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Volumn 48, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 14-26

The crisis in Romanian civil-military relations

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EID: 0035535783     PISSN: 10758216     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10758216.2001.11655939     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (4)

References (141)
  • 1
    • 85037260117 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bucharest: Editura Militara
    • A number of purely military objectives throughout the country, including arms depots and the Defense Ministry itself, came under armed attack by still-unidentified parties during the revolution. The most thoroughly documented study of the revolution is Arhivele Militare Romane, Armata Romana in Revolutia din Decembrie 1989 (The Romanian Army in the Revolution of December 1989) (Bucharest: Editura Militara, 1998).
    • (1998) Armata Romana in Revolutia din Decembrie 1989 (The Romanian Army in the Revolution of December 1989)
  • 2
    • 85084907907 scopus 로고
    • The Romanian army in the December revolution and beyond
    • ed. Daniel Nelson Boulder, CO: Westview
    • Larry L. Watts, "The Romanian Army in the December Revolution and Beyond," in Romania After Tyranny, ed. Daniel Nelson (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1992), pp. 95-126.
    • (1992) Romania after Tyranny , pp. 95-126
    • Watts, L.L.1
  • 3
    • 0040918812 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A unified theory of civil-military relations
    • fall
    • On the shared-responsibility paradigm, see Douglas L. Bland, "A Unified Theory of Civil-Military Relations," Armed Forces & Society 26, no. 1 (fall 1999): 7-26.
    • (1999) Armed Forces & Society , vol.26 , Issue.1 , pp. 7-26
    • Bland, D.L.1
  • 4
    • 0035637729 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Reform and crisis in Romanian civil-military relations: 1989-1999
    • summer
    • For a more detailed description of the Romanian reform strategy, see Larry L. Watts, "Reform and Crisis in Romanian Civil-Military Relations: 1989-1999," Armed Forces & Society 27, no. 4 (summer 2001).
    • (2001) Armed Forces & Society , vol.27 , Issue.4
    • Watts, L.L.1
  • 5
    • 0007550871 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Romania's bid for NATO: An overview
    • spring/summer
    • The Romanian military was criticized primarily for the relative pace of its restructuring and downsizing. However, comparative evaluations of performance in this domain often failed to consider when and how various ministries of defense were reorganized along NATO lines, when and how quickly the force structure was reorganized and cut back, and how much financial assistance was extended by the West to assist in the process. Larry L. Watts, "Romania's Bid for NATO: An Overview," Romanian Civilization 6, no. 1 (spring/summer 1997): 5-26.
    • (1997) Romanian Civilization , vol.6 , Issue.1 , pp. 5-26
    • Watts, L.L.1
  • 6
    • 0007514875 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NATO enlargement: The case for Romania
    • Mark R. Shelley, "NATO Enlargement: The Case for Romania," Central European Issues 3, no. 1 (1997): 98-105.
    • (1997) Central European Issues , vol.3 , Issue.1 , pp. 98-105
    • Shelley, M.R.1
  • 8
    • 0007511384 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Europe's fulcrum state
    • September
    • Thomas S. Szayna and F. Stephen Larrabee, East European Military Reform After the Cold War: Implications for the United States (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 1995), p. 25; Robert D. Kaplan, "Europe's Fulcrum State," Atlantic Monthly 282, no. 3 (September 1998): 35.
    • (1998) Atlantic Monthly , vol.282 , Issue.3 , pp. 35
    • Kaplan, R.D.1
  • 10
    • 0007514877 scopus 로고
    • U.S. relations with Romania
    • autumn
    • Richard C. Holbrooke, "U.S. Relations with Romania," Central European Issues 1, no. 1 (autumn 1995): 35-45; George A. Joulwan, "Commitment to Cooperation: The Romanian Military's Contribution to Stability Within a New Europe," Central European Issues 1, no. 2 (winter 1995/ 96): 41-47; Shelley, "NATO Enlargement," p. 98.
    • (1995) Central European Issues , vol.1 , Issue.1 , pp. 35-45
    • Holbrooke, R.C.1
  • 11
    • 0007512218 scopus 로고
    • Commitment to cooperation: The Romanian military's contribution to stability within a new Europe
    • winter
    • Richard C. Holbrooke, "U.S. Relations with Romania," Central European Issues 1, no. 1 (autumn 1995): 35-45; George A. Joulwan, "Commitment to Cooperation: The Romanian Military's Contribution to Stability Within a New Europe," Central European Issues 1, no. 2 (winter 1995/ 96): 41-47; Shelley, "NATO Enlargement," p. 98.
    • (1995) Central European Issues , vol.1 , Issue.2 , pp. 41-47
    • Joulwan, G.A.1
  • 12
    • 85037271615 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Richard C. Holbrooke, "U.S. Relations with Romania," Central European Issues 1, no. 1 (autumn 1995): 35-45; George A. Joulwan, "Commitment to Cooperation: The Romanian Military's Contribution to Stability Within a New Europe," Central European Issues 1, no. 2 (winter 1995/ 96): 41-47; Shelley, "NATO Enlargement," p. 98.
    • NATO Enlargement , pp. 98
    • Shelley1
  • 13
    • 84977046540 scopus 로고
    • Civil supremacy over the military: Its nature and limits
    • fall
    • The civilian-supremacy paradigm is described in Kenneth W. Kemp and Charles Hudlin, "Civil Supremacy over the Military: Its Nature and Limits," Armed Forces & Society 19, no. 1 (fall 1992): 7-27. In most of the literature, civilian appointees are simply assumed to be democratic. See Richard Kohn, "How Democracies Control the Military," Journal of Democracy 8, no. 4 (October 1997): 141.
    • (1992) Armed Forces & Society , vol.19 , Issue.1 , pp. 7-27
    • Kemp, K.W.1    Hudlin, C.2
  • 14
    • 18744433604 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • How democracies control the military
    • October
    • The civilian-supremacy paradigm is described in Kenneth W. Kemp and Charles Hudlin, "Civil Supremacy over the Military: Its Nature and Limits," Armed Forces & Society 19, no. 1 (fall 1992): 7-27. In most of the literature, civilian appointees are simply assumed to be democratic. See Richard Kohn, "How Democracies Control the Military," Journal of Democracy 8, no. 4 (October 1997): 141.
    • (1997) Journal of Democracy , vol.8 , Issue.4 , pp. 141
    • Kohn, R.1
  • 16
    • 85037285599 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • November 12
    • On the Tigareta II cigarette-smuggling scandal, see Romania Libera and Cotidjanul (November 12, 1998); Cotidianul and Ziua (February 21-24, 1999); Adevarul (February 20-21, 1999), (July 20, 1999), and (November 2, 1999); Ziua (July 20, 1999); Jurnalul National (November 3, 1999); Curierul National (November 3, 1999); Cotidianul (November 3, 1999); Adevarul (April 19); Curierul National (May 4, 2000). The most exhaustive investigation appears in Azi (April 4, 2000), (May 15-30, 2000), and (June 6, 2000). Regardless of Bucse's actual legal culpability, the apparently political decision not to investigate the charges (thus denying him the chance to clear his name), coupled with his promotion by President Constantinescu several months later, created serious resentment and demoralization within the military. Bucse has also been implicated in a housing scandal. See Curierul National (April 6, 2000).
    • (1998) Romania Libera and Cotidjanul
  • 17
    • 85037287936 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • February 21-24
    • On the Tigareta II cigarette-smuggling scandal, see Romania Libera and Cotidjanul (November 12, 1998); Cotidianul and Ziua (February 21-24, 1999); Adevarul (February 20-21, 1999), (July 20, 1999), and (November 2, 1999); Ziua (July 20, 1999); Jurnalul National (November 3, 1999); Curierul National (November 3, 1999); Cotidianul (November 3, 1999); Adevarul (April 19); Curierul National (May 4, 2000). The most exhaustive investigation appears in Azi (April 4, 2000), (May 15-30, 2000), and (June 6, 2000). Regardless of Bucse's actual legal culpability, the apparently political decision not to investigate the charges (thus denying him the chance to clear his name), coupled with his promotion by President Constantinescu several months later, created serious resentment and demoralization within the military. Bucse has also been implicated in a housing scandal. See Curierul National (April 6, 2000).
    • (1999) Cotidianul and Ziua
  • 18
    • 85037263372 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • February 20-21, 1999, (July 20, 1999), and November 2
    • On the Tigareta II cigarette-smuggling scandal, see Romania Libera and Cotidjanul (November 12, 1998); Cotidianul and Ziua (February 21-24, 1999); Adevarul (February 20-21, 1999), (July 20, 1999), and (November 2, 1999); Ziua (July 20, 1999); Jurnalul National (November 3, 1999); Curierul National (November 3, 1999); Cotidianul (November 3, 1999); Adevarul (April 19); Curierul National (May 4, 2000). The most exhaustive investigation appears in Azi (April 4, 2000), (May 15-30, 2000), and (June 6, 2000). Regardless of Bucse's actual legal culpability, the apparently political decision not to investigate the charges (thus denying him the chance to clear his name), coupled with his promotion by President Constantinescu several months later, created serious resentment and demoralization within the military. Bucse has also been implicated in a housing scandal. See Curierul National (April 6, 2000).
    • (1999) Adevarul
  • 19
    • 85037257454 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • July 20
    • On the Tigareta II cigarette-smuggling scandal, see Romania Libera and Cotidjanul (November 12, 1998); Cotidianul and Ziua (February 21-24, 1999); Adevarul (February 20-21, 1999), (July 20, 1999), and (November 2, 1999); Ziua (July 20, 1999); Jurnalul National (November 3, 1999); Curierul National (November 3, 1999); Cotidianul (November 3, 1999); Adevarul (April 19); Curierul National (May 4, 2000). The most exhaustive investigation appears in Azi (April 4, 2000), (May 15-30, 2000), and (June 6, 2000). Regardless of Bucse's actual legal culpability, the apparently political decision not to investigate the charges (thus denying him the chance to clear his name), coupled with his promotion by President Constantinescu several months later, created serious resentment and demoralization within the military. Bucse has also been implicated in a housing scandal. See Curierul National (April 6, 2000).
    • (1999) Ziua
  • 20
    • 0007553713 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • November 3
    • On the Tigareta II cigarette-smuggling scandal, see Romania Libera and Cotidjanul (November 12, 1998); Cotidianul and Ziua (February 21-24, 1999); Adevarul (February 20-21, 1999), (July 20, 1999), and (November 2, 1999); Ziua (July 20, 1999); Jurnalul National (November 3, 1999); Curierul National (November 3, 1999); Cotidianul (November 3, 1999); Adevarul (April 19); Curierul National (May 4, 2000). The most exhaustive investigation appears in Azi (April 4, 2000), (May 15-30, 2000), and (June 6, 2000). Regardless of Bucse's actual legal culpability, the apparently political decision not to investigate the charges (thus denying him the chance to clear his name), coupled with his promotion by President Constantinescu several months later, created serious resentment and demoralization within the military. Bucse has also been implicated in a housing scandal. See Curierul National (April 6, 2000).
    • (1999) Jurnalul National
  • 21
    • 0004021078 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • November 3
    • On the Tigareta II cigarette-smuggling scandal, see Romania Libera and Cotidjanul (November 12, 1998); Cotidianul and Ziua (February 21-24, 1999); Adevarul (February 20-21, 1999), (July 20, 1999), and (November 2, 1999); Ziua (July 20, 1999); Jurnalul National (November 3, 1999); Curierul National (November 3, 1999); Cotidianul (November 3, 1999); Adevarul (April 19); Curierul National (May 4, 2000). The most exhaustive investigation appears in Azi (April 4, 2000), (May 15-30, 2000), and (June 6, 2000). Regardless of Bucse's actual legal culpability, the apparently political decision not to investigate the charges (thus denying him the chance to clear his name), coupled with his promotion by President Constantinescu several months later, created serious resentment and demoralization within the military. Bucse has also been implicated in a housing scandal. See Curierul National (April 6, 2000).
    • (1999) Curierul National
  • 22
    • 0007514544 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • November 3
    • On the Tigareta II cigarette-smuggling scandal, see Romania Libera and Cotidjanul (November 12, 1998); Cotidianul and Ziua (February 21-24, 1999); Adevarul (February 20-21, 1999), (July 20, 1999), and (November 2, 1999); Ziua (July 20, 1999); Jurnalul National (November 3, 1999); Curierul National (November 3, 1999); Cotidianul (November 3, 1999); Adevarul (April 19); Curierul National (May 4, 2000). The most exhaustive investigation appears in Azi (April 4, 2000), (May 15-30, 2000), and (June 6, 2000). Regardless of Bucse's actual legal culpability, the apparently political decision not to investigate the charges (thus denying him the chance to clear his name), coupled with his promotion by President Constantinescu several months later, created serious resentment and demoralization within the military. Bucse has also been implicated in a housing scandal. See Curierul National (April 6, 2000).
    • (1999) Cotidianul
  • 23
    • 85037278640 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • April 19
    • On the Tigareta II cigarette-smuggling scandal, see Romania Libera and Cotidjanul (November 12, 1998); Cotidianul and Ziua (February 21-24, 1999); Adevarul (February 20-21, 1999), (July 20, 1999), and (November 2, 1999); Ziua (July 20, 1999); Jurnalul National (November 3, 1999); Curierul National (November 3, 1999); Cotidianul (November 3, 1999); Adevarul (April 19); Curierul National (May 4, 2000). The most exhaustive investigation appears in Azi (April 4, 2000), (May 15-30, 2000), and (June 6, 2000). Regardless of Bucse's actual legal culpability, the apparently political decision not to investigate the charges (thus denying him the chance to clear his name), coupled with his promotion by President Constantinescu several months later, created serious resentment and demoralization within the military. Bucse has also been implicated in a housing scandal. See Curierul National (April 6, 2000).
    • Adevarul
  • 24
    • 0004021079 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • May 4
    • On the Tigareta II cigarette-smuggling scandal, see Romania Libera and Cotidjanul (November 12, 1998); Cotidianul and Ziua (February 21-24, 1999); Adevarul (February 20-21, 1999), (July 20, 1999), and (November 2, 1999); Ziua (July 20, 1999); Jurnalul National (November 3, 1999); Curierul National (November 3, 1999); Cotidianul (November 3, 1999); Adevarul (April 19); Curierul National (May 4, 2000). The most exhaustive investigation appears in Azi (April 4, 2000), (May 15-30, 2000), and (June 6, 2000). Regardless of Bucse's actual legal culpability, the apparently political decision not to investigate the charges (thus denying him the chance to clear his name), coupled with his promotion by President Constantinescu several months later, created serious resentment and demoralization within the military. Bucse has also been implicated in a housing scandal. See Curierul National (April 6, 2000).
    • (2000) Curierul National
  • 25
    • 85037290420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • April 4, 2000, (May 15-30, 2000), and June 6
    • On the Tigareta II cigarette-smuggling scandal, see Romania Libera and Cotidjanul (November 12, 1998); Cotidianul and Ziua (February 21-24, 1999); Adevarul (February 20-21, 1999), (July 20, 1999), and (November 2, 1999); Ziua (July 20, 1999); Jurnalul National (November 3, 1999); Curierul National (November 3, 1999); Cotidianul (November 3, 1999); Adevarul (April 19); Curierul National (May 4, 2000). The most exhaustive investigation appears in Azi (April 4, 2000), (May 15-30, 2000), and (June 6, 2000). Regardless of Bucse's actual legal culpability, the apparently political decision not to investigate the charges (thus denying him the chance to clear his name), coupled with his promotion by President Constantinescu several months later, created serious resentment and demoralization within the military. Bucse has also been implicated in a housing scandal. See Curierul National (April 6, 2000).
    • (2000) Azi
  • 26
    • 0004021079 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • April 6
    • On the Tigareta II cigarette-smuggling scandal, see Romania Libera and Cotidjanul (November 12, 1998); Cotidianul and Ziua (February 21-24, 1999); Adevarul (February 20-21, 1999), (July 20, 1999), and (November 2, 1999); Ziua (July 20, 1999); Jurnalul National (November 3, 1999); Curierul National (November 3, 1999); Cotidianul (November 3, 1999); Adevarul (April 19); Curierul National (May 4, 2000). The most exhaustive investigation appears in Azi (April 4, 2000), (May 15-30, 2000), and (June 6, 2000). Regardless of Bucse's actual legal culpability, the apparently political decision not to investigate the charges (thus denying him the chance to clear his name), coupled with his promotion by President Constantinescu several months later, created serious resentment and demoralization within the military. Bucse has also been implicated in a housing scandal. See Curierul National (April 6, 2000).
    • (2000) Curierul National
  • 27
    • 85037264443 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • November 9, 1998; PDSR press conference November 6
    • Cotidianul (November 9, 1998); PDSR press conference (November 6, 1998). The government-appointed electoral bureau dismissed the allegations despite the consistently deviant pattern of voting in the military sectors.
    • (1998) Cotidianul
  • 28
    • 85037263372 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • February 6
    • Adevarul (February 6, 1999). Degeratu's report was given at the National Defense College. Although the press was excluded, several journalists enrolled in the National Defense College taped the presentation. Separating the military from the political process has been one of the central aims of post-Ceauşescu reform, and active-service military personnel are explicitly prohibited from engaging in partisan politics by Decree-Law No. 81/ 31December1989; by November 1991 Constitution Article 37(3); by the Law on the Status of Military Personnel No. 80/11July1995, Section 3, Articles 28 and 29; and by the Law on Political Parties No. 27/1996, Article 4(1).
    • (1999) Adevarul
  • 29
    • 0004021078 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • November 1
    • Curierul National (November 1, 1999); Cotidianul (November 4, 1999). According to Articles 80(2) and 84(1) of the constitution, the president is required to be non-partisan and to act as a mediator between the government and non-governmental sectors of society.
    • (1999) Curierul National
  • 30
    • 0007514544 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • November 4
    • Curierul National (November 1, 1999); Cotidianul (November 4, 1999). According to Articles 80(2) and 84(1) of the constitution, the president is required to be non-partisan and to act as a mediator between the government and non-governmental sectors of society.
    • (1999) Cotidianul
  • 31
    • 0004021078 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • December 3
    • Curierul National (December 3, 1999); Adevarul (December 2, 1999). The Law on the Status of Military Personnel, Chapter II, Section 3, Article 28, expressly forbids uniformed military from any activities in favor of (or against) political parties. Modifications to the Law on the Organization and Functioning of the Ministry of National Defense - Ordinances no. 41/11August1999, Chapter II, Article 20 (3) and no. 489/15June2000, Article 16 (3) - stipulate that civilian Ministry of Defense personnel are prohibited from partisan politics.
    • (1999) Curierul National
  • 32
    • 85037263372 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • December 2
    • Curierul National (December 3, 1999); Adevarul (December 2, 1999). The Law on the Status of Military Personnel, Chapter II, Section 3, Article 28, expressly forbids uniformed military from any activities in favor of (or against) political parties. Modifications to the Law on the Organization and Functioning of the Ministry of National Defense - Ordinances no. 41/11August1999, Chapter II, Article 20 (3) and no. 489/15June2000, Article 16 (3) - stipulate that civilian Ministry of Defense personnel are prohibited from partisan politics.
    • (1999) Adevarul
  • 33
    • 0004021079 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • February 17
    • Curierul National (February 17, 2000) and Cotidianul (February 17, 2000). National security adviser was specifically designated a civilian post by the Iliescu administration in 1992.
    • (2000) Curierul National
  • 34
    • 85037285337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • February 17
    • Curierul National (February 17, 2000) and Cotidianul (February 17, 2000). National security adviser was specifically designated a civilian post by the Iliescu administration in 1992.
    • (2000) Cotidianul
  • 35
    • 0004021079 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • March 22
    • See Curierul National (March 22, 2000) and Azi (March 20 and 23, 2000). Following the protests that Degeratu was illegally engaging in partisan politics, both the presidency and Degeratu sought to justify his behavior by accusing the accusers of having "totalitarian" mentalities. See Jurnalul National (April 3 and 9, 2000); Cotidianul (April 4 and 7, 2000); and Curierul National (April 10, 2000). For the letter of the officers, see Azi (March 29, 2000).
    • (2000) Curierul National
  • 36
    • 85037289130 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • March 20 and 23
    • See Curierul National (March 22, 2000) and Azi (March 20 and 23, 2000). Following the protests that Degeratu was illegally engaging in partisan politics, both the presidency and Degeratu sought to justify his behavior by accusing the accusers of having "totalitarian" mentalities. See Jurnalul National (April 3 and 9, 2000); Cotidianul (April 4 and 7, 2000); and Curierul National (April 10, 2000). For the letter of the officers, see Azi (March 29, 2000).
    • (2000) Azi
  • 37
    • 3042798220 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • April 3 and 9
    • See Curierul National (March 22, 2000) and Azi (March 20 and 23, 2000). Following the protests that Degeratu was illegally engaging in partisan politics, both the presidency and Degeratu sought to justify his behavior by accusing the accusers of having "totalitarian" mentalities. See Jurnalul National (April 3 and 9, 2000); Cotidianul (April 4 and 7, 2000); and Curierul National (April 10, 2000). For the letter of the officers, see Azi (March 29, 2000).
    • (2000) Jurnalul National
  • 38
    • 85037285337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • April 4 and 7
    • See Curierul National (March 22, 2000) and Azi (March 20 and 23, 2000). Following the protests that Degeratu was illegally engaging in partisan politics, both the presidency and Degeratu sought to justify his behavior by accusing the accusers of having "totalitarian" mentalities. See Jurnalul National (April 3 and 9, 2000); Cotidianul (April 4 and 7, 2000); and Curierul National (April 10, 2000). For the letter of the officers, see Azi (March 29, 2000).
    • (2000) Cotidianul
  • 39
    • 0004021079 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • April 10
    • See Curierul National (March 22, 2000) and Azi (March 20 and 23, 2000). Following the protests that Degeratu was illegally engaging in partisan politics, both the presidency and Degeratu sought to justify his behavior by accusing the accusers of having "totalitarian" mentalities. See Jurnalul National (April 3 and 9, 2000); Cotidianul (April 4 and 7, 2000); and Curierul National (April 10, 2000). For the letter of the officers, see Azi (March 29, 2000).
    • (2000) Curierul National
  • 40
    • 85037278205 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • March 29
    • See Curierul National (March 22, 2000) and Azi (March 20 and 23, 2000). Following the protests that Degeratu was illegally engaging in partisan politics, both the presidency and Degeratu sought to justify his behavior by accusing the accusers of having "totalitarian" mentalities. See Jurnalul National (April 3 and 9, 2000); Cotidianul (April 4 and 7, 2000); and Curierul National (April 10, 2000). For the letter of the officers, see Azi (March 29, 2000).
    • (2000) Azi
  • 41
    • 0007473406 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jurnalul National (April 7, 2000); Azi (April 7, 2000); Cotidianul (April 17, 2000). Aside from the anti-constitutional nature of Chelaru's remarks regarding the Supreme Council, the Law on the Status of Military Personnel No. 80/11July1995, Article 38 (b) specifies that active military personnel are prohibited from seeking seats in parliament, while Article 29 (a) expressly forbids the expression of political opinions in the context of military service.
    • (2000) Jurnalul National April , vol.7
  • 42
    • 0007548278 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • April 7
    • Jurnalul National (April 7, 2000); Azi (April 7, 2000); Cotidianul (April 17, 2000). Aside from the anti-constitutional nature of Chelaru's remarks regarding the Supreme Council, the Law on the Status of Military Personnel No. 80/11July1995, Article 38 (b) specifies that active military personnel are prohibited from seeking seats in parliament, while Article 29 (a) expressly forbids the expression of political opinions in the context of military service.
    • (2000) Azi
  • 43
    • 85037285337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • April 17
    • Jurnalul National (April 7, 2000); Azi (April 7, 2000); Cotidianul (April 17, 2000). Aside from the anti-constitutional nature of Chelaru's remarks regarding the Supreme Council, the Law on the Status of Military Personnel No. 80/11July1995, Article 38 (b) specifies that active military personnel are prohibited from seeking seats in parliament, while Article 29 (a) expressly forbids the expression of political opinions in the context of military service.
    • (2000) Cotidianul
  • 44
    • 85037285337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • June 26
    • Cotidianul (June 26, 2000). In discussions shortly after the measure, senior officers expressed their fear to the author that the move was actually aimed at further politicization under the guise of increasing efficiency. The executive has gained a reputation for usurping parliamentary powers in legislating military and Ministry of Defense restructuring through possibly anti-constitutional ordinances. Compare, for example, Romanian Constitution, Articles 114(1), 117(2) and the Law on the National Defense of Romania No. 45/1July1994, Articles 28 and 31, with Government Ordinances no. 385/18May1999, no. 388/11August1999, and no. 489/15 June2000. Compare also Constitutional Article 117(5) requiring parliamentary approval for the transit of foreign troops and the Law on National Defense article 5 with Government Ordinance no. 13/13March2000, allocating this authority to the president and the defense minister. Regarding states of siege and emergency, see Constitutional Article 92(1) and (2), Government Ordinance no.1/21January1999, and Gheorghe Diaconescu, Floarea Serban, and Nicolae Pavel, eds., Democratic Control Over the Army in Romania (Bucharest: Editura Enciclopedica, 1996), pp. 41, 157-58.
    • (2000) Cotidianul
  • 45
    • 0007550872 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bucharest: Editura Enciclopedica
    • Cotidianul (June 26, 2000). In discussions shortly after the measure, senior officers expressed their fear to the author that the move was actually aimed at further politicization under the guise of increasing efficiency. The executive has gained a reputation for usurping parliamentary powers in legislating military and Ministry of Defense restructuring through possibly anti-constitutional ordinances. Compare, for example, Romanian Constitution, Articles 114(1), 117(2) and the Law on the National Defense of Romania No. 45/1July1994, Articles 28 and 31, with Government Ordinances no. 385/18May1999, no. 388/11August1999, and no. 489/15 June2000. Compare also Constitutional Article 117(5) requiring parliamentary approval for the transit of foreign troops and the Law on National Defense article 5 with Government Ordinance no. 13/13March2000, allocating this authority to the president and the defense minister. Regarding states of siege and emergency, see Constitutional Article 92(1) and (2), Government Ordinance no.1/21January1999, and Gheorghe Diaconescu, Floarea Serban, and Nicolae Pavel, eds., Democratic Control Over the Army in Romania (Bucharest: Editura Enciclopedica, 1996), pp. 41, 157-58.
    • (1996) Democratic Control over the Army in Romania , pp. 41
    • Diaconescu, G.1    Serban, F.2    Pavel, N.3
  • 46
    • 85037285337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • October 23-26 and 30
    • Cotidianul (October 23-26 and 30, 2000). See also Jurnalul National (October 24-25, 2000); Adevarul (October 25, 2000); and Romania Libera (October 25, 2000).
    • (2000) Cotidianul
  • 47
    • 3042798220 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • October 24-25
    • Cotidianul (October 23-26 and 30, 2000). See also Jurnalul National (October 24-25, 2000); Adevarul (October 25, 2000); and Romania Libera (October 25, 2000).
    • (2000) Jurnalul National
  • 48
    • 85037265679 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • October 25
    • Cotidianul (October 23-26 and 30, 2000). See also Jurnalul National (October 24-25, 2000); Adevarul (October 25, 2000); and Romania Libera (October 25, 2000).
    • (2000) Adevarul
  • 49
    • 85037270022 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • October 25
    • Cotidianul (October 23-26 and 30, 2000). See also Jurnalul National (October 24-25, 2000); Adevarul (October 25, 2000); and Romania Libera (October 25, 2000).
    • (2000) Romania Libera
  • 50
    • 0007510989 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • November 1
    • Azi, Adevarul and "Marius Tuca Show"/Antena 1 TV (November 1, 2000) and Cotidianul (November 2, 2000) and Adevarul (November 2, 2000). After the formation of the association provoked a public scandal, Minister Ionescu backtracked and withdrew his approval, stipulating that he had given it on condition that the association removed "national" from its title, which it did not. Minister Frunzaverde likewise criticized the judgment of his subordinate, Plangu, and stated that the Ministry of Defense reserved the right to take legal action against the formation of the association.
    • (2000) Azi, Adevarul and "Marius Tuca Show"/Antena 1 TV
  • 51
    • 85037285337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • November 2, 2000 and Adevarul November 2
    • Azi, Adevarul and "Marius Tuca Show"/Antena 1 TV (November 1, 2000) and Cotidianul (November 2, 2000) and Adevarul (November 2, 2000). After the formation of the association provoked a public scandal, Minister Ionescu backtracked and withdrew his approval, stipulating that he had given it on condition that the association removed "national" from its title, which it did not. Minister Frunzaverde likewise criticized the judgment of his subordinate, Plangu, and stated that the Ministry of Defense reserved the right to take legal action against the formation of the association.
    • (2000) Cotidianul
  • 53
    • 0002487111 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Military training and education challenges in Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary: Conclusions and recommendations
    • March
    • David M. Glantz makes this point in his "Military Training and Education Challenges in Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary: Conclusions and Recommendations," Journal of Slavic Military Studies 12, no. 1 (March 1999): 1-12.
    • (1999) Journal of Slavic Military Studies , vol.12 , Issue.1 , pp. 1-12
    • Glantz, D.M.1
  • 54
    • 0004133201 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press
    • This is the general conclusion of the contributors to Civil-Military Relations and Democracy, ed. Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996) and to Civil-Military Relations: Building Democracy and Regional Security in Latin America, Southern Asia, and Central Europe, ed. David R. Mares (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1998). See also Anton A. Bebler, ed., Civil-Military Relations in Post-Communist States: Central and Eastern Europe in Transition (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997), pp. 66-75, 125-35, 131; and Douglas L. Bland, "Discovering Westminster: The Transformation of Civil-Military Relations in Eastern Europe," in NATO's Eastern Dilemma, ed. David Haglund, S. Neil MacFarlane, and Joel Sokolsky (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1994), p. 205.
    • (1996) Civil-military Relations and Democracy
    • Diamond, L.1    Plattner, M.F.2
  • 55
    • 0004070483 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Boulder, CO: Westview
    • This is the general conclusion of the contributors to Civil-Military Relations and Democracy, ed. Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996) and to Civil-Military Relations: Building Democracy and Regional Security in Latin America, Southern Asia, and Central Europe, ed. David R. Mares (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1998). See also Anton A. Bebler, ed., Civil-Military Relations in Post-Communist States: Central and Eastern Europe in Transition (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997), pp. 66-75, 125-35, 131; and Douglas L. Bland, "Discovering Westminster: The Transformation of Civil-Military Relations in Eastern Europe," in NATO's Eastern Dilemma, ed. David Haglund, S. Neil MacFarlane, and Joel Sokolsky (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1994), p. 205.
    • (1998) Civil-military Relations: Building Democracy and Regional Security in Latin America, Southern Asia, and Central Europe
    • Mares, D.R.1
  • 56
    • 0003443312 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Westport, CT: Praeger
    • This is the general conclusion of the contributors to Civil-Military Relations and Democracy, ed. Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996) and to Civil-Military Relations: Building Democracy and Regional Security in Latin America, Southern Asia, and Central Europe, ed. David R. Mares (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1998). See also Anton A. Bebler, ed., Civil-Military Relations in Post-Communist States: Central and Eastern Europe in Transition (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997), pp. 66-75, 125-35, 131; and Douglas L. Bland, "Discovering Westminster: The Transformation of Civil-Military Relations in Eastern Europe," in NATO's Eastern Dilemma, ed. David Haglund, S. Neil MacFarlane, and Joel Sokolsky (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1994), p. 205.
    • (1997) Civil-military Relations in Post-communist States: Central and Eastern Europe in Transition , pp. 66-75
    • Bebler, A.A.1
  • 57
    • 0003280349 scopus 로고
    • Discovering Westminster: The transformation of civil-military relations in Eastern Europe
    • David Haglund, S. Neil MacFarlane, and Joel Sokolsky Boulder, CO: Westview
    • This is the general conclusion of the contributors to Civil-Military Relations and Democracy, ed. Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996) and to Civil-Military Relations: Building Democracy and Regional Security in Latin America, Southern Asia, and Central Europe, ed. David R. Mares (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1998). See also Anton A. Bebler, ed., Civil-Military Relations in Post-Communist States: Central and Eastern Europe in Transition (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997), pp. 66-75, 125-35, 131; and Douglas L. Bland, "Discovering Westminster: The Transformation of Civil-Military Relations in Eastern Europe," in NATO's Eastern Dilemma, ed. David Haglund, S. Neil MacFarlane, and Joel Sokolsky (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1994), p. 205.
    • (1994) NATO's Eastern Dilemma , pp. 205
    • Bland, D.L.1
  • 58
    • 85037282176 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Before 1997, personnel cuts were administered entirely on the basis of the army's own resources. In 1997, parliament voted that personnel to be released would be allocated twelve months' pay from the state budget, greatly facilitating the downsizing process.
  • 59
    • 85037282231 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jeffrey Simon, Nicolae Uscoi, and Constantin Mostoflei Bucharest: Institute for Political Studies of Defense and Military History
    • General Neculai Balan in Rebuilding the Armed Forces for the XXIst Century, ed. Jeffrey Simon, Nicolae Uscoi, and Constantin Mostoflei (Bucharest: Institute for Political Studies of Defense and Military History, 1999), p. 89.
    • (1999) Rebuilding the Armed Forces for the XXIst Century , pp. 89
    • Balan, N.1
  • 61
    • 0004021078 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • May 18
    • Curierul National (May 18, 1999); Cotidianul (May 14-16 and 25, 1999) and (June 14 and 17, 1999); Cronica Romana (May 24, 1999) and (June 18, 1999).
    • (1999) Curierul National
  • 62
    • 0007514544 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • May 14-16 and 25, 1999 and June 14 and 17
    • Curierul National (May 18, 1999); Cotidianul (May 14-16 and 25, 1999) and (June 14 and 17, 1999); Cronica Romana (May 24, 1999) and (June 18, 1999).
    • (1999) Cotidianul
  • 63
    • 85037266344 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • May 24, 1999 and June 18
    • Curierul National (May 18, 1999); Cotidianul (May 14-16 and 25, 1999) and (June 14 and 17, 1999); Cronica Romana (May 24, 1999) and (June 18, 1999).
    • (1999) Cronica Romana
  • 65
    • 85037285337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • October 23 and 24
    • Cotidianul (October 23 and 24, 2000); Jurnalul National (October 24, 2000) and Romania Libera (October 24, 2000).
    • (2000) Cotidianul
  • 66
    • 3042798220 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • October 24
    • Cotidianul (October 23 and 24, 2000); Jurnalul National (October 24, 2000) and Romania Libera (October 24, 2000).
    • (2000) Jurnalul National
  • 67
    • 85037270022 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • October 24
    • Cotidianul (October 23 and 24, 2000); Jurnalul National (October 24, 2000) and Romania Libera (October 24, 2000).
    • (2000) Romania Libera
  • 68
    • 85037285337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • December 1
    • Cotidianul (December 1, 2000).
    • (2000) Cotidianul
  • 69
    • 85037285337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • October 23
    • Cotidianul (October 23, 2000).
    • (2000) Cotidianul
  • 70
    • 85037286276 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • At the same time, however, his non-party status placed him in a much weaker position when it came to competing for budgetary resources, as, for instance, the interior minister was a vice-president of the ruling party. The fact that the defense portfolio was awarded to a lesser partner in the coalition in 1996-2000, whereas interior remained under CD control, resulted in a similar "beggar thy neighbor" situation to the detriment of defense funding.
  • 71
    • 0003879478 scopus 로고
    • New Haven: Yale University Press
    • Alfred Stepan was the first to describe this phenomenon in his Authoritarian Brazil: Origins, Policies, and Future (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973), p. 52. It is also described in Diamond and Plattner, Civil-Military Relations and Democracy, pp. xxix-xxxi, 6, 12-14, 26, 56; and Mares, Civil-Military Relations, p. 18. The inherently political aspects of policing are described in Otwin Marenin, "Police Performance and State Rule: Control and Autonomy in the Exercise of Coercion," Comparative Politics 18, no. 1 (October 1985): 101-22.
    • (1973) Authoritarian Brazil: Origins, Policies, and Future , pp. 52
    • Stepan, A.1
  • 72
    • 0004133201 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Alfred Stepan was the first to describe this phenomenon in his Authoritarian Brazil: Origins, Policies, and Future (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973), p. 52. It is also described in Diamond and Plattner, Civil-Military Relations and Democracy, pp. xxix-xxxi, 6, 12-14, 26, 56; and Mares, Civil-Military Relations, p. 18. The inherently political aspects of policing are described in Otwin Marenin, "Police Performance and State Rule: Control and Autonomy in the Exercise of Coercion," Comparative Politics 18, no. 1 (October 1985): 101-22.
    • Civil-military Relations and Democracy
    • Diamond1    Plattner2
  • 73
    • 85037257098 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Alfred Stepan was the first to describe this phenomenon in his Authoritarian Brazil: Origins, Policies, and Future (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973), p. 52. It is also described in Diamond and Plattner, Civil-Military Relations and Democracy, pp. xxix-xxxi, 6, 12-14, 26, 56; and Mares, Civil-Military Relations, p. 18. The inherently political aspects of policing are described in Otwin Marenin, "Police Performance and State Rule: Control and Autonomy in the Exercise of Coercion," Comparative Politics 18, no. 1 (October 1985): 101-22.
    • Civil-military Relations , pp. 18
    • Mares1
  • 74
    • 84928221195 scopus 로고
    • Police performance and state rule: Control and autonomy in the exercise of coercion
    • October
    • Alfred Stepan was the first to describe this phenomenon in his Authoritarian Brazil: Origins, Policies, and Future (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973), p. 52. It is also described in Diamond and Plattner, Civil-Military Relations and Democracy, pp. xxix-xxxi, 6, 12-14, 26, 56; and Mares, Civil-Military Relations, p. 18. The inherently political aspects of policing are described in Otwin Marenin, "Police Performance and State Rule: Control and Autonomy in the Exercise of Coercion," Comparative Politics 18, no. 1 (October 1985): 101-22.
    • (1985) Comparative Politics , vol.18 , Issue.1 , pp. 101-122
    • Marenin, O.1
  • 75
    • 0010203646 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Threat environments and military missions
    • Diamond and Plattner
    • Michael Desch, "Threat Environments and Military Missions," in Diamond and Plattner, Civil-Military Relations and Democracy, p. 14.
    • Civil-military Relations and Democracy , pp. 14
    • Desch, M.1
  • 76
    • 85037285042 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • January 20-26
    • See Cotidianul, Cronica Romana, and Curierul National (January 20-26, 1999). Government representatives at first tried to blame the opposition and "foreign forces" for what they described as a "military-style attempted coup d'état." Romania Libera and National (January 27, 1999). After the events the new interior minister declared that there was "no proof that it was an attempted coup d'état." Curierul National (February 3, 1999). Sali Berisha justified his use of the military against demonstrators in Albania in 1998 with almost identical rhetoric. Elez Biberaj, Albania in Transition: The Rocky Road to Democracy (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1998), p. 323.
    • (1999) Cotidianul, Cronica Romana, and Curierul National
  • 77
    • 85037272967 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • January 27
    • See Cotidianul, Cronica Romana, and Curierul National (January 20-26, 1999). Government representatives at first tried to blame the opposition and "foreign forces" for what they described as a "military-style attempted coup d'état." Romania Libera and National (January 27, 1999). After the events the new interior minister declared that there was "no proof that it was an attempted coup d'état." Curierul National (February 3, 1999). Sali Berisha justified his use of the military against demonstrators in Albania in 1998 with almost identical rhetoric. Elez Biberaj, Albania in Transition: The Rocky Road to Democracy (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1998), p. 323.
    • (1999) Romania Libera and National
  • 78
    • 0004021078 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • February 3
    • See Cotidianul, Cronica Romana, and Curierul National (January 20-26, 1999). Government representatives at first tried to blame the opposition and "foreign forces" for what they described as a "military-style attempted coup d'état." Romania Libera and National (January 27, 1999). After the events the new interior minister declared that there was "no proof that it was an attempted coup d'état." Curierul National (February 3, 1999). Sali Berisha justified his use of the military against demonstrators in Albania in 1998 with almost identical rhetoric. Elez Biberaj, Albania in Transition: The Rocky Road to Democracy (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1998), p. 323.
    • (1999) Curierul National
  • 79
    • 0004074031 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Boulder, CO: Westview
    • See Cotidianul, Cronica Romana, and Curierul National (January 20-26, 1999). Government representatives at first tried to blame the opposition and "foreign forces" for what they described as a "military-style attempted coup d'état." Romania Libera and National (January 27, 1999). After the events the new interior minister declared that there was "no proof that it was an attempted coup d'état." Curierul National (February 3, 1999). Sali Berisha justified his use of the military against demonstrators in Albania in 1998 with almost identical rhetoric. Elez Biberaj, Albania in Transition: The Rocky Road to Democracy (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1998), p. 323.
    • (1998) Albania in Transition: The Rocky Road to Democracy , pp. 323
    • Biberaj, E.1
  • 80
    • 85037264282 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • January 20-21
    • See Cronica Romana and Curierul National (January 20-21, 1999). His deputy at the time, Constantin Dudu Ionescu (CD), was also willing to employ military force against the miners. In the midst of the crisis Ionescu was appointed interior minister. Both Ionescu and Justice Minister Valeriu Stoica (PNL) advocated a general amnesty of the military for actions during the 1989 revolution specifically to enable the government to employ it in internal security tasks as needed. See Cronica Romana (February 26, 1999).
    • (1999) Cronica Romana and Curierul National
  • 81
    • 85037266344 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • February 26
    • See Cronica Romana and Curierul National (January 20-21, 1999). His deputy at the time, Constantin Dudu Ionescu (CD), was also willing to employ military force against the miners. In the midst of the crisis Ionescu was appointed interior minister. Both Ionescu and Justice Minister Valeriu Stoica (PNL) advocated a general amnesty of the military for actions during the 1989 revolution specifically to enable the government to employ it in internal security tasks as needed. See Cronica Romana (February 26, 1999).
    • (1999) Cronica Romana
  • 82
    • 85037266344 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • January 26
    • Cronica Romana (January 26, 1999). See also Cotidianul (January 21, 1999) and Curierul National (January 19 and 25, 1999).
    • (1999) Cronica Romana
  • 83
    • 0007514544 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • January 21
    • Cronica Romana (January 26, 1999). See also Cotidianul (January 21, 1999) and Curierul National (January 19 and 25, 1999).
    • (1999) Cotidianul
  • 84
    • 0004021078 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • January 19 and 25
    • Cronica Romana (January 26, 1999). See also Cotidianul (January 21, 1999) and Curierul National (January 19 and 25, 1999).
    • (1999) Curierul National
  • 86
    • 85037285337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • March 9, 2000 and February 22
    • See Cotidianul (March 9, 2000) and (February 22, 2000); Curentul (February 22, 2000); Curierul National (February 23 and 24, 2000).
    • (2000) Cotidianul
  • 87
    • 85037280959 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • February 22
    • See Cotidianul (March 9, 2000) and (February 22, 2000); Curentul (February 22, 2000); Curierul National (February 23 and 24, 2000).
    • (2000) Curentul
  • 88
    • 0004021079 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • February 23 and 24
    • See Cotidianul (March 9, 2000) and (February 22, 2000); Curentul (February 22, 2000); Curierul National (February 23 and 24, 2000).
    • (2000) Curierul National
  • 89
    • 0004021079 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • March 9
    • The scandal broke on March 8, 2000, and was covered by the entire Romanian press. See also Curierul National (March 9, 2000); Cotidianul (March 12, 2000); Jurnalul National (March 23, 2000); Ziarul Financiar (April 19, 2000). The army felt compelled to issue a declaration that the crisis "did not affect its normal functioning" since it was political and not military.
    • (2000) Curierul National
  • 90
    • 85037285337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • March 12
    • The scandal broke on March 8, 2000, and was covered by the entire Romanian press. See also Curierul National (March 9, 2000); Cotidianul (March 12, 2000); Jurnalul National (March 23, 2000); Ziarul Financiar (April 19, 2000). The army felt compelled to issue a declaration that the crisis "did not affect its normal functioning" since it was political and not military.
    • (2000) Cotidianul
  • 91
    • 3042798220 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • March 23
    • The scandal broke on March 8, 2000, and was covered by the entire Romanian press. See also Curierul National (March 9, 2000); Cotidianul (March 12, 2000); Jurnalul National (March 23, 2000); Ziarul Financiar (April 19, 2000). The army felt compelled to issue a declaration that the crisis "did not affect its normal functioning" since it was political and not military.
    • (2000) Jurnalul National
  • 92
    • 85037284894 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • April 19
    • The scandal broke on March 8, 2000, and was covered by the entire Romanian press. See also Curierul National (March 9, 2000); Cotidianul (March 12, 2000); Jurnalul National (March 23, 2000); Ziarul Financiar (April 19, 2000). The army felt compelled to issue a declaration that the crisis "did not affect its normal functioning" since it was political and not military.
    • (2000) Ziarul Financiar
  • 93
  • 94
    • 85037260643 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Author's interviews during 1991-2000 with the former presidential counselor for military affairs, General loan Talpes, a former chief of staff, General Dumtiru Cioflina, the first rector of the National Defense College, Dr. Liviu Muresan, and one of the college's architects and professors (and later deputy defense minister), Dr. Ioan Mircea Pascu.
  • 95
    • 85037283742 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • All officers who graduate from the military academy are assigned platoon commands. In 1993, Romania phased out divisions and replaced armies with army corps as part of its military restructuring.
  • 96
    • 85037260784 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Gusa had nine years command experience in 1973-76 and 1981-86, but there were no brigades in the tank corps.
  • 97
    • 85037268497 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Ionel had six years command experience in 1954-60; the main units in the artillery corps were designated artillery brigade, heavy artillery brigade, and regional artillery command.
  • 98
    • 85037289346 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Cioflina had five years command experience in 1977-80 and 1990.
  • 99
    • 85037263837 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Chelaru held the command from August 1997 until February 2000.
  • 100
    • 85037261042 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The "fast-track" career trajectories of the two were also extraordinary. Degeratu advanced from lieutenant colonel to chief of staff in less than three years, when the path from lieutenant colonel to the lowest general rank normally requires ten years. He was then awarded three general's stars within four years. Chelaru advanced from major to chief of staff in less than six years, when normal time-in-grade would have required fifteen years to arrive at the lowest general rank. The Law on the Status of Military Personnel specifies five years time-in-grade for each rank from first lieutenant up to colonel in Chapter VIII, Section 2, Article 4.
  • 101
    • 85037290325 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The lack of communication between the two was evident in numerous discussions of the author with the civilian and military leadership of the Ministry of Defense during 1997-99.
  • 102
    • 0007472349 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • June 5
    • For example, the public debates following the restructuring of the Ministry of Defense according to government ordinances in 1997 and 1999 were widely assumed to have been dictated to satisfy the political algorithm of the ruling coalition rather than the needs of the army. A new Ministry of Defense restructuring, still flawed because of superfluous political considerations but superior to that of 1999, was passed in 2000, again by ordinance without the consultation of the parliamentary defense committees. Jurnalul National and Curierul National (June 5, 2000); Cotidianul (June 2 and 21, 2000). The most serious procurement scandal to erupt in the press was the ELTA-AZUR electronic warfare equipment acquisition, approved by the minister but not by the general staff or the military technical commission. Adevarul (November 9, 12 and 16, 1999); Jurnalul National (March 15, 2000).
    • (2000) Jurnalul National and Curierul National
  • 103
    • 85037285337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • June 2 and 21
    • For example, the public debates following the restructuring of the Ministry of Defense according to government ordinances in 1997 and 1999 were widely assumed to have been dictated to satisfy the political algorithm of the ruling coalition rather than the needs of the army. A new Ministry of Defense restructuring, still flawed because of superfluous political considerations but superior to that of 1999, was passed in 2000, again by ordinance without the consultation of the parliamentary defense committees. Jurnalul National and Curierul National (June 5, 2000); Cotidianul (June 2 and 21, 2000). The most serious procurement scandal to erupt in the press was the ELTA-AZUR electronic warfare equipment acquisition, approved by the minister but not by the general staff or the military technical commission. Adevarul (November 9, 12 and 16, 1999); Jurnalul National (March 15, 2000).
    • (2000) Cotidianul
  • 104
    • 85037263372 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • November 9, 12 and 16
    • For example, the public debates following the restructuring of the Ministry of Defense according to government ordinances in 1997 and 1999 were widely assumed to have been dictated to satisfy the political algorithm of the ruling coalition rather than the needs of the army. A new Ministry of Defense restructuring, still flawed because of superfluous political considerations but superior to that of 1999, was passed in 2000, again by ordinance without the consultation of the parliamentary defense committees. Jurnalul National and Curierul National (June 5, 2000); Cotidianul (June 2 and 21, 2000). The most serious procurement scandal to erupt in the press was the ELTA-AZUR electronic warfare equipment acquisition, approved by the minister but not by the general staff or the military technical commission. Adevarul (November 9, 12 and 16, 1999); Jurnalul National (March 15, 2000).
    • (1999) Adevarul
  • 105
    • 3042798220 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • March 15
    • For example, the public debates following the restructuring of the Ministry of Defense according to government ordinances in 1997 and 1999 were widely assumed to have been dictated to satisfy the political algorithm of the ruling coalition rather than the needs of the army. A new Ministry of Defense restructuring, still flawed because of superfluous political considerations but superior to that of 1999, was passed in 2000, again by ordinance without the consultation of the parliamentary defense committees. Jurnalul National and Curierul National (June 5, 2000); Cotidianul (June 2 and 21, 2000). The most serious procurement scandal to erupt in the press was the ELTA-AZUR electronic warfare equipment acquisition, approved by the minister but not by the general staff or the military technical commission. Adevarul (November 9, 12 and 16, 1999); Jurnalul National (March 15, 2000).
    • (2000) Jurnalul National
  • 106
    • 85037276058 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • It is difficult to explain Chelaru's appointment without reference to his personal/political relationship with Constantinescu. He had been known as a politically oriented officer with a difficult personality since the 1989 revolution. In 1990 he was one of the original members of the SRI, serving as its head of counterespionage. To compensate for his lack of popularity in the officer corps, a new military attaché post was created for him in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, where he served until 1993. During his six months tenure as chief of staff, he periodically embarrassed the Romanian government with his ill-thought-out political statements.
  • 107
    • 85037267448 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • July 19-21
    • See Adevarul, Cotidianul, Curierul National, Cronica Romana and Ziarul Financiar (July 19-21, 1999). For more detail on the trial, see Larry L. Watts, "Romanian Civil-Military Relations: Continuity in Exceptionalism," in Politics & Society in Post-Communist Romania in 2000, ed. Henry F. Carey (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2000). Controversy also surrounds the legal team involved in the trial. The military prosecutor, Dan Voinea, also prosecuted Ceauşescu's kangaroo court in December 1989. He had taken highly partisan public stances, including declaring the guilt of the officers and the army even before the trial. The general prosecutor, Sorin Moisescu, had done the same before becoming as head of the Supreme Court that rejected the appeal. His preemptory declaration of guilt was imported verbatim into the decision rejecting the appeal three years later. Moisescu had previously served as adviser to President Constantinescu. See Adevarul (December 17, 1997); Cotidianul (March 3, 2000); and Adevarul, Azi, Romania Libera, and Ziua (March 29, 2000). The new prosecutor-general, Mircea Cristea, was also involved in the affair. One month before the 2000 elections, Constantinescu proposed Cristea as ambassador to Germany.
    • (1999) Adevarul, Cotidianul, Curierul National, Cronica Romana and Ziarul Financiar
  • 108
    • 0007511386 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Romanian civil-military relations: Continuity in exceptionalism
    • ed. Henry F. Carey Boulder, CO: Westview
    • See Adevarul, Cotidianul, Curierul National, Cronica Romana and Ziarul Financiar (July 19-21, 1999). For more detail on the trial, see Larry L. Watts, "Romanian Civil-Military Relations: Continuity in Exceptionalism," in Politics & Society in Post-Communist Romania in 2000, ed. Henry F. Carey (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2000). Controversy also surrounds the legal team involved in the trial. The military prosecutor, Dan Voinea, also prosecuted Ceauşescu's kangaroo court in December 1989. He had taken highly partisan public stances, including declaring the guilt of the officers and the army even before the trial. The general prosecutor, Sorin Moisescu, had done the same before becoming as head of the Supreme Court that rejected the appeal. His preemptory declaration of guilt was imported verbatim into the decision rejecting the appeal three years later. Moisescu had previously served as adviser to President Constantinescu. See Adevarul (December 17, 1997); Cotidianul (March 3, 2000); and Adevarul, Azi, Romania Libera, and Ziua (March 29, 2000). The new prosecutor-general, Mircea Cristea, was also involved in the affair. One month before the 2000 elections, Constantinescu proposed Cristea as ambassador to Germany.
    • (2000) Politics & Society in Post-communist Romania in 2000
    • Watts, L.L.1
  • 109
    • 85037257952 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • December 17
    • See Adevarul, Cotidianul, Curierul National, Cronica Romana and Ziarul Financiar (July 19-21, 1999). For more detail on the trial, see Larry L. Watts, "Romanian Civil-Military Relations: Continuity in Exceptionalism," in Politics & Society in Post-Communist Romania in 2000, ed. Henry F. Carey (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2000). Controversy also surrounds the legal team involved in the trial. The military prosecutor, Dan Voinea, also prosecuted Ceauşescu's kangaroo court in December 1989. He had taken highly partisan public stances, including declaring the guilt of the officers and the army even before the trial. The general prosecutor, Sorin Moisescu, had done the same before becoming as head of the Supreme Court that rejected the appeal. His preemptory declaration of guilt was imported verbatim into the decision rejecting the appeal three years later. Moisescu had previously served as adviser to President Constantinescu. See Adevarul (December 17, 1997); Cotidianul (March 3, 2000); and Adevarul, Azi, Romania Libera, and Ziua (March 29, 2000). The new prosecutor-general, Mircea Cristea, was also involved in the affair. One month before the 2000 elections, Constantinescu proposed Cristea as ambassador to Germany.
    • (1997) Adevarul
  • 110
    • 85037285337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • March 3
    • See Adevarul, Cotidianul, Curierul National, Cronica Romana and Ziarul Financiar (July 19-21, 1999). For more detail on the trial, see Larry L. Watts, "Romanian Civil-Military Relations: Continuity in Exceptionalism," in Politics & Society in Post-Communist Romania in 2000, ed. Henry F. Carey (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2000). Controversy also surrounds the legal team involved in the trial. The military prosecutor, Dan Voinea, also prosecuted Ceauşescu's kangaroo court in December 1989. He had taken highly partisan public stances, including declaring the guilt of the officers and the army even before the trial. The general prosecutor, Sorin Moisescu, had done the same before becoming as head of the Supreme Court that rejected the appeal. His preemptory declaration of guilt was imported verbatim into the decision rejecting the appeal three years later. Moisescu had previously served as adviser to President Constantinescu. See Adevarul (December 17, 1997); Cotidianul (March 3, 2000); and Adevarul, Azi, Romania Libera, and Ziua (March 29, 2000). The new prosecutor-general, Mircea Cristea, was also involved in the affair. One month before the 2000 elections, Constantinescu proposed Cristea as ambassador to Germany.
    • (2000) Cotidianul
  • 111
    • 85037280036 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • March 29
    • See Adevarul, Cotidianul, Curierul National, Cronica Romana and Ziarul Financiar (July 19-21, 1999). For more detail on the trial, see Larry L. Watts, "Romanian Civil-Military Relations: Continuity in Exceptionalism," in Politics & Society in Post-Communist Romania in 2000, ed. Henry F. Carey (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2000). Controversy also surrounds the legal team involved in the trial. The military prosecutor, Dan Voinea, also prosecuted Ceauşescu's kangaroo court in December 1989. He had taken highly partisan public stances, including declaring the guilt of the officers and the army even before the trial. The general prosecutor, Sorin Moisescu, had done the same before becoming as head of the Supreme Court that rejected the appeal. His preemptory declaration of guilt was imported verbatim into the decision rejecting the appeal three years later. Moisescu had previously served as adviser to President Constantinescu. See Adevarul (December 17, 1997); Cotidianul (March 3, 2000); and Adevarul, Azi, Romania Libera, and Ziua (March 29, 2000). The new prosecutor-general, Mircea Cristea, was also involved in the affair. One month before the 2000 elections, Constantinescu proposed Cristea as ambassador to Germany.
    • (2000) Adevarul, Azi, Romania Libera, and Ziua
  • 112
    • 85037285337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • February 26-27 and 29
    • Cotidianul (February 26-27 and 29, 2000).
    • (2000) Cotidianul
  • 113
    • 85037263372 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • July 19-21
    • Adevarul (July 19-21, 1999).
    • (1999) Adevarul
  • 115
    • 85037280867 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • February 19-21
    • Adevarul and Cotidianul (February 19-21, 2000) and Evenimentul Zilei (February 26, 2000). The military is not permitted to seek compensation for the more than 200 members killed during the revolution.
    • (2000) Adevarul and Cotidianul
  • 116
    • 0007511387 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • February 26
    • Adevarul and Cotidianul (February 19-21, 2000) and Evenimentul Zilei (February 26, 2000). The military is not permitted to seek compensation for the more than 200 members killed during the revolution.
    • (2000) Evenimentul Zilei
  • 117
    • 85037265679 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • February 26
    • Adevarul (February 26, 2000).
    • (2000) Adevarul
  • 118
    • 3042798220 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • March 18
    • Jurnalul National (March 18, 2000) and Adevarul (March 20, 2000).
    • (2000) Jurnalul National
  • 119
    • 85037265679 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • March 20
    • Jurnalul National (March 18, 2000) and Adevarul (March 20, 2000).
    • (2000) Adevarul
  • 120
    • 85037285337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • April 4
    • Cotidianul (April 4, 2000).
    • (2000) Cotidianul
  • 122
    • 0007470475 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • June 9
    • For example, in a recent mutual-fund scandal involving the government coalition parties in which some 300,000 investors lost their money, it was discovered that thirty-six of the forty regional directors of the fund were former Securitate officers. Ziua (June 9, 2000); Ziarul Financiar (June 13, 2000); Adevarul (June 13 and 17-18, 2000). Complaints about Securitate/SRI misdoings have been constant and numerous. See Ziua (April 9, 2000); Azi (May 23 and 27, 2000); Jurnalul National (June 4 and 5, 2000); Cotidianul (June 6 and 20, 2000).
    • (2000) Ziua
  • 123
    • 85037284894 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • June 13
    • For example, in a recent mutual-fund scandal involving the government coalition parties in which some 300,000 investors lost their money, it was discovered that thirty-six of the forty regional directors of the fund were former Securitate officers. Ziua (June 9, 2000); Ziarul Financiar (June 13, 2000); Adevarul (June 13 and 17-18, 2000). Complaints about Securitate/SRI misdoings have been constant and numerous. See Ziua (April 9, 2000); Azi (May 23 and 27, 2000); Jurnalul National (June 4 and 5, 2000); Cotidianul (June 6 and 20, 2000).
    • (2000) Ziarul Financiar
  • 124
    • 85037265679 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • June 13 and 17-18
    • For example, in a recent mutual-fund scandal involving the government coalition parties in which some 300,000 investors lost their money, it was discovered that thirty-six of the forty regional directors of the fund were former Securitate officers. Ziua (June 9, 2000); Ziarul Financiar (June 13, 2000); Adevarul (June 13 and 17-18, 2000). Complaints about Securitate/SRI misdoings have been constant and numerous. See Ziua (April 9, 2000); Azi (May 23 and 27, 2000); Jurnalul National (June 4 and 5, 2000); Cotidianul (June 6 and 20, 2000).
    • (2000) Adevarul
  • 125
    • 0007556070 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • April 9
    • For example, in a recent mutual-fund scandal involving the government coalition parties in which some 300,000 investors lost their money, it was discovered that thirty-six of the forty regional directors of the fund were former Securitate officers. Ziua (June 9, 2000); Ziarul Financiar (June 13, 2000); Adevarul (June 13 and 17-18, 2000). Complaints about Securitate/SRI misdoings have been constant and numerous. See Ziua (April 9, 2000); Azi (May 23 and 27, 2000); Jurnalul National (June 4 and 5, 2000); Cotidianul (June 6 and 20, 2000).
    • (2000) Ziua
  • 126
    • 85037283539 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • May 23 and 27
    • For example, in a recent mutual-fund scandal involving the government coalition parties in which some 300,000 investors lost their money, it was discovered that thirty-six of the forty regional directors of the fund were former Securitate officers. Ziua (June 9, 2000); Ziarul Financiar (June 13, 2000); Adevarul (June 13 and 17-18, 2000). Complaints about Securitate/SRI misdoings have been constant and numerous. See Ziua (April 9, 2000); Azi (May 23 and 27, 2000); Jurnalul National (June 4 and 5, 2000); Cotidianul (June 6 and 20, 2000).
    • (2000) Azi
  • 127
    • 3042798220 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • June 4 and 5
    • For example, in a recent mutual-fund scandal involving the government coalition parties in which some 300,000 investors lost their money, it was discovered that thirty-six of the forty regional directors of the fund were former Securitate officers. Ziua (June 9, 2000); Ziarul Financiar (June 13, 2000); Adevarul (June 13 and 17-18, 2000). Complaints about Securitate/SRI misdoings have been constant and numerous. See Ziua (April 9, 2000); Azi (May 23 and 27, 2000); Jurnalul National (June 4 and 5, 2000); Cotidianul (June 6 and 20, 2000).
    • (2000) Jurnalul National
  • 128
    • 85037285337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • June 6 and 20
    • For example, in a recent mutual-fund scandal involving the government coalition parties in which some 300,000 investors lost their money, it was discovered that thirty-six of the forty regional directors of the fund were former Securitate officers. Ziua (June 9, 2000); Ziarul Financiar (June 13, 2000); Adevarul (June 13 and 17-18, 2000). Complaints about Securitate/SRI misdoings have been constant and numerous. See Ziua (April 9, 2000); Azi (May 23 and 27, 2000); Jurnalul National (June 4 and 5, 2000); Cotidianul (June 6 and 20, 2000).
    • (2000) Cotidianul
  • 132
    • 0007555060 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • November 1
    • Since the election of Constantinescu and the Democratic Convention in 1996, Romania has had four chiefs of staff, Cioflina, Degeratu, Chelaru, and Mihai Popescu. Cioflina took an early public position against the participation of active officers in the association, citing, at its founding congress, the provisions of Romanian law that prohibited it. See Adevarul and Evenimentul Zilei (November 1, 2000).
    • (2000) Adevarul and Evenimentul Zilei
  • 133
    • 0007473849 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • December 4
    • The negotiations were begun by the PDSR even before its new government was named. Azi (December 4, 2000). The protocols have already been implemented successfully enough for the UDMR to announce that the PDSR has proved itself a better partner than the CD, its ally for the previous eight years. See Adevarul, Cotidianul, and Jurnal National (February 16, 2001).
    • (2000) Azi
  • 134
    • 85037267929 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • February 16
    • The negotiations were begun by the PDSR even before its new government was named. Azi (December 4, 2000). The protocols have already been implemented
    • (2001) Adevarul, Cotidianul, and Jurnal National
  • 135
    • 0004220849 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • February 28
    • Jurnal National (February 28, 2001) and Cotidianul (March 7, 2001).
    • (2001) Jurnal National
  • 136
    • 0007554501 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • March 7
    • Jurnal National (February 28, 2001) and Cotidianul (March 7, 2001).
    • (2001) Cotidianul
  • 137
    • 85037259691 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Initial defense allocations were increased from $828 million in 2000 to $982 million in 2001 (2.59 percent of GDP). Subsequent budget rectifications, an annual phenomenon in Romania, brought actual defense resources to $942 million in 2000 and are likely to increase actual defense allocations to more than $1 billion in 2001.
  • 138
    • 85037257001 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Author's discussions in March 2001 with American and British civilian and military advisers on restructuring at the Defense Ministry, and with Defense Minister Pascu.
  • 139
    • 85037265188 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Pascu's preoccupation with a robust professional-reconversion process was widely reported on February 28 and March 7, 2001. See, for example, Curierul National, Curentul, and Cotidianul.
  • 140
    • 0007554501 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • January 31
    • Cotidianul (January 31, 2001) and Jurnal National (February 1, 2001).
    • (2001) Cotidianul
  • 141
    • 0004220849 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • February 1
    • Cotidianul (January 31, 2001) and Jurnal National (February 1, 2001).
    • (2001) Jurnal National


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