Kunz (New York, 1994), 42; Joseph S. Tulchin, "The United States and Latin America in the 1960s," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 30 (Spring 1988): 1-36; Stephen G. Rabe, "Controlling Revolutions: Latin America, the Alliance for Progress, and Cold War Anti- Communism," in Kennedy's Quest for Victory: American foreign Policy, 1961-1963, ed. Thomas G. Paterson (New York, 1989), 105-22; Howard J. Wiarda, "Misreading Latin America - Again," Foreign Policy 65 (Winter 1986-87): 135-53. Interestingly enough, Edwin M. Martin, assistant secretary of state for Latin American affairs under Kennedy, reached similar conclusions regarding the Cold War's influence when reflecting back on his government service. See his "Haiti: A Case Study in Futility," SAIS Review 2 (1981): 61-70 and Kennedy and Latin America (Lanham, MD, 1994), 460. These views, one should also note, make the Kennedy period appear less anomalous and more a part of a larger trend of American expansion in the region. See Jules R. Benjamin, "The Framework of U.S. Relations with Latin America in the Twentieth Century: An Interpretive Essay," Diplomatic History 11 (Spring 1987): 91-112.
36. Walter LaFeber, "The Alliances in Retrospect," in Bordering on Trouble: Resources and Politics in Latin America, ed. Andrew Maguire and Janet Welsh Brown (Bethesda, 1986), 337-88; Paul J. Dosal, "Accelerating Dependent Development and Revolution: Nicaragua and the Alliance for Progress," Inter-American Economic Affairs 38 (Spring 1985): 75-96; Simon G. Hanson, Dollar Diplomacy Modern Style: Chapters in the Failure of the Alliance for Progress (Washington, 1970). LaFeber's Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America (New York, 1984), 145-95, echoes this theme but also provides a powerful account of the way security itself was often defined in economic and material terms.
37. Walter LaFeber, "The Alliances in Retrospect," in Bordering on Trouble: Resources and Politics in Latin America, ed. Andrew Maguire and Janet Welsh Brown (Bethesda, 1986), 337-88; Paul J. Dosal, "Accelerating Dependent Development and Revolution: Nicaragua and the Alliance for Progress," Inter-American Economic Affairs 38 (Spring 1985): 75-96; Simon G. Hanson, Dollar Diplomacy Modern Style: Chapters in the Failure of the Alliance for Progress (Washington, 1970). LaFeber's Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America (New York, 1984), 145-95, echoes this theme but also provides a powerful account of the way security itself was often defined in economic and material terms.
38. Walter LaFeber, "The Alliances in Retrospect," in Bordering on Trouble: Resources and Politics in Latin America, ed. Andrew Maguire and Janet Welsh Brown (Bethesda, 1986), 337-88; Paul J. Dosal, "Accelerating Dependent Development and Revolution: Nicaragua and the Alliance for Progress," Inter-American Economic Affairs 38 (Spring 1985): 75-96; Simon G. Hanson, Dollar Diplomacy Modern Style: Chapters in the Failure of the Alliance for Progress (Washington, 1970). LaFeber's Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America (New York, 1984), 145-95, echoes this theme but also provides a powerful account of the way security itself was often defined in economic and material terms.
39. Walter LaFeber, "The Alliances in Retrospect," in Bordering on Trouble: Resources and Politics in Latin America, ed. Andrew Maguire and Janet Welsh Brown (Bethesda, 1986), 337-88; Paul J. Dosal, "Accelerating Dependent Development and Revolution: Nicaragua and the Alliance for Progress," Inter-American Economic Affairs 38 (Spring 1985): 75-96; Simon G. Hanson, Dollar Diplomacy Modern Style: Chapters in the Failure of the Alliance for Progress (Washington, 1970). LaFeber's Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America (New York, 1984), 145-95, echoes this theme but also provides a powerful account of the way security itself was often defined in economic and material terms.
40. Frank Ninkovich, "Interests and Discourse in Diplomatic History," Diplomatic History 13 (Spring 1989): 136. Ninkovich has recently attempted to address that issue by analyzing a "belief system" shaping U.S. policies designed to maintain America's international credibility. See his Modernity and Power: A History of the Domino Theory in the Twentieth Century (Chicago, 1994). "Corporatist" interpretations have also devoted attention to the definition of interests by focusing on institutional settings. For an overview see Michael J. Hogan, "Corporatism," in Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations, ed. Hogan and Thomas G. Paterson (Cambridge, England, 1991), 226-36.
41. Frank Ninkovich, "Interests and Discourse in Diplomatic History," Diplomatic History 13 (Spring 1989): 136. Ninkovich has recently attempted to address that issue by analyzing a "belief system" shaping U.S. policies designed to maintain America's international credibility. See his Modernity and Power: A History of the Domino Theory in the Twentieth Century (Chicago, 1994). "Corporatist" interpretations have also devoted attention to the definition of interests by focusing on institutional settings. For an overview see Michael J. Hogan, "Corporatism," in Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations, ed. Hogan and Thomas G. Paterson (Cambridge, England, 1991), 226-36.
42. Frank Ninkovich, "Interests and Discourse in Diplomatic History," Diplomatic History 13 (Spring 1989): 136. Ninkovich has recently attempted to address that issue by analyzing a "belief system" shaping U.S. policies designed to maintain America's international credibility. See his Modernity and Power: A History of the Domino Theory in the Twentieth Century (Chicago, 1994). "Corporatist" interpretations have also devoted attention to the definition of interests by focusing on institutional settings. For an overview see Michael J. Hogan, "Corporatism," in Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations, ed. Hogan and Thomas G. Paterson (Cambridge, England, 1991), 226-36.
43. Emily S. Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1890-1945 (New York, 1982), 7. After Rosenberg's work, Robert A. Packenham's Liberal America and the Third World: Political Development Ideas in Foreign Aid and Social Science (Princeton, 1973) comes closest to the type of ideological analysis I have undertaken. Perhaps because he is primarily concerned with falsifying the specific cognitive framework he identifies, however, Packenham's analysis of the connections between theory and strategy does not fully explore questions about the way ideologies of development were also related to powerful, cultural, and public conceptions of national identity and mission. William Appleman Williams, though labeled an economic determinist by his critics, also worked to reconstruct the ideological worldview of those in power. In addition to The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (New York, 1959), see his treatment of a Turnerian vision in "The Frontier Thesis and American Foreign Policy," Pacific Historical Review 24:4 (1955): 379-95. Anders Stephanson's Kennan and the Art of Foreign Policy (Cambridge, MA, 1989) provides an insightful interpretation demonstrating that the nation's foremost "realist" was influenced by conceptual frameworks and cognitive maps of his own. Michael H. Hunt, in Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven, 1987), also describes the power and permanence of a "conceptually interlocking set of ideas" grounded in national identity.
44. Emily S. Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1890-1945 (New York, 1982), 7. After Rosenberg's work, Robert A. Packenham's Liberal America and the Third World: Political Development Ideas in Foreign Aid and Social Science (Princeton, 1973) comes closest to the type of ideological analysis I have undertaken. Perhaps because he is primarily concerned with falsifying the specific cognitive framework he identifies, however, Packenham's analysis of the connections between theory and strategy does not fully explore questions about the way ideologies of development were also related to powerful, cultural, and public conceptions of national identity and mission. William Appleman Williams, though labeled an economic determinist by his critics, also worked to reconstruct the ideological worldview of those in power. In addition to The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (New York, 1959), see his treatment of a Turnerian vision in "The Frontier Thesis and American Foreign Policy," Pacific Historical Review 24:4 (1955): 379-95. Anders Stephanson's Kennan and the Art of Foreign Policy (Cambridge, MA, 1989) provides an insightful interpretation demonstrating that the nation's foremost "realist" was influenced by conceptual frameworks and cognitive maps of his own. Michael H. Hunt, in Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven, 1987), also describes the power and permanence of a "conceptually interlocking set of ideas" grounded in national identity.
45. Emily S. Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1890-1945 (New York, 1982), 7. After Rosenberg's work, Robert A. Packenham's Liberal America and the Third World: Political Development Ideas in Foreign Aid and Social Science (Princeton, 1973) comes closest to the type of ideological analysis I have undertaken. Perhaps because he is primarily concerned with falsifying the specific cognitive framework he identifies, however, Packenham's analysis of the connections between theory and strategy does not fully explore questions about the way ideologies of development were also related to powerful, cultural, and public conceptions of national identity and mission. William Appleman Williams, though labeled an economic determinist by his critics, also worked to reconstruct the ideological worldview of those in power. In addition to The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (New York, 1959), see his treatment of a Turnerian vision in "The Frontier Thesis and American Foreign Policy," Pacific Historical Review 24:4 (1955): 379-95. Anders Stephanson's Kennan and the Art of Foreign Policy (Cambridge, MA, 1989) provides an insightful interpretation demonstrating that the nation's foremost "realist" was influenced by conceptual frameworks and cognitive maps of his own. Michael H. Hunt, in Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven, 1987), also describes the power and permanence of a "conceptually interlocking set of ideas" grounded in national identity.
46. Emily S. Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1890-1945 (New York, 1982), 7. After Rosenberg's work, Robert A. Packenham's Liberal America and the Third World: Political Development Ideas in Foreign Aid and Social Science (Princeton, 1973) comes closest to the type of ideological analysis I have undertaken. Perhaps because he is primarily concerned with falsifying the specific cognitive framework he identifies, however, Packenham's analysis of the connections between theory and strategy does not fully explore questions about the way ideologies of development were also related to powerful, cultural, and public conceptions of national identity and mission. William Appleman Williams, though labeled an economic determinist by his critics, also worked to reconstruct the ideological worldview of those in power. In addition to The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (New York, 1959), see his treatment of a Turnerian vision in "The Frontier Thesis and American Foreign Policy," Pacific Historical Review 24:4 (1955): 379-95. Anders Stephanson's Kennan and the Art of Foreign Policy (Cambridge, MA, 1989) provides an insightful interpretation demonstrating that the nation's foremost "realist" was influenced by conceptual frameworks and cognitive maps of his own. Michael H. Hunt, in Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven, 1987), also describes the power and permanence of a "conceptually interlocking set of ideas" grounded in national identity.
47. Emily S. Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1890-1945 (New York, 1982), 7. After Rosenberg's work, Robert A. Packenham's Liberal America and the Third World: Political Development Ideas in Foreign Aid and Social Science (Princeton, 1973) comes closest to the type of ideological analysis I have undertaken. Perhaps because he is primarily concerned with falsifying the specific cognitive framework he identifies, however, Packenham's analysis of the connections between theory and strategy does not fully explore questions about the way ideologies of development were also related to powerful, cultural, and public conceptions of national identity and mission. William Appleman Williams, though labeled an economic determinist by his critics, also worked to reconstruct the ideological worldview of those in power. In addition to The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (New York, 1959), see his treatment of a Turnerian vision in "The Frontier Thesis and American Foreign Policy," Pacific Historical Review 24:4 (1955): 379-95. Anders Stephanson's Kennan and the Art of Foreign Policy (Cambridge, MA, 1989) provides an insightful interpretation demonstrating that the nation's foremost "realist" was influenced by conceptual frameworks and cognitive maps of his own. Michael H. Hunt, in Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven, 1987), also describes the power and permanence of a "conceptually interlocking set of ideas" grounded in national identity.
48. Emily S. Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1890-1945 (New York, 1982), 7. After Rosenberg's work, Robert A. Packenham's Liberal America and the Third World: Political Development Ideas in Foreign Aid and Social Science (Princeton, 1973) comes closest to the type of ideological analysis I have undertaken. Perhaps because he is primarily concerned with falsifying the specific cognitive framework he identifies, however, Packenham's analysis of the connections between theory and strategy does not fully explore questions about the way ideologies of development were also related to powerful, cultural, and public conceptions of national identity and mission. William Appleman Williams, though labeled an economic determinist by his critics, also worked to reconstruct the ideological worldview of those in power. In addition to The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (New York, 1959), see his treatment of a Turnerian vision in "The Frontier Thesis and American Foreign Policy," Pacific Historical Review 24:4 (1955): 379-95. Anders Stephanson's Kennan and the Art of Foreign Policy (Cambridge, MA, 1989) provides an insightful interpretation demonstrating that the nation's foremost "realist" was influenced by conceptual frameworks and cognitive maps of his own. Michael H. Hunt, in Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven, 1987), also describes the power and permanence of a "conceptually interlocking set of ideas" grounded in national identity.
49. SR11. Roger Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities since World War II (New York, 1993), 165; Sigmund Diamond, Compromised Campus: The Collaboration of Universities with the Intelligence Community, 1945-1955 (New York, 1992), 65. See also Robert M. Rosenzweig, The Research Universities and Their Patrons (Berkeley, 1982), 111.
50. Roger Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities since World War II (New York, 1993), 165; Sigmund Diamond, Compromised Campus: The Collaboration of Universities with the Intelligence Community, 1945-1955 (New York, 1992), 65. See also Robert M. Rosenzweig, The Research Universities and Their Patrons (Berkeley, 1982), 111.
51. Roger Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities since World War II (New York, 1993), 165; Sigmund Diamond, Compromised Campus: The Collaboration of Universities with the Intelligence Community, 1945-1955 (New York, 1992), 65. See also Robert M. Rosenzweig, The Research Universities and Their Patrons (Berkeley, 1982), 111.
52. Needell, "'Truth is Our Weapon,'" 47; James R. Killian, Jr., The Education of a College President (Cambridge, MA, 1985), 65-67; W. W. Rostow, "Development: The Political Economy of the Marshallian Long Period," in Pioneers in Development, ed. Gerald Meier and Dudley Seers (New York, 1984), 240-41; W. W. Rostow, oral history interview by Richard Neustadt, 11 April 1964, transcript, JFKL; W. W. Rostow, Eisenhower, Kennedy and Foreign Aid (Austin,
53. Needell, "'Truth is Our Weapon,'" 47; James R. Killian, Jr., The Education of a College President (Cambridge, MA, 1985), 65-67; W. W. Rostow, "Development: The Political Economy of the Marshallian Long Period," in Pioneers in Development, ed. Gerald Meier and Dudley Seers (New York, 1984), 240-41; W. W. Rostow, oral history interview by Richard Neustadt, 11 April 1964, transcript, JFKL; W. W. Rostow, Eisenhower, Kennedy and Foreign Aid (Austin, 1985), xiii, 36-44. For their major political recommendation see Max F. Millikan and W. W. Rostow, A Proposal: Key to an Effective Foreign Policy (New York, 1957).
54. Needell, "'Truth is Our Weapon,'" 47; James R. Killian, Jr., The Education of a College President (Cambridge, MA, 1985), 65-67; W. W. Rostow, "Development: The Political Economy of the Marshallian Long Period," in Pioneers in Development, ed. Gerald Meier and Dudley Seers (New York, 1984), 240-41; W. W. Rostow, oral history interview by Richard Neustadt, 11 April 1964, transcript, JFKL; W. W. Rostow, Eisenhower, Kennedy and Foreign Aid (Austin, 1985), xiii, 36-44. For their major political recommendation see Max F. Millikan and W. W. Rostow, A Proposal: Key to an Effective Foreign Policy (New York, 1957).
55. Needell, "'Truth is Our Weapon,'" 47; James R. Killian, Jr., The Education of a College President (Cambridge, MA, 1985), 65-67; W. W. Rostow, "Development: The Political Economy of the Marshallian Long Period," in Pioneers in Development, ed. Gerald Meier and Dudley Seers (New York, 1984), 240-41; W. W. Rostow, oral history interview by Richard Neustadt, 11 April 1964, transcript, JFKL; W. W. Rostow, Eisenhower, Kennedy and Foreign Aid (Austin, 1985), xiii, 36-44. For their major political recommendation see Max F. Millikan and W. W. Rostow, A Proposal: Key to an Effective Foreign Policy (New York, 1957).
56. Needell, "'Truth is Our Weapon,'" 47; James R. Killian, Jr., The Education of a College President (Cambridge, MA, 1985), 65-67; W. W. Rostow, "Development: The Political Economy of the Marshallian Long Period," in Pioneers in Development, ed. Gerald Meier and Dudley Seers (New York, 1984), 240-41; W. W. Rostow, oral history interview by Richard Neustadt, 11 April 1964, transcript, JFKL; W. W. Rostow, Eisenhower, Kennedy and Foreign Aid (Austin, 1985), xiii, 36-44. For their major political recommendation see Max F. Millikan and W. W. Rostow, A Proposal: Key to an Effective Foreign Policy (New York, 1957).
57. Needell, "'Truth is Our Weapon,'" 47; James R. Killian, Jr., The Education of a College President (Cambridge, MA, 1985), 65-67; W. W. Rostow, "Development: The Political Economy of the Marshallian Long Period," in Pioneers in Development, ed. Gerald Meier and Dudley Seers (New York, 1984), 240-41; W. W. Rostow, oral history interview by Richard Neustadt, 11 April 1964, transcript, JFKL; W. W. Rostow, Eisenhower, Kennedy and Foreign Aid (Austin, 1985), xiii, 36-44. For their major political recommendation see Max F. Millikan and W. W. Rostow, A Proposal: Key to an Effective Foreign Policy (New York, 1957).
58. Task Force Report, 4 January 1961, Papers of Teodoro Moscoso, box 9, "Report of the Task Force on Immediate Latin American Problems, Winter, 1960," JFKL.
59. Lincoln Gordon, "The Alliance at Birth: Hopes and Fears," in The Alliance for Progress: A Retrospective, ed. L. Ronald Scheman (New York, 1988), 74.
60. Ibid.; Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., memorandum to John F. Kennedy, 10 March 1961, Papers of Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., box WH-14, "Latin America, Report 5/10/61," JFKL.
61. Ibid.; Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., memorandum to John F. Kennedy, 10 March 1961, Papers of Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., box WH-14, "Latin America, Report 3/10/61," JFKL.
62. Lincoln Gordon memorandum to Richard Goodwin, 6 March 1961, National Security Files (NSF), box 290, "Alliance for Progress, 1/61-12/61," JFKL; John F. Kennedy, Public Papers of the President: John F. Kennedy (Washington, 1962), 1:172.
63. Lincoln Gordon memorandum to Richard Goodwin, 6 March 1961, National Security Files (NSF), box 290, "Alliance for Progress, 1/61-12/61," JFKL; John F. Kennedy, Public Papers of the President: John F. Kennedy (Washington, 1962), 1:172.
64. W. W. Rostow memorandum to Richard Goodwin, 20 June 1961, NSF, box 290, "Alliance for Progress, 1/61-12/61," JFKL; Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., memorandum to Arturo Morales Carrión, 19 July 1961, Schlesinger Papers, box W-1, "Alliance for Progress, General Memoranda."
65. W. W. Rostow memorandum to Richard Goodwin, 20 June 1961, NSF, box 290, "Alliance for Progress, 1/61-12/61," JFKL; Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., memorandum to Arturo Morales Carrión, 19 July 1961, Schlesinger Papers, box W-1, "Alliance for Progress, General Memoranda."
66. "Charter of Punta del Este Establishing an Alliance for Progress within the Framework of Operation Pan America," as printed in House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Regional and Other Documents Concerning United States Relations with Latin America (Washington, 1966), 101-3.
67. Ibid., 106-7; Albert O. Hirschman, "A Dissenter's Confession: The Strategy of Economic Development Revisited," in Pioneers in Development, ed. Gerald M. Meier and Dudley Seers (New York, 1984), 90-91.
68. Ibid., 106-7; Albert O. Hirschman, "A Dissenter's Confession: The Strategy of Economic Development Revisited," in Pioneers in Development, ed. Gerald M. Meier and Dudley Seers (New York, 1984), 90-91.
69. Statement of Teodoro Moscoso before the Senate Appropriations Committee, 17 May 1963, Papers of Teodoro Moscoso, box 11, "Senate Appropriations Committee," JFKL.
70. Task Force Report, n.d., Papers of Max Millikan, box 1, "Task Force Recommendations, 1960," JFKL; Paul Rosenstein-Rodan, "International Aid for Underdeveloped Countries," The Review of Economics and Statistics 43 (May 1961): 107. See also Rosenstein-Rodan's draft in NSF, box 324, "Staff Memoranda, Walt W. Rostow, Foreign Aid, 1/61," JFKL.
71. Rosenstein-Rodan, "International Aid," 108.
72. Ibid., 113-15.
73. Hollis Chenery memorandum, "Policy Guidance for Foreign Assistance," 1963, AID Historical Collection, Agency for International Development, Center for Development Information and Evaluation, Rosslyn, Virginia. For a quantitative treatment see Hollis Chenery and Alan M. Strout, "Foreign Assistance and Economic Development," American Economic Review 56 (September 1966): 679-729.
74. W. W. Rostow, View from the Seventh Floor (New York, 1964), 7, 106, The Two Major Communist Offensives (Washington, 1964), and The Great Transition: Tasks of the First and Second Post-War Generations (Cambridge, England, 1967).
75. W. W. Rostow, View from the Seventh Floor (New York, 1964), 7, 106, The Two Major Communist Offensives (Washington, 1964), and The Great Transition: Tasks of the First and Second Post-War Generations (Cambridge, England, 1967).
76. W. W. Rostow, View from the Seventh Floor (New York, 1964), 7, 106, The Two Major Communist Offensives (Washington, 1964), and The Great Transition: Tasks of the First and Second Post-War Generations (Cambridge, England, 1967).
77. Adolf Berle to Latin American Task Force Members, 10 January 1961, Moscoso Papers, box 4, "Correspondence, 12/60-4/61"; Richard Gardner, New Directions in U.S. Foreign Economic Policy (New York, 1959), 14-18.
78. Wayne Morse and Bourke B. Hickenlooper, Report of the Second Punta del Este Conference (Washington, 1962). For the text of the resolutions and the vote results see House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Regional and Other Documents Concerning United States Relations with Latin America, 115-22. Rusk, "The Alliance in the Context of World Affairs," in The Alliance for Progress: Problems and Perspectives, ed. John C. Dreier (Baltimore, 1962), 103, Such anti-Communist concerns resonate through the administration's internal documents as well. See, for example, State Department intelligence chief Roger Hilsman's 19 December 1962 warning to Edwin Martin that "we expect a number of the many potential trouble spots in Latin America to flare up in 1963. Communists may instigate or benefit from violence in several countries." Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1961-1963 (Washington, 1996), 12:126.
79. Wayne Morse and Bourke B. Hickenlooper, Report of the Second Punta del Este Conference (Washington, 1962). For the text of the resolutions and the vote results see House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Regional and Other Documents Concerning United States Relations with Latin America, 115-22. Rusk, "The Alliance in the Context of World Affairs," in The Alliance for Progress: Problems and Perspectives, ed. John C. Dreier (Baltimore, 1962), 103, Such anti-Communist concerns resonate through the administration's internal documents as well. See, for example, State Department intelligence chief Roger Hilsman's 19 December 1962 warning to Edwin Martin that "we expect a number of the many potential trouble spots in Latin America to flare up in 1963. Communists may instigate or benefit from violence in several countries." Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1961-1963 (Washington, 1996), 12:126.
80. Wayne Morse and Bourke B. Hickenlooper, Report of the Second Punta del Este Conference (Washington, 1962). For the text of the resolutions and the vote results see House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Regional and Other Documents Concerning United States Relations with Latin America, 115-22. Rusk, "The Alliance in the Context of World Affairs," in The Alliance for Progress: Problems and Perspectives, ed. John C. Dreier (Baltimore, 1962), 103, Such anti-Communist concerns resonate through the administration's internal documents as well. See, for example, State Department intelligence chief Roger Hilsman's 19 December 1962 warning to Edwin Martin that "we expect a number of the many potential trouble spots in Latin America to flare up in 1963. Communists may instigate or benefit from violence in several countries." Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1961-1963 (Washington, 1996), 12:126.
81. Wayne Morse and Bourke B. Hickenlooper, Report of the Second Punta del Este Conference (Washington, 1962). For the text of the resolutions and the vote results see House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Regional and Other Documents Concerning United States Relations with Latin America, 115-22. Rusk, "The Alliance in the Context of World Affairs," in The Alliance for Progress: Problems and Perspectives, ed. John C. Dreier (Baltimore, 1962), 103, Such anti-Communist concerns resonate through the administration's internal documents as well. See, for example, State Department intelligence chief Roger Hilsman's 19 December 1962 warning to Edwin Martin that "we expect a number of the many potential trouble spots in Latin America to flare up in 1963. Communists may instigate or benefit from violence in several countries." Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1961-1963 (Washington, 1996), 12:126.
82. Memorandum, "A Doctrine to Preserve the Independence of the Latin American Revolution," n.d., Vice-President's Security File, box 4, "National Security Council - 1961, 2 of 2," Lyndon Baines Johnson Library, Austin, Texas. For task force member Arthur Whitaker this problem was one of fostering a distinct sense of "Western Hemisphere solidarity" in an atmosphere of growing Latin American "continental nationalism." See his Nationalism in Latin America (Gainesville, 1962), 65-66. Luis Muñoz Marín speech to the AFL-CIO National Conference on Community Services, 3 May 1962, Moscoso Papers, box 10, "Speech Materials, 5/62-6/62."
83. Memorandum, "A Doctrine to Preserve the Independence of the Latin American Revolution," n.d., Vice-President's Security File, box 4, "National Security Council - 1961, 2 of 2," Lyndon Baines Johnson Library, Austin, Texas. For task force member Arthur Whitaker this problem was one of fostering a distinct sense of "Western Hemisphere solidarity" in an atmosphere of growing Latin American "continental nationalism." See his Nationalism in Latin America (Gainesville, 1962), 65-66. Luis Muñoz Marín speech to the AFL-CIO National Conference on Community Services, 3 May 1962, Moscoso Papers, box 10, "Speech Materials, 5/62-6/62."
84. W. W. Rostow, "Economic Development: Some Lessons of a Common Experience," speech to the American Chamber of Commerce, Mexico City, 19 August 1965, Moscoso Papers, box 11, "Speech Materials, 6/153-9/63."
85. Thomas Mann, "The Experience of the United States in Economic Development: Its Relevance for Latin America," speech to the Confederación Patronal de la Republica Mexicana, Mexico City, 25 September 1962, Department of State Bulletin 47 (19 November 1962): 772-75.
86. Thomas Mann, "The Experience of the United States in Economic Development: Its Relevance for Latin America," speech to the Confederación Patronal de la Republica Mexicana, Mexico City, 25 September 1962, Department of State Bulletin 47 (19 November 1962): 772-75.
87. Lincoln Gordon, A New Deal for Latin America: The Alliance for Progress (Cambridge, MA, 1963), 105-8.
88. Ibid., 109.
89. John F. Kennedy and Fowler Hamilton, "Remarks at the Signing of a Contract to Aid Electrification of Underdeveloped Countries," 1 November 1962, Public Papers of the President: John F. Kennedy 2:818-20; Dean Rusk, "America's Destiny in the Building of a World Community," Department of State Bulletin 46 (10 December 1962): 898-99.
90. John F. Kennedy and Fowler Hamilton, "Remarks at the Signing of a Contract to Aid Electrification of Underdeveloped Countries," 1 November 1962, Public Papers of the President: John F. Kennedy 2:818-20; Dean Rusk, "America's Destiny in the Building of a World Community," Department of State Bulletin 46 (10 December 1962): 898-99.
91. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth, 26-27; Edwin Martin speech to the University of Southern California World Affairs Institute, 4 December 1962, Moscoso Papers, box 10, "Speech Materials, 11/62-12/62."
92. W. W. Rostow, "American Strategy on the World Scene," speech to the Purdue University Conference on International Affairs, 15 March 1961, Department of State Bulletin 46 (16 April 1962): 628; House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Foreign Assistance Act of 1962, 87th Cong., 2d sess., 28 March 1962, 468.
93. W. W. Rostow, "American Strategy on the World Scene," speech to the Purdue University Conference on International Affairs, 15 March 1961, Department of State Bulletin 46 (16 April 1962): 628; House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Foreign Assistance Act of 1962, 87th Cong., 2d sess., 28 March 1962, 468.
94. W. W. Rostow, "American Strategy on the World Scene," speech to the Purdue University Conference on International Affairs, 15 March 1961, Department of State Bulletin 46 (16 April 1962): 628; House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Foreign Assistance Act of 1962, 87th Cong., 2d sess., 28 March 1962, 468.
95. "'Progresso, Sí,'" Time, 24 March 1961, 29; "Help on the Way," Time, 22 September 1961, 46; "Fresh Breeze From South," Life, 25 August 1961, 46.
96. "'Progresso, Sí,'" Time, 24 March 1961, 29; "Help on the Way," Time, 22 September 1961, 46; "Fresh Breeze From South," Life, 25 August 1961, 46.
97. "'Progresso, Sí,'" Time, 24 March 1961, 29; "Help on the Way," Time, 22 September 1961, 46; "Fresh Breeze From South," Life, 25 August 1961, 46.
98. Leonard Gross, "Has the Alliance for Progress a Chance?" Look, 28 August 1962, 80; "How Much Progress in the Alliance for Progress?" U.S. News and World Report, 20 October 1962, 42-44; "Quasi Stagnation," Newsweek, 15 October 1962, 44; "For 'Alianza' a Warning," Life, 16 March 1962, 4.
99. Leonard Gross, "Has the Alliance for Progress a Chance?" Look, 28 August 1962, 80; "How Much Progress in the Alliance for Progress?" U.S. News and World Report, 20 October 1962, 42-44; "Quasi Stagnation," Newsweek, 15 October 1962, 44; "For 'Alianza' a Warning," Life, 16 March 1962, 4.
100. Leonard Gross, "Has the Alliance for Progress a Chance?" Look, 28 August 1962, 80; "How Much Progress in the Alliance for Progress?" U.S. News and World Report, 20 October 1962, 42-44; "Quasi Stagnation," Newsweek, 15 October 1962, 44; "For 'Alianza' a Warning," Life, 16 March 1962, 4.
101. Leonard Gross, "Has the Alliance for Progress a Chance?" Look, 28 August 1962, 80; "How Much Progress in the Alliance for Progress?" U.S. News and World Report, 20 October 1962, 42-44; "Quasi Stagnation," Newsweek, 15 October 1962, 44; "For 'Alianza' a Warning," Life, 16 March 1962, 4.
102. Organization of American States, "The Alliance for Progress: Its First Year, 1961-1962," NSF, box 290; Organization of American States, "The Alliance for Progress: Its Second Year, 1961-1963," Moscoso Papers, box 3.
103. Organization of American States, "The Alliance for Progress: Its First Year, 1961-1962," NSF, box 290; Organization of American States, "The Alliance for Progress: Its Second Year, 1961-1963," Moscoso Papers, box 3.
104. Teodoro Moscoso memorandum to John F. Kennedy, 27 April 1962, NSF, box 291, "Alliance tor Progress Reports, 3/62-4/62"; Moscoso memorandum to Kennedy, 2 October 1963, NSK, box 291, "Alliance for Progress Reports, 8/63-10/63"; memorandum, unknown author to Kennedy, n.d., POF, box 95, "Alliance for Progress," JFKL.
105. Chester Bowles memorandum on "Setting the Pace for the Alliance for Progress in Colombia," 7 August 1962, POF, box 28, "Chester Bowles"; T. Graydon Upton to John F. Kennedy, 16 March 1962, POF, box 95, "Alliance for Progress"; "Alliance for Progress: The Big Need is Deeds," Newsweek, 27 August 1962, 50; "Where the Reds May Take Over Next in Latin America," U.S. News and World Report, 18 March 1963, 50.
106. Chester Bowles memorandum on "Setting the Pace for the Alliance for Progress in Colombia," 7 August 1962, POF, box 28, "Chester Bowles"; T. Graydon Upton to John F. Kennedy, 16 March 1962, POF, box 95, "Alliance for Progress"; "Alliance for Progress: The Big Need is Deeds," Newsweek, 27 August 1962, 50; "Where the Reds May Take Over Next in Latin America," U.S. News and World Report, 18 March 1963, 50.
107. Bowles memorandum on "Setting the Pace for the Alliance for Progress in Colombia," 7 August 1962, POF, box 28, "Chester Bowles"; Attorney General's Assistant Jim Symington memorandum to Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., 15 March 1963, FRUS, 1961-1963 12:134; "For 'Alianza' a Warning," Life, 16 March 1962, 4.
108. Bowles memorandum on "Setting the Pace for the Alliance for Progress in Colombia," 7 August 1962, POF, box 28, "Chester Bowles"; Attorney General's Assistant Jim Symington memorandum to Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., 15 March 1963, FRUS, 1961-1963 12:134; "For 'Alianza' a Warning," Life, 16 March 1962, 4.
109. Charles E. Lindblom, "A New Look at Latin America," Atlantic, October 1962, 81-86.
110. Hans Morgenthau, "A Political Theory of Foreign Aid," American Political Science Review 56 (June 1962): 302; Albert O. Hirschman, "Second Thoughts on the 'Alliance for Progress,'" The Reporter, 25 May 1961, 21.
111. Hans Morgenthau, "A Political Theory of Foreign Aid," American Political Science Review 56 (June 1962): 302; Albert O. Hirschman, "Second Thoughts on the 'Alliance for Progress,'" The Reporter, 25 May 1961, 21.
112. Through the mid-1960s the U.S. approach in Latin America was very similar to that pursued in other regions. For accounts of other attempts at modernization see Lloyd Gardner, Pay Any Pnce: Lyndon Johnson and the Wars for Vietnam (Chicago, 1995); and Dennis Merrill, Bread and the Ballot: The United States and India's Economic Development, 1947-1963 (Chapel Hill, 1990).
113. Through the mid-1960s the U.S. approach in Latin America was very similar to that pursued in other regions. For accounts of other attempts at modernization see Lloyd Gardner, Pay Any Pnce: Lyndon Johnson and the Wars for Vietnam (Chicago, 1995); and Dennis Merrill, Bread and the Ballot: The United States and India's Economic Development, 1947-1963 (Chapel Hill, 1990).