'Mathematical machines' of the Cold War: Soviet computing, American cybernetics and ideological disputes in the early 1950s

Social Studies of Science

Volumn 31, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 253-287

  Gerovitch, Slava ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Computers; Ideology; Military technology; Russia; Soviet Union

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035591552     PISSN: 03063127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0306312701031002006     Document Type: Article

References (174)

1. ARAN, f. 383, op. 1, d. 325, 1. 51.The work was eventually published in Russian in 1956 (see note 136), and in an English translation in 1963 (see note 138). Unless otherwise noted, I am responsible for all the translations of Russian texts quoted in this paper.
2. ARAN, loc. cit. note 1, 1. 57.
3. See Alexander Vucinich, Empire of Knowledge: The Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1917-1970) (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), esp. Chapter 4.
4. See Paul R. Josephson, '"Projects of the Century" in Soviet History: Large-Scale Technologies from Lenin to Gorbachev', Technology and Culture, Vol. 36, No. 3 (July 1995), 519-59.
5. See David Holloway, 'Physics, the State, and Civil Society in the Soviet Union', Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences, Vol. 30, Part 1 (1999), 173-92.
6. See Loren R. Graham, What Have We Learned About Science and Technology from the Russian Experience? (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998), Chapter 3.
7. See Mark B. Adams, 'Science, Ideology, and Structure: The Kol'tsov Institute, 1900-1970', in Linda L. Lubrano and Susan Gross Solomon (eds), The Social Context of Soviet Science (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1980), 173-204.
8. Nikolai Krementsov, Stalinist Science (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), 6.
9. See Alexei Kojevnikov, 'Rituals of Stalinist Culture at Work: Science and the Games of Intraparty Democracy circa 1948', The Russian Review, Vol. 57, No. 1 (January 1998), 25-52.
10. In Krementsov's pointed formulation, 'had the Cold War military competition between East and West concentrated upon the development of biological weapons ... instead of an atomic bomb, geneticists would probably not have been routed in 1948, [and] academy physicists might well have been purged in 1949': see Krementsov, op. cit. note 8, 282.
11. Alexei Kojevnikov, 'President of Stalin's Academy: The Mask and Responsibility of Sergei Vavilov', Isis, Vol. 87, No. 1 (March 1996), 18-50, at 49.
12. Paul R. Josephson, 'Review of Nikolai Krementsov, Stalinist Science', Slavic Review, Vol. 57 (Spring 1998), 215-16, at 216.
13. On military computing in the USA, see I. Bernard Cohen, 'The Computer: A Case Study of Support by Government, Especially the Military, of a New Science and Technology', in Everett Mendelsohn, Merritt Roe Smith and Peter Weingart (eds), Science, Technology and the Military, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 12, Part 1 (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1988), 119-54; and Paul Edwards, The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996), Chapters 2 & 3. There is no systematic study of military computing in the Soviet Union. Some relevant information can be gathered from Boris N. Malinovskii, Istoriia vychislitel'noi tekhniki v litsakh (Kiev: Kit, 1995). Anne Fitzpatrick is currently writing a comparative history of computing in the American and Soviet nuclear weapons programmes.
14. On military computing in the USA, see I. Bernard Cohen, 'The Computer: A Case Study of Support by Government, Especially the Military, of a New Science and Technology', in Everett Mendelsohn, Merritt Roe Smith and Peter Weingart (eds), Science, Technology and the Military, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 12, Part 1 (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1988), 119-54; and Paul Edwards, The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996), Chapters 2 & 3. There is no systematic study of military computing in the Soviet Union. Some relevant information can be gathered from Boris N. Malinovskii, Istoriia vychislitel'noi tekhniki v litsakh (Kiev: Kit, 1995). Anne Fitzpatrick is currently writing a comparative history of computing in the American and Soviet nuclear weapons programmes.
15. On military computing in the USA, see I. Bernard Cohen, 'The Computer: A Case Study of Support by Government, Especially the Military, of a New Science and Technology', in Everett Mendelsohn, Merritt Roe Smith and Peter Weingart (eds), Science, Technology and the Military, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 12, Part 1 (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1988), 119-54; and Paul Edwards, The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996), Chapters 2 & 3. There is no systematic study of military computing in the Soviet Union. Some relevant information can be gathered from Boris N. Malinovskii, Istoriia vychislitel'noi tekhniki v litsakh (Kiev: Kit, 1995). Anne Fitzpatrick is currently writing a comparative history of computing in the American and Soviet nuclear weapons programmes.
16. See Edwards, op. cit. note 13, Chapters 6 & 7.
17. TsAODM, f. 7341, op. 1, d. 2, 1. 119.
18. TsAODM, f. 7341, op. 1, d. 2, 1. 54.
19. TsAODM, f. 7341, op. 1, d. 4, 1. 87.
20. Iosif V. Stalin, 'Rech' na predvybornom sobranii izbiratelei Stalinskogo okruga goroda Moskvy 9 fevralia 1946 g' [1946], in Robert H. McNeal (ed.), I.V. Stalin. Sochineniia, Vol. 3 [XVI] (Stanford, CA: The Hoover Institution, 1967), 1-22, at 19.
21. Quoted in D.G. Nadzhafov, 'Antiamerikanskie propagandistskie pristrastiia Stalinskogo rukovodstva', in Il'ia V. Gaiduk, Natal'ia I. Egorova and Aleksandr O. Chubar'ian (eds), Stalinskoe desiatiletie kholodnoi voiny: fakty i gipotezy (Moscow: Nauka, 1999), 134-50, at 137.
22. ARAN, f. 1922, op. 1, d. 538, 1. 9.
23. David Joravsky, Russian Psychology: A Critical History (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989), 406.
24. On the Lysenko controversy, see Loren R. Graham, Science, Philosophy, and Human Behavior in the Soviet Union (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), Chapter 4; David Joravsky, The Lysenko Affair (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970);
25. On the Lysenko controversy, see Loren R. Graham, Science, Philosophy, and Human Behavior in the Soviet Union (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), Chapter 4; David Joravsky, The Lysenko Affair (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970);
26. Krementsov, op. cit. note 8;
27. Zhores A. Medvedev, The Rise and Fall of T.D. Lysenko (New York & London: Columbia University Press, 1969);
28. and Valery N. Soyfer, trans. Leo Gruliow and Rebecca Gruliow, Lysenko and the Tragedy of Soviet Science (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994).
29. Kirill Rossianov, 'Editing Nature: Joseph Stalin and the "New" Soviet Biology', Isis, Vol. 84, No. 4 (December 1993), 728-45.
30. See Vladimir P. Vizgin, 'Spasennaia dvazhdy: sovetskaia teoreticheskaia fizika mezhdu filosofiei i iadernym oruzhiem', in V.P. Vizgin (ed. and comp.), Istoriia sovetskogo atomnogo proekta: dokumenty, vospominaniia, issledovaniia, vyp. 1 (Moscow: Ianus-K, 1998), 329-91. Cf. Kojevnikov, op. cit. note 11, at 43-47. On the conflict between the Academy and the University groups, see Gennadii Gorelik, 'Fizika universitetskaia i akademicheskaia', Voprosy istorii estestvoznaniia i tekhniki (1991), No. 1, 15-32.
31. See Vladimir P. Vizgin, 'Spasennaia dvazhdy: sovetskaia teoreticheskaia fizika mezhdu filosofiei i iadernym oruzhiem', in V.P. Vizgin (ed. and comp.), Istoriia sovetskogo atomnogo proekta: dokumenty, vospominaniia, issledovaniia, vyp. 1 (Moscow: Ianus-K, 1998), 329-91. Cf. Kojevnikov, op. cit. note 11, at 43-47. On the conflict between the Academy and the University groups, see Gennadii Gorelik, 'Fizika universitetskaia i akademicheskaia', Voprosy istorii estestvoznaniia i tekhniki (1991), No. 1, 15-32.
32. See Vladimir P. Vizgin, 'Spasennaia dvazhdy: sovetskaia teoreticheskaia fizika mezhdu filosofiei i iadernym oruzhiem', in V.P. Vizgin (ed. and comp.), Istoriia sovetskogo atomnogo proekta: dokumenty, vospominaniia, issledovaniia, vyp. 1 (Moscow: Ianus-K, 1998), 329-91. Cf. Kojevnikov, op. cit. note 11, at 43-47. On the conflict between the Academy and the University groups, see Gennadii Gorelik, 'Fizika universitetskaia i akademicheskaia', Voprosy istorii estestvoznaniia i tekhniki (1991), No. 1, 15-32.
33. See Kojevnikov, op. cit. note 11, 38.
34. See Aleksandr D. Aleksandrov, 'Leninskaia dialektika i matematika', Priroda (1951), No. 1 (January), 5-16; Aleksandrov, 'Ob idealizme v matematike' [Part I], Priroda (1951), No. 7 (July), 3-11; and Aleksandrov, 'Ob idealizme v matematike' [Part II], Priroda (1952), No. 8 (August), 3-9.
35. See Aleksandr D. Aleksandrov, 'Leninskaia dialektika i matematika', Priroda (1951), No. 1 (January), 5-16; Aleksandrov, 'Ob idealizme v matematike' [Part I], Priroda (1951), No. 7 (July), 3-11; and Aleksandrov, 'Ob idealizme v matematike' [Part II], Priroda (1952), No. 8 (August), 3-9.
36. See Aleksandr D. Aleksandrov, 'Leninskaia dialektika i matematika', Priroda (1951), No. 1 (January), 5-16; Aleksandrov, 'Ob idealizme v matematike' [Part I], Priroda (1951), No. 7 (July), 3-11; and Aleksandrov, 'Ob idealizme v matematike' [Part II], Priroda (1952), No. 8 (August), 3-9.
37. Aleksandrov (August 1952), op. cit. note 26, 8.
38. Ibid., 4.
39. Ibid., 9.
40. See Graham, op. cit. note 22, Chapter 10.
41. In the post-war period, historians largely gave up the Marxist sociological analysis developed in the 1920s and 1930s, and exemplified by Boris Hessen's famous 1931 paper on the social and cultural roots of Newton's Principia. In an attempt to protect both their subject from 'ideologization' and themselves from political complications, Soviet historians now favoured strict internalism, which lifted scientific knowledge out of its political and sociocultural context. On Soviet writings on the history and social study of science, see Slava Gerovitch, 'Writing History in the Present Tense: Cold War-Era Discursive Strategies of Soviet Historians of Science and Technology', in Christopher Simpson (ed.), Universities and Empire: Money and Politics in the Social Sciences During the Cold War (New York: The New Press, 1998), 189-228; and Loren R. Graham, Science in Russia and the Soviet Union: A Short History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), Chapter 7.
42. In the post-war period, historians largely gave up the Marxist sociological analysis developed in the 1920s and 1930s, and exemplified by Boris Hessen's famous 1931 paper on the social and cultural roots of Newton's Principia. In an attempt to protect both their subject from 'ideologization' and themselves from political complications, Soviet historians now favoured strict internalism, which lifted scientific knowledge out of its political and sociocultural context. On Soviet writings on the history and social study of science, see Slava Gerovitch, 'Writing History in the Present Tense: Cold War-Era Discursive Strategies of Soviet Historians of Science and Technology', in Christopher Simpson (ed.), Universities and Empire: Money and Politics in the Social Sciences During the Cold War (New York: The New Press, 1998), 189-228; and Loren R. Graham, Science in Russia and the Soviet Union: A Short History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), Chapter 7.
43. See Alexei Kojevnikov, 'Dialogues about Power and Knowledge in Totalitarian Political Culture', Section 5, 'Drawing the Boundary between Ideology and Science', paper presented at the Conference on 'Physicists in the Postwar Arena: Comparative Perspectives' (Berkeley, CA, January 1998); and Kojevnikov, op. cit. note 11, 39.
44. See Alexei Kojevnikov, 'Dialogues about Power and Knowledge in Totalitarian Political Culture', Section 5, 'Drawing the Boundary between Ideology and Science', paper presented at the Conference on 'Physicists in the Postwar Arena: Comparative Perspectives' (Berkeley, CA, January 1998); and Kojevnikov, op. cit. note 11, 39.
45. See Graham, op. cit. note 31, Chapter 8; and Alexei Kojevnikov, 'Dialogues about Knowledge and Power in Totalitarian Political Culture', Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences, Vol. 30, Part 1 (1999), 227-47. [The latter paper omits Section 5 of Kojevnikov's earlier conference paper, op. cit. note 32.]
46. See Peter L. Galison, Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics (Chicago, IL & London: The University of Chicago Press, 1997), Chapter 8.
47. Michael S. Mahoney, 'The History of Computing in the History of Technology', Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 10, No. 2 (1988), 113-25, at 116-17.
48. See 'Tsikl statei po matematicheskoi tekhnike', Uspekhi matematicheskikh nauk, Vol. 1 (1946), 3-174.
49. Mikhail L. Bykhovskii, 'Novye amerikanskie schetno-analiticheskie mashiny', Uspekhi matematicheskikh nauk, Vol. 2 (1947), 231-34. The next year, a somewhat more substantive article on American computing appeared: see M.L. Bykhovskii, '"ENIAK" - Elektronnaia schetnaia mashina', ibid., Vol. 3 (1948), 146-58.
50. Mikhail L. Bykhovskii, 'Novye amerikanskie schetno-analiticheskie mashiny', Uspekhi matematicheskikh nauk, Vol. 2 (1947), 231-34. The next year, a somewhat more substantive article on American computing appeared: see M.L. Bykhovskii, '"ENIAK" - Elektronnaia schetnaia mashina', ibid., Vol. 3 (1948), 146-58.
51. Mikhail L. Bykhovskii, 'Osnovy elektronnykh matematicheskikh mashin diskretnogo scheta', Uspekhi matematicheskikh nauk, Vol. 4 (1949), 69-124.
52. Aleksandr Feklisov, Za okeanom i na ostrove: Zapiski razvedchika (Moscow: DEM, 1994), 105.
53. Mikhail A. Lavrent'ev, 'Puti razvitiia sovetskoi matematiki', in Sergei I. Vavilov (ed.), Obshchee sobranie Akademii nauk SSSR, posviashchennoe tridtsatiletiiu Velikoi Oktiabr'skoi sotsialisticheskoi revoliutsii (Moscow & Leningrad: AN SSSR, 1948), 393-402, at 402. On Lavrent'ev, see A.P. Epifanova and VP. Il'ina (comps), Mikhail Alekseevich Lavrent'ev: Materialy k biobibliografii (Moscow: Nauka, 1971). He was an active participant in the nuclear weapons programme; in 1952 he was even viewed as a potential replacement for the leadership of the thermonuclear project if the first test of the Soviet hydrogen bomb was to fail: see Andrei Sakharov, Memoirs (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990), 160-61.
54. Mikhail A. Lavrent'ev, 'Puti razvitiia sovetskoi matematiki', in Sergei I. Vavilov (ed.), Obshchee sobranie Akademii nauk SSSR, posviashchennoe tridtsatiletiiu Velikoi Oktiabr'skoi sotsialisticheskoi revoliutsii (Moscow & Leningrad: AN SSSR, 1948), 393-402, at 402. On Lavrent'ev, see A.P. Epifanova and VP. Il'ina (comps), Mikhail Alekseevich Lavrent'ev: Materialy k biobibliografii (Moscow: Nauka, 1971). He was an active participant in the nuclear weapons programme; in 1952 he was even viewed as a potential replacement for the leadership of the thermonuclear project if the first test of the Soviet hydrogen bomb was to fail: see Andrei Sakharov, Memoirs (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990), 160-61.
55. Mikhail A. Lavrent'ev, 'Puti razvitiia sovetskoi matematiki', in Sergei I. Vavilov (ed.), Obshchee sobranie Akademii nauk SSSR, posviashchennoe tridtsatiletiiu Velikoi Oktiabr'skoi sotsialisticheskoi revoliutsii (Moscow & Leningrad: AN SSSR, 1948), 393-402, at 402. On Lavrent'ev, see A.P. Epifanova and VP. Il'ina (comps), Mikhail Alekseevich Lavrent'ev: Materialy k biobibliografii (Moscow: Nauka, 1971). He was an active participant in the nuclear weapons programme; in 1952 he was even viewed as a potential replacement for the leadership of the thermonuclear project if the first test of the Soviet hydrogen bomb was to fail: see Andrei Sakharov, Memoirs (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990), 160-61.
56. The pattern of transferring computer applications originally created for the military to the civilian sector has continued to this day, including such highlights as artificial intelligence and the Internet. See Janet Abbate, 'Cold War and White Heat: The Origins and Meaning of Packet Switching', in Donald Mackenzie and Judy Wajcman (eds), The Social Shaping of Technology (Milton Keynes, Bucks.: Open University Press, 2nd edn, 1999), 351-71;
57. and Arthur L. Norberg and Judy E. O'Neill, Transforming Computer Technology: Information Processing for the Pentagon, 1962-1986 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996).
58. Norbert Wiener, Cybernetics, or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1948).
59. Paul Edwards and Lily Kay have traced how cybernetics and information theory translated such patterns into new conceptual schemes for psychology, psycholinguistics and biology: see Edwards, op. cit. note 13, Chapters 6 & 7; and Lily E. Kay, 'Cybernetics, Information, Life: The Emergence of Scriptural Representations of Heredity', Configurations, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Winter 1997), 23-91.
60. Paul Edwards and Lily Kay have traced how cybernetics and information theory translated such patterns into new conceptual schemes for psychology, psycholinguistics and biology: see Edwards, op. cit. note 13, Chapters 6 & 7; and Lily E. Kay, 'Cybernetics, Information, Life: The Emergence of Scriptural Representations of Heredity', Configurations, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Winter 1997), 23-91.
61. See Ian Hacking, 'Weapons Research and the Form of Scientific Knowledge', Canadian Journal of Philosophy, Suppl. Vol. 12 (1986), 237-60.
62. The tracking of an enemy airplane by an anti-aircraft gunner, for example, became for Wiener a universal model for purposeful human behaviour: see Peter Galison, 'The Ontology of the Enemy: Norbert Wiener and the Cybernetic Vision', Critical Inquiry, Vol. 21, No. 2 (Autumn 1994), 228-66; and Philip Mirowski, 'Cyborg Agonistes: Economics Meets Operations Research in Mid-Century', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 685-718.
63. The tracking of an enemy airplane by an anti-aircraft gunner, for example, became for Wiener a universal model for purposeful human behaviour: see Peter Galison, 'The Ontology of the Enemy: Norbert Wiener and the Cybernetic Vision', Critical Inquiry, Vol. 21, No. 2 (Autumn 1994), 228-66; and Philip Mirowski, 'Cyborg Agonistes: Economics Meets Operations Research in Mid-Century', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 685-718.
64. See Edwards, op. cit. note 13, esp. Chapter 1.
65. On the history of the anti-cybernetics campaign in the Soviet Union, see Slava Gerovitch, '"Russian Scandals": Soviet Readings of American Cybernetics in the Early Years of the Cold War', The Russian Review (2001, forthcoming); and Lee R. Kerschner, 'Cybernetics: Key to the Future?', Problems of Communism, Vol. 14 (November-December 1965), 56-66.
66. On the history of the anti-cybernetics campaign in the Soviet Union, see Slava Gerovitch, '"Russian Scandals": Soviet Readings of American Cybernetics in the Early Years of the Cold War', The Russian Review (2001, forthcoming); and Lee R. Kerschner, 'Cybernetics: Key to the Future?', Problems of Communism, Vol. 14 (November-December 1965), 56-66.
67. Bernard E. Bykhovskii, 'Kibernetika - amerikanskaia Izhenauka', Priroda (1952), No. 7 (July), 125-27, at 125.
68. Materialist [pseudonym], 'Whom Does Cybernetics Serve?' [1953], trans. Alexander D. Paul, Soviet Cybernetics Review, Vol. 4 (1974), 31-15, at 34.
69. Teodor K. Gladkov, 'Kibernetika - psevdonauka o mashinax, zhivotnykh, cheloveke i obshchestve', Vestnik Moskovskogo universiteta (1955), No. 1, 57-67, at 59.
70. Materialist, op. cit. note 49, 34.
71. Boris Agapov, 'Mark III, kal'kuliator', Literaturnaia gazeta (4 May 1950), 2.
72. On the Soviet atomic project, see David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939-1956 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994); and Vizgin (ed. and comp.), op. cit. note 24.
73. On the Soviet atomic project, see David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939-1956 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994); and Vizgin (ed. and comp.), op. cit. note 24.
74. On Soviet rocketry, which developed in close connection with the space programme, see: James Harford, Korolev: How One Man Masterminded the Soviet Drive to Beat America to the Moon (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1997); Walter A. McDougall, ... the Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age (New York: Basic Books, 1985); and Roger D. Launius, John M. Logsdon and Robert W. Smith (eds), Reconsidering Sputnik: Forty Years since the Soviet Satellite (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000).
75. On Soviet rocketry, which developed in close connection with the space programme, see: James Harford, Korolev: How One Man Masterminded the Soviet Drive to Beat America to the Moon (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1997); Walter A. McDougall, ... the Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age (New York: Basic Books, 1985); and Roger D. Launius, John M. Logsdon and Robert W. Smith (eds), Reconsidering Sputnik: Forty Years since the Soviet Satellite (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000).
76. On Soviet rocketry, which developed in close connection with the space programme, see: James Harford, Korolev: How One Man Masterminded the Soviet Drive to Beat America to the Moon (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1997); Walter A. McDougall, ... the Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age (New York: Basic Books, 1985); and Roger D. Launius, John M. Logsdon and Robert W. Smith (eds), Reconsidering Sputnik: Forty Years since the Soviet Satellite (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000).
77. On the Soviet anti-missile defence programme, see O.V. Golubev, Yu.A. Kamenskiy, M.G. Minasyan and B.D. Pupkov, 'Problems of Control and Effectiveness Evaluation in the Development of the Soviet Antimissile Defense System. 1. Experimental Proving Ground System (System A)', Journal of Computer and Systems Sciences International, Vol. 32 (1994), 81-88; and Grigorii Kisun'ko, Sekretnaia zona: Ispoved' general'nogo konstruktora (Moscow: Sovremennik, 1996). For a broad overview of the Soviet defence industry, see Nikolai S. Simonov, Voenno-promyshlennyi kompleks SSSR v 1920-1950-e gody: tempy ekonomicheskogo rosta, struktura, organizatsiia proizvodstva i upravleniie (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 1996).
78. On the Soviet anti-missile defence programme, see O.V. Golubev, Yu.A. Kamenskiy, M.G. Minasyan and B.D. Pupkov, 'Problems of Control and Effectiveness Evaluation in the Development of the Soviet Antimissile Defense System. 1. Experimental Proving Ground System (System A)', Journal of Computer and Systems Sciences International, Vol. 32 (1994), 81-88; and Grigorii Kisun'ko, Sekretnaia zona: Ispoved' general'nogo konstruktora (Moscow: Sovremennik, 1996). For a broad overview of the Soviet defence industry, see Nikolai S. Simonov, Voenno-promyshlennyi kompleks SSSR v 1920-1950-e gody: tempy ekonomicheskogo rosta, struktura, organizatsiia proizvodstva i upravleniie (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 1996).
79. On the Soviet anti-missile defence programme, see O.V. Golubev, Yu.A. Kamenskiy, M.G. Minasyan and B.D. Pupkov, 'Problems of Control and Effectiveness Evaluation in the Development of the Soviet Antimissile Defense System. 1. Experimental Proving Ground System (System A)', Journal of Computer and Systems Sciences International, Vol. 32 (1994), 81-88; and Grigorii Kisun'ko, Sekretnaia zona: Ispoved' general'nogo konstruktora (Moscow: Sovremennik, 1996). For a broad overview of the Soviet defence industry, see Nikolai S. Simonov, Voenno-promyshlennyi kompleks SSSR v 1920-1950-e gody: tempy ekonomicheskogo rosta, struktura, organizatsiia proizvodstva i upravleniie (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 1996).
80. I.V. Bystrova and G.E. Riabov, 'Voenno-promyshlennyi kompleks SSSR', in Vitalii S. Lel'chuk (ed.), Sovetskoe obshchestvo: Vozniknovenie, razvitie, istoricheskii final, Vol. 2: Apogei i krakh stalinizma (Moscow: RGGU, 1997), 150-208, at 162.
81. Ibid., 167.
82. RGASPI, f. 17, op. 132, d. 36, 1. 48.
83. RGASPI, f. 17, op. 118, d. 758, 11. 22-23.
84. Malaia elektronnaia schemata mashina.
85. On Lebedev and his first computers, see Gregory D. Crowe and Seymour E. Goodman, 'S.A. Lebedev and the Birth of Soviet Computing', Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 16. No. 1 (Spring 1994), 4-24; and Malinovskii, op. cit. note 13, 17-81.
86. On Lebedev and his first computers, see Gregory D. Crowe and Seymour E. Goodman, 'S.A. Lebedev and the Birth of Soviet Computing', Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 16. No. 1 (Spring 1994), 4-24; and Malinovskii, op. cit. note 13, 17-81.
87. Malinovskii, ibid., 42-43.
88. On Bruk and the M-1, see ibid., 175-88.
89. Ibid., 43.
90. Ibid., 67.
91. Ibid., 42.
92. Ibid., 183, 187.
93. See Sergei A. Lebedev and Mstislav V. Keldysh, 'Bol'shie schetnye matematicheskie mashiny' (1952): ARAN, f. 1939, op. 2, d. 2, 11. 55, 57.
94. Malinovskii, op. cit. note 13, 48. Lesechko headed the Special Design Bureau No. 245; Bazilevskii was the Bureau's chief designer.
95. ARAN, f. 1559, op. 1, d. 14, 1. 49.
96. Archive of the Institute of Precise Mechanics and Computer Technology, 'Godovoi bukhgalterskii otchet ITMVT' (1950), 1. 22.
97. TsAODM, f. 7341, op. 1, d. 3, 1. 134.
98. TsAODM, f. 7341, op. 1, d. 4, 1. 164.
99. TsAODM, f. 7341, op. 1, d. 2, 1. 119. Before the war, Khrushchev led the Ukrainian Party organization and Lavrent'ev headed the Institute of Mathematics in Kiev; they then 'met many times and established a very good, friendly relationship': see R.G. Ianovskii's comments in N.S. Khrushchev (1894-1971): Materialy nauchnoi konferentsii (Moscow: RGGU, 1994), 164. On one occasion Khrushchev remarked: 'I have known academician Lavrent'ev for many years. He is a good scientist'; see Pravda (2 July 1959).
100. Bol'shaia (Bystrodeistvuiushchaia) elektronnaia schemata mashina.
101. Malinovskii, op. cit. note 13, 58.
102. Ibid., 187-88.
103. The Department of Computational Mathematics was organized in 1949; Sobolev chaired it from 1952 to 1959. The Computation Centre of Moscow University was established in 1955. See Ivan S. Berezin, trans. John Schneider, 'The Chair of Computer Mathematics and the Computation Center of Moscow University', Soviet Cybernetics: Recent News Items, Vol. 3 (1969), 38-44; Malinovskii, op. cit. note 13, 280-89.
104. The Department of Computational Mathematics was organized in 1949; Sobolev chaired it from 1952 to 1959. The Computation Centre of Moscow University was established in 1955. See Ivan S. Berezin, trans. John Schneider, 'The Chair of Computer Mathematics and the Computation Center of Moscow University', Soviet Cybernetics: Recent News Items, Vol. 3 (1969), 38-44; Malinovskii, op. cit. note 13, 280-89.
105. Harford, op. cit. note 54, 220-21.
106. See Kh. Rutiskhauzer et al., 'Elektronnye tsifrovye schetnye mashiny s programmnym upravleniem', Voprosy raketnoi tekhniki, vyp. 2-5 (1952).
107. This publication was a translation of Heinz von Rutishauser, Ambros Speiser and Eduard Stiefel, Programmgesteuerte digitale Rechengerate (elektronische Rechenmaschinen) (Basel: Birkhauser, 1951).
108. See Andrei P. Ershov and Mikhail R. Shura-Bura, trans. Ken Kennedy, 'The Early Development of Programming in the USSR', in Nicholas Metropolis, Jack Howlett and Gian-Carlo Rota (eds), A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1980), 137-96, esp. 154-55, 179; and Rimma I. Podlovchenko, 'O nauchnom vklade A.A. Liapunova v oblasti teorii programmirovaniia', Problemy kibernetiki, Vol. 32 (1977), 45-57.
109. See Andrei P. Ershov and Mikhail R. Shura-Bura, trans. Ken Kennedy, 'The Early Development of Programming in the USSR', in Nicholas Metropolis, Jack Howlett and Gian-Carlo Rota (eds), A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1980), 137-96, esp. 154-55, 179; and Rimma I. Podlovchenko, 'O nauchnom vklade A.A. Liapunova v oblasti teorii programmirovaniia', Problemy kibernetiki, Vol. 32 (1977), 45-57.
110. Malinovskii, op. cit. note 13, 189-90.
111. Feklisov, op. cit. note 39, 89.
112. See Anatolii I. Kitov, 'Rol' akademika A.I. Berga v razvitii vychislitel'noi tekhniki i avtomatizirovannykh sistem upravleniia', in Vladimir I. Siforov (ed.), Put' v bol'shuiu nauku: akademik Aksel' Berg (Moscow: Nauka, 1988), 131-34, at 131; V. Neskoromnyi, 'Chelovek, kotoryi vynes kibernetiku iz sekretnoi biblioteki', Komp'iuterra (1996), No. 43 (18 November), 44-45.
113. See Anatolii I. Kitov, 'Rol' akademika A.I. Berga v razvitii vychislitel'noi tekhniki i avtomatizirovannykh sistem upravleniia', in Vladimir I. Siforov (ed.), Put' v bol'shuiu nauku: akademik Aksel' Berg (Moscow: Nauka, 1988), 131-34, at 131; V. Neskoromnyi, 'Chelovek, kotoryi vynes kibernetiku iz sekretnoi biblioteki', Komp'iuterra (1996), No. 43 (18 November), 44-45.
114. The Computation Centre No. 1 was organized in August 1954 to carry out calculations for the design of nuclear weapons and intercontinental ballistic missiles; see '27 TsNII - stareishaia nauchnaia organizatsiia Ministerstva oborony', Chelovek i komp'iuter (1996), No. 21-22, 4.
115. Kisun'ko, op. cit. note 55, 277.
116. Golubev et al., op. cit. note 55, 83.
117. Malinovskii, op. cit. note 13, 68-70.
118. Ibid., 189.
119. ARAN, f. 471, op. 1/1947-1956, op. 1, d. 144a, 1. 159.
120. ARAN, f. 1918, op. 1, d. 3, 1. 4.
121. ARAN, f. 1918, op. 1, d. 3, 1. 1.
122. Malinovskii, op. cit. note 13, 54.
123. Quoted in Harford, op. cit. note 54, 220.
124. Malinovskii, op. cit. note 13, 68-70.
125. Martin Campbell-Kelly and William Aspray, Computer: A History of the Information Machine (New York: Basic Books, 1996), Chapter 5.
126. Lebedev & Keldysh, op. cit. note 68, 1. 10.
127. ARAN, f. 471, op. 1(47-56), d. 87a, 1. 149.
128. For a list of major Soviet translations, see Ershov & Shura-Bura, op. cit. note 81.
129. Dmitrii Iu. Panov, 'Ot redaktora perevoda', in Bystrodeistvuiushchie vychislitel'nye mashiny, trans. from English (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo inostrannoi literatury, 1952), no pagination in my notes.
130. Nikolai A. Zheleznov, 'Predislovie', in Zheleznov (ed.), Teoriia peredachi elektricheskikh signalov pri nalichii pomekh, trans. from English (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo inostrannoi literatury, 1953), 5-6, at 6.
131. Malinovskii, op. cit. note 13, 31.
132. Eduard A. Meerovich, in 'Obsuzhdenie doklada professera A.A. Liapunova "Ob ispol'zovanii matematicheskikh mashin v logicheskikh tseliakh"' (1954), in Dmitrii A. Pospelov and Iakov I. Fet (eds and comps), Ocherki istorii informatiki v Rossii (Novosibirsk: OIGGM SO RAN, 1998), 52-83, at 64.
133. The Russian translation of Wiener's Cybernetics (1948) appeared in 1958.
134. 'Obsuzhdenie doklada', op. cit. note 103, 72.
135. Ibid., 75.
136. Malinovskii, op. cit. note 13, 212-31.
137. Ibid., 197-207.
138. Ibid., 192-93.
139. On the display value of large-scale Soviet technologies, see Josephson, op. cit. note 4.
140. RGASPI, f. 17, op. 133, d. 230, 1. 156.
141. RGASPI, f. 17, op. 133, d. 230, 11. 155, 158.
142. TsAODM, f. 7341, op. 1, d. 7, 1. 78.
143. RGASPI, f. 17, op. 133, d. 174, 1. 129. The newspaper article in question was E. Obodan, 'Vychislitel'nuiu tekhniku - na sluzhbu tekhnicheskomu progressu', Izvestiia (28 August 1951).
144. RGASPI, f. 17, op. 133, d. 174, 1. 138.
145. RGASPI, f. 17, op. 133, d. 174, 1. 147.
146. RGANI, f. 5, op. 17, d. 458, 1. 106.
147. RGANI, f. 5, op. 17, d. 458, 1. 95.
148. RGANI, f. 5, op. 17, d. 458, 1. 106.
149. RGANI, f. 5, op. 17, d. 509, 1. 34.
150. Alston S. Householder, 'Digital Computers in Eastern Europe', Computers and Automation, Vol. 4 (December 1955), 8-9.
151. On the history of Soviet cybernetics in the Khrushchev period, see Boris V. Biriukov (ed.), Kibernetika: proshloe dlia budushchego. Etiudy po istorii otechestvennoi kibernetiki (Moscow: Nauka, 1989); Slava Gerovitch, 'Striving for "Optimal Control": Soviet Cybernetics as a "Science of Government"', in Miriam R. Levin (ed.), Cultures of Control (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000), 247-64; Richard D. Gillespie, 'The Politics of Cybernetics in the Soviet Union', in Albert H. Teich (ed.), Scientists and Public Affairs (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1974), 239-98; Graham, op. cit. note 22, Chapter 8; David Holloway, 'Innovation in Science - The Case of Cybernetics in the Soviet Union', Science Studies, Vol. 4, No. 4 (October 1974), 299-337; Kerschner, op. cit. note 47; and Pospelov & Fet (eds and comps), op. cit. note 103.
152. On the history of Soviet cybernetics in the Khrushchev period, see Boris V. Biriukov (ed.), Kibernetika: proshloe dlia budushchego. Etiudy po istorii otechestvennoi kibernetiki (Moscow: Nauka, 1989); Slava Gerovitch, 'Striving for "Optimal Control": Soviet Cybernetics as a "Science of Government"', in Miriam R. Levin (ed.), Cultures of Control (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000), 247-64; Richard D. Gillespie, 'The Politics of Cybernetics in the Soviet Union', in Albert H. Teich (ed.), Scientists and Public Affairs (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1974), 239-98; Graham, op. cit. note 22, Chapter 8; David Holloway, 'Innovation in Science - The Case of Cybernetics in the Soviet Union', Science Studies, Vol. 4, No. 4 (October 1974), 299-337; Kerschner, op. cit. note 47; and Pospelov & Fet (eds and comps), op. cit. note 103.
153. On the history of Soviet cybernetics in the Khrushchev period, see Boris V. Biriukov (ed.), Kibernetika: proshloe dlia budushchego. Etiudy po istorii otechestvennoi kibernetiki (Moscow: Nauka, 1989); Slava Gerovitch, 'Striving for "Optimal Control": Soviet Cybernetics as a "Science of Government"', in Miriam R. Levin (ed.), Cultures of Control (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000), 247-64; Richard D. Gillespie, 'The Politics of Cybernetics in the Soviet Union', in Albert H. Teich (ed.), Scientists and Public Affairs (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1974), 239-98; Graham, op. cit. note 22, Chapter 8; David Holloway, 'Innovation in Science - The Case of Cybernetics in the Soviet Union', Science Studies, Vol. 4, No. 4 (October 1974), 299-337; Kerschner, op. cit. note 47; and Pospelov & Fet (eds and comps), op. cit. note 103.
154. On the history of Soviet cybernetics in the Khrushchev period, see Boris V. Biriukov (ed.), Kibernetika: proshloe dlia budushchego. Etiudy po istorii otechestvennoi kibernetiki (Moscow: Nauka, 1989); Slava Gerovitch, 'Striving for "Optimal Control": Soviet Cybernetics as a "Science of Government"', in Miriam R. Levin (ed.), Cultures of Control (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000), 247-64; Richard D. Gillespie, 'The Politics of Cybernetics in the Soviet Union', in Albert H. Teich (ed.), Scientists and Public Affairs (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1974), 239-98; Graham, op. cit. note 22, Chapter 8; David Holloway, 'Innovation in Science - The Case of Cybernetics in the Soviet Union', Science Studies, Vol. 4, No. 4 (October 1974), 299-337; Kerschner, op. cit. note 47; and Pospelov & Fet (eds and comps), op. cit. note 103.
155. On the history of Soviet cybernetics in the Khrushchev period, see Boris V. Biriukov (ed.), Kibernetika: proshloe dlia budushchego. Etiudy po istorii otechestvennoi kibernetiki (Moscow: Nauka, 1989); Slava Gerovitch, 'Striving for "Optimal Control": Soviet Cybernetics as a "Science of Government"', in Miriam R. Levin (ed.), Cultures of Control (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000), 247-64; Richard D. Gillespie, 'The Politics of Cybernetics in the Soviet Union', in Albert H. Teich (ed.), Scientists and Public Affairs (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1974), 239-98; Graham, op. cit. note 22, Chapter 8; David Holloway, 'Innovation in Science - The Case of Cybernetics in the Soviet Union', Science Studies, Vol. 4, No. 4 (October 1974), 299-337; Kerschner, op. cit. note 47; and Pospelov & Fet (eds and comps), op. cit. note 103.
156. On the history of Soviet cybernetics in the Khrushchev period, see Boris V. Biriukov (ed.), Kibernetika: proshloe dlia budushchego. Etiudy po istorii otechestvennoi kibernetiki (Moscow: Nauka, 1989); Slava Gerovitch, 'Striving for "Optimal Control": Soviet Cybernetics as a "Science of Government"', in Miriam R. Levin (ed.), Cultures of Control (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000), 247-64; Richard D. Gillespie, 'The Politics of Cybernetics in the Soviet Union', in Albert H. Teich (ed.), Scientists and Public Affairs (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1974), 239-98; Graham, op. cit. note 22, Chapter 8; David Holloway, 'Innovation in Science - The Case of Cybernetics in the Soviet Union', Science Studies, Vol. 4, No. 4 (October 1974), 299-337; Kerschner, op. cit. note 47; and Pospelov & Fet (eds and comps), op. cit. note 103.
157. On the history of Soviet cybernetics in the Khrushchev period, see Boris V. Biriukov (ed.), Kibernetika: proshloe dlia budushchego. Etiudy po istorii otechestvennoi kibernetiki (Moscow: Nauka, 1989); Slava Gerovitch, 'Striving for "Optimal Control": Soviet Cybernetics as a "Science of Government"', in Miriam R. Levin (ed.), Cultures of Control (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000), 247-64; Richard D. Gillespie, 'The Politics of Cybernetics in the Soviet Union', in Albert H. Teich (ed.), Scientists and Public Affairs (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1974), 239-98; Graham, op. cit. note 22, Chapter 8; David Holloway, 'Innovation in Science - The Case of Cybernetics in the Soviet Union', Science Studies, Vol. 4, No. 4 (October 1974), 299-337; Kerschner, op. cit. note 47; and Pospelov & Fet (eds and comps), op. cit. note 103.
158. Viktor D. Pekelis, 'Chelovek, kibernetika i bog', Nauka i religiia (1960), No. 2, 25-30, at 27.
159. On ideological constructions of science in the United States in the post-war period, see David A. Hollinger, 'Science as a Weapon of Kulturkämpfe in the United States During and After World War II', Isis, Vol. 86, No. 3 (September 1995), 440-54.
160. These two quotations are taken from: Yaron Ezrahi, 'Technology and the Illusion of the Escape from Politics', in Yaron Ezrahi, Everett Mendelsohn and Howard P. Segal (eds), Technology, Pessimism, and Postmodernism (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1994), 29-37, at 30; and Jessica Wang, 'Merton's Shadow: Perspectives on Science and Democracy Since 1940', Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences, Vol. 30, Part 1 (1999), 279-306, at 301.
161. These two quotations are taken from: Yaron Ezrahi, 'Technology and the Illusion of the Escape from Politics', in Yaron Ezrahi, Everett Mendelsohn and Howard P. Segal (eds), Technology, Pessimism, and Postmodernism (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1994), 29-37, at 30; and Jessica Wang, 'Merton's Shadow: Perspectives on Science and Democracy Since 1940', Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences, Vol. 30, Part 1 (1999), 279-306, at 301.
162. Thomas F. Gieryn, Cultural Boundaries of Science: Credibility on the Line (Chicago, IL & London: The University of Chicago Press, 1999), 23.
163. See Daniel Lee Kleinman and Mark Solovey, 'Hot Science/Cold War: The National Science Foundation After World War II', Radical History Review, No. 63 (Fall 1995), 110-39.
164. Jessica Wang, American Science in an Age of Anxiety: Scientists, Anticommunism, and the Cold War (Chapel Hill & London: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 8-9.
165. Krementsov, op. cit. note 8, 8.
166. For a comprehensive historiographic survey, see Stuart W. Leslie, 'Science and Politics in Cold War America', in Margaret C. Jacob (ed.), The Politics of Western Science, 1640-1990 (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, 1994), 199-233.
167. See McDougall, op. cit. note 54, esp. his Introduction.
168. For complete citations and discussion, see Leslie, op. cit. note 131.
169. I.V. Bystrova, 'Razvitie voenno-promyshlennogo kompleksa', in Vitalii S. Lel'chuk and Efim I. Pivovar (eds), SSSR i kholodnaia voina (Moscow: Mosgorarkhiv, 1995), 160-202, at 162;
170. Krementsov, op. cit. note 8, 5 .
171. Bystrova, op. cit. note 134, 201 .
172. Aleksandr D. Aleksandrov, Andrei N. Kolmogorov and Mikhail A. Lavrent'ev (eds), Matematika, ee soderzhanie, metody i znachenie, Vol. 1 (Moscow: AN SSSR, 1956), 69.
173. Ibid., 77.
174. Sydney H. Gould, 'Foreword by the Editor of the Translation', in Aleksandr D. Aleksandrov, Andrei N. Kolmogorov and Mikhail A. Lavrent'ev (eds), trans. S. H. Gould and T. Bartha, Mathematics, Its Content, Methods, and Meaning, Vol. 1 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1963), vii-viii, at vii.