Blood work: Canadian nursing and blood transfusion, 1942-1990

Nursing History Review

Volumn 9, Issue , 2001, Pages 51-78

  Toman, Cynthia ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OTTAWA   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BLOOD TRANSFUSION; CANADA; FEMALE; HISTORY; HISTORY OF MEDICINE; HUMAN; NURSING;

BLOOD TRANSFUSION; CANADA; FEMALE; HISTORY OF NURSING; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS;

EID: 0035219043     PISSN: 10628061     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1891/1062-8061.9.1.51     Document Type: Review

References (120)

1. Hospital Annual Report (hereafter cited as MAR), 1942, Ottawa Civic Hospital Archives, Ottawa, Ontario, (hereafter cited as OCHA). The disaster accounts are recorded in a variety of sources. Institutional perspectives are documented in the ARs for 1942 and 1943 as well as in the national nursing journal: E. Gertrude Ferguson, "The Almonte Disaster," Canadian Nurse 39, no. 2 (February 1943): 117-8, (hereafter cited as CN). Headlines from Ottawa Citizen, 28 December 1942 read: "Arnprior Man is Tossed Through Window of Train," "Death Toll in Almonte Wreck Now, 33," "Injured Passengers Relate Vivid Stories of Tragic Wreck, "Troop Train Crashed into Standing Local"; Ottawa Citizen, 29 December 1 942: "Fear Almonte Wreck Death Toll May Go Higher"; Ottawa Journal, 28 December 1942: "36 Dead in Almonte Train Wreck, 118 in Hospitals, 15 are Critical; "Almonte Folk Heroically Toil Through Night"; the Ottawa Journal, 29 December 1942: "Paratrooper and His Fiancee Badly Hurt in Train Crash"; "Valley Town Becomes Morgue"; Toronto Star, 28 December 1942: "Scene of Train Crash One of Horror and Confusion"; "Child's Body Dressed in Snow Suit Found in Debris at Almonte." Additional coverage of personal anecdotes was extensive for the two Ottawa news journals over the initial two days after the disaster. Jean Milligan, interview by author, audiotape, Ottawa, Ontario, 29 October 1997.
2. Hospital Annual Report (hereafter cited as MAR), 1942, Ottawa Civic Hospital Archives, Ottawa, Ontario, (hereafter cited as OCHA). The disaster accounts are recorded in a variety of sources. Institutional perspectives are documented in the ARs for 1942 and 1943 as well as in the national nursing journal: E. Gertrude Ferguson, "The Almonte Disaster," Canadian Nurse 39, no. 2 (February 1943): 117-8, (hereafter cited as CN). Headlines from Ottawa Citizen, 28 December 1942 read: "Arnprior Man is Tossed Through Window of Train," "Death Toll in Almonte Wreck Now, 33," "Injured Passengers Relate Vivid Stories of Tragic Wreck, "Troop Train Crashed into Standing Local"; Ottawa Citizen, 29 December 1 942: "Fear Almonte Wreck Death Toll May Go Higher"; Ottawa Journal, 28 December 1942: "36 Dead in Almonte Train Wreck, 118 in Hospitals, 15 are Critical; "Almonte Folk Heroically Toil Through Night"; the Ottawa Journal, 29 December 1942: "Paratrooper and His Fiancee Badly Hurt in Train Crash"; "Valley Town Becomes Morgue"; Toronto Star, 28 December 1942: "Scene of Train Crash One of Horror and Confusion"; "Child's Body Dressed in Snow Suit Found in Debris at Almonte." Additional coverage of personal anecdotes was extensive for the two Ottawa news journals over the initial two days after the disaster. Jean Milligan, interview by author, audiotape, Ottawa, Ontario, 29 October 1997.
3. Hospital Annual Report (hereafter cited as MAR), 1942, Ottawa Civic Hospital Archives, Ottawa, Ontario, (hereafter cited as OCHA). The disaster accounts are recorded in a variety of sources. Institutional perspectives are documented in the ARs for 1942 and 1943 as well as in the national nursing journal: E. Gertrude Ferguson, "The Almonte Disaster," Canadian Nurse 39, no. 2 (February 1943): 117-8, (hereafter cited as CN). Headlines from Ottawa Citizen, 28 December 1942 read: "Arnprior Man is Tossed Through Window of Train," "Death Toll in Almonte Wreck Now, 33," "Injured Passengers Relate Vivid Stories of Tragic Wreck, "Troop Train Crashed into Standing Local"; Ottawa Citizen, 29 December 1 942: "Fear Almonte Wreck Death Toll May Go Higher"; Ottawa Journal, 28 December 1942: "36 Dead in Almonte Train Wreck, 118 in Hospitals, 15 are Critical; "Almonte Folk Heroically Toil Through Night"; the Ottawa Journal, 29 December 1942: "Paratrooper and His Fiancee Badly Hurt in Train Crash"; "Valley Town Becomes Morgue"; Toronto Star, 28 December 1942: "Scene of Train Crash One of Horror and Confusion"; "Child's Body Dressed in Snow Suit Found in Debris at Almonte." Additional coverage of personal anecdotes was extensive for the two Ottawa news journals over the initial two days after the disaster. Jean Milligan, interview by author, audiotape, Ottawa, Ontario, 29 October 1997.
4. Hospital Annual Report (hereafter cited as MAR), 1942, Ottawa Civic Hospital Archives, Ottawa, Ontario, (hereafter cited as OCHA). The disaster accounts are recorded in a variety of sources. Institutional perspectives are documented in the ARs for 1942 and 1943 as well as in the national nursing journal: E. Gertrude Ferguson, "The Almonte Disaster," Canadian Nurse 39, no. 2 (February 1943): 117-8, (hereafter cited as CN). Headlines from Ottawa Citizen, 28 December 1942 read: "Arnprior Man is Tossed Through Window of Train," "Death Toll in Almonte Wreck Now, 33," "Injured Passengers Relate Vivid Stories of Tragic Wreck, "Troop Train Crashed into Standing Local"; Ottawa Citizen, 29 December 1 942: "Fear Almonte Wreck Death Toll May Go Higher"; Ottawa Journal, 28 December 1942: "36 Dead in Almonte Train Wreck, 118 in Hospitals, 15 are Critical; "Almonte Folk Heroically Toil Through Night"; the Ottawa Journal, 29 December 1942: "Paratrooper and His Fiancee Badly Hurt in Train Crash"; "Valley Town Becomes Morgue"; Toronto Star, 28 December 1942: "Scene of Train Crash One of Horror and Confusion"; "Child's Body Dressed in Snow Suit Found in Debris at Almonte." Additional coverage of personal anecdotes was extensive for the two Ottawa news journals over the initial two days after the disaster. Jean Milligan, interview by author, audiotape, Ottawa, Ontario, 29 October 1997.
5. Hospital Annual Report (hereafter cited as MAR), 1942, Ottawa Civic Hospital Archives, Ottawa, Ontario, (hereafter cited as OCHA). The disaster accounts are recorded in a variety of sources. Institutional perspectives are documented in the ARs for 1942 and 1943 as well as in the national nursing journal: E. Gertrude Ferguson, "The Almonte Disaster," Canadian Nurse 39, no. 2 (February 1943): 117-8, (hereafter cited as CN). Headlines from Ottawa Citizen, 28 December 1942 read: "Arnprior Man is Tossed Through Window of Train," "Death Toll in Almonte Wreck Now, 33," "Injured Passengers Relate Vivid Stories of Tragic Wreck, "Troop Train Crashed into Standing Local"; Ottawa Citizen, 29 December 1 942: "Fear Almonte Wreck Death Toll May Go Higher"; Ottawa Journal, 28 December 1942: "36 Dead in Almonte Train Wreck, 118 in Hospitals, 15 are Critical; "Almonte Folk Heroically Toil Through Night"; the Ottawa Journal, 29 December 1942: "Paratrooper and His Fiancee Badly Hurt in Train Crash"; "Valley Town Becomes Morgue"; Toronto Star, 28 December 1942: "Scene of Train Crash One of Horror and Confusion"; "Child's Body Dressed in Snow Suit Found in Debris at Almonte." Additional coverage of personal anecdotes was extensive for the two Ottawa news journals over the initial two days after the disaster. Jean Milligan, interview by author, audiotape, Ottawa, Ontario, 29 October 1997.
6. Hospital Annual Report (hereafter cited as MAR), 1942, Ottawa Civic Hospital Archives, Ottawa, Ontario, (hereafter cited as OCHA). The disaster accounts are recorded in a variety of sources. Institutional perspectives are documented in the ARs for 1942 and 1943 as well as in the national nursing journal: E. Gertrude Ferguson, "The Almonte Disaster," Canadian Nurse 39, no. 2 (February 1943): 117-8, (hereafter cited as CN). Headlines from Ottawa Citizen, 28 December 1942 read: "Arnprior Man is Tossed Through Window of Train," "Death Toll in Almonte Wreck Now, 33," "Injured Passengers Relate Vivid Stories of Tragic Wreck, "Troop Train Crashed into Standing Local"; Ottawa Citizen, 29 December 1 942: "Fear Almonte Wreck Death Toll May Go Higher"; Ottawa Journal, 28 December 1942: "36 Dead in Almonte Train Wreck, 118 in Hospitals, 15 are Critical; "Almonte Folk Heroically Toil Through Night"; the Ottawa Journal, 29 December 1942: "Paratrooper and His Fiancee Badly Hurt in Train Crash"; "Valley Town Becomes Morgue"; Toronto Star, 28 December 1942: "Scene of Train Crash One of Horror and Confusion"; "Child's Body Dressed in Snow Suit Found in Debris at Almonte." Additional coverage of personal anecdotes was extensive for the two Ottawa news journals over the initial two days after the disaster. Jean Milligan, interview by author, audiotape, Ottawa, Ontario, 29 October 1997.
7. Hospital Annual Report (hereafter cited as MAR), 1942, Ottawa Civic Hospital Archives, Ottawa, Ontario, (hereafter cited as OCHA). The disaster accounts are recorded in a variety of sources. Institutional perspectives are documented in the ARs for 1942 and 1943 as well as in the national nursing journal: E. Gertrude Ferguson, "The Almonte Disaster," Canadian Nurse 39, no. 2 (February 1943): 117-8, (hereafter cited as CN). Headlines from Ottawa Citizen, 28 December 1942 read: "Arnprior Man is Tossed Through Window of Train," "Death Toll in Almonte Wreck Now, 33," "Injured Passengers Relate Vivid Stories of Tragic Wreck, "Troop Train Crashed into Standing Local"; Ottawa Citizen, 29 December 1 942: "Fear Almonte Wreck Death Toll May Go Higher"; Ottawa Journal, 28 December 1942: "36 Dead in Almonte Train Wreck, 118 in Hospitals, 15 are Critical; "Almonte Folk Heroically Toil Through Night"; the Ottawa Journal, 29 December 1942: "Paratrooper and His Fiancee Badly Hurt in Train Crash"; "Valley Town Becomes Morgue"; Toronto Star, 28 December 1942: "Scene of Train Crash One of Horror and Confusion"; "Child's Body Dressed in Snow Suit Found in Debris at Almonte." Additional coverage of personal anecdotes was extensive for the two Ottawa news journals over the initial two days after the disaster. Jean Milligan, interview by author, audiotape, Ottawa, Ontario, 29 October 1997.
8. Hospital Annual Report (hereafter cited as MAR), 1942, Ottawa Civic Hospital Archives, Ottawa, Ontario, (hereafter cited as OCHA). The disaster accounts are recorded in a variety of sources. Institutional perspectives are documented in the ARs for 1942 and 1943 as well as in the national nursing journal: E. Gertrude Ferguson, "The Almonte Disaster," Canadian Nurse 39, no. 2 (February 1943): 117-8, (hereafter cited as CN). Headlines from Ottawa Citizen, 28 December 1942 read: "Arnprior Man is Tossed Through Window of Train," "Death Toll in Almonte Wreck Now, 33," "Injured Passengers Relate Vivid Stories of Tragic Wreck, "Troop Train Crashed into Standing Local"; Ottawa Citizen, 29 December 1 942: "Fear Almonte Wreck Death Toll May Go Higher"; Ottawa Journal, 28 December 1942: "36 Dead in Almonte Train Wreck, 118 in Hospitals, 15 are Critical; "Almonte Folk Heroically Toil Through Night"; the Ottawa Journal, 29 December 1942: "Paratrooper and His Fiancee Badly Hurt in Train Crash"; "Valley Town Becomes Morgue"; Toronto Star, 28 December 1942: "Scene of Train Crash One of Horror and Confusion"; "Child's Body Dressed in Snow Suit Found in Debris at Almonte." Additional coverage of personal anecdotes was extensive for the two Ottawa news journals over the initial two days after the disaster. Jean Milligan, interview by author, audiotape, Ottawa, Ontario, 29 October 1997.
9. For an analysis of the domestic roots of nursing, see Patricia D'Antonio, "Legacy of Domesticity," Nursing History Review 1 (1993): 229-46 (hereafter cited as NHR), Diane Hamilton, "Constructing the Mind of Nursing," NHR 2 (1994): 3-28. Margarete Sandelowski: "'Making the Best of Things': Technology in American Nursing, 1870-1940," NHR 5 (1997): 3-22; and "Irreconcilable Differences? The Debate Concerning Nursing and Technology," Image: Journal of Nursing Scholarship 29, no. 2 (1997): 169-74.
10. For an analysis of the domestic roots of nursing, see Patricia D'Antonio, "Legacy of Domesticity," Nursing History Review 1 (1993): 229-46 (hereafter cited as NHR), Diane Hamilton, "Constructing the Mind of Nursing," NHR 2 (1994): 3-28. Margarete Sandelowski: "'Making the Best of Things': Technology in American Nursing, 1870-1940," NHR 5 (1997): 3-22; and "Irreconcilable Differences? The Debate Concerning Nursing and Technology," Image: Journal of Nursing Scholarship 29, no. 2 (1997): 169-74.
11. For an analysis of the domestic roots of nursing, see Patricia D'Antonio, "Legacy of Domesticity," Nursing History Review 1 (1993): 229-46 (hereafter cited as NHR), Diane Hamilton, "Constructing the Mind of Nursing," NHR 2 (1994): 3-28. Margarete Sandelowski: "'Making the Best of Things': Technology in American Nursing, 1870-1940," NHR 5 (1997): 3-22; and "Irreconcilable Differences? The Debate Concerning Nursing and Technology," Image: Journal of Nursing Scholarship 29, no. 2 (1997): 169-74.
12. For an analysis of the domestic roots of nursing, see Patricia D'Antonio, "Legacy of Domesticity," Nursing History Review 1 (1993): 229-46 (hereafter cited as NHR), Diane Hamilton, "Constructing the Mind of Nursing," NHR 2 (1994): 3-28. Margarete Sandelowski: "'Making the Best of Things': Technology in American Nursing, 1870-1940," NHR 5 (1997): 3-22; and "Irreconcilable Differences? The Debate Concerning Nursing and Technology," Image: Journal of Nursing Scholarship 29, no. 2 (1997): 169-74.
13. I would like to thank the reviewers for suggesting this analytical concept. As a beginning discussion of hospital work, Anselm Strauss and his colleagues contribute a valuable sociological framework that describes categories of work, each socially constructed and interactively negotiated with other components in the hospital system (e.g., physicians, nurses, patients, and families). What is missing, however, is an historical perspective that considers the specific context (persons, place, and time) in understanding the fluidity of the division of labor and perceptions of work. See Anselm Strauss, et al., Social Organization of Medical Work (Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1985). Thomas P. Hughes, "The Evolution of Large Technological Systems," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems, ed. Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes, and Trevor J. Pinch (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989), 53-54. Canadian sociologist George Torrance described hospitals as health factories, building on eighteenth century work by French hospital analyst J. R. Tenon, who referred to hospitals as machines that cure ("un instrument qui facilite la curation"). See George M. Torrance, "Hospitals as Health Factories," in Health and Canadian Society: Sociological Perspectives, ed. David Coburn, et al. (Don Mills, Ontario: Fitzhenry and Whiteside, 1981). The original reference to Tenon can be found in Dora B. Weiner, The Citizen-Patient in Revolutionary and Imperial Paris (Baltimore, Md.: John Hopkins University Press, 1993), p. 373.
14. I would like to thank the reviewers for suggesting this analytical concept. As a beginning discussion of hospital work, Anselm Strauss and his colleagues contribute a valuable sociological framework that describes categories of work, each socially constructed and interactively negotiated with other components in the hospital system (e.g., physicians, nurses, patients, and families). What is missing, however, is an historical perspective that considers the specific context (persons, place, and time) in understanding the fluidity of the division of labor and perceptions of work. See Anselm Strauss, et al., Social Organization of Medical Work (Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1985). Thomas P. Hughes, "The Evolution of Large Technological Systems," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems, ed. Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes, and Trevor J. Pinch (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989), 53-54. Canadian sociologist George Torrance described hospitals as health factories, building on eighteenth century work by French hospital analyst J. R. Tenon, who referred to hospitals as machines that cure ("un instrument qui facilite la curation"). See George M. Torrance, "Hospitals as Health Factories," in Health and Canadian Society: Sociological Perspectives, ed. David Coburn, et al. (Don Mills, Ontario: Fitzhenry and Whiteside, 1981). The original reference to Tenon can be found in Dora B. Weiner, The Citizen-Patient in Revolutionary and Imperial Paris (Baltimore, Md.: John Hopkins University Press, 1993), p. 373.
15. I would like to thank the reviewers for suggesting this analytical concept. As a beginning discussion of hospital work, Anselm Strauss and his colleagues contribute a valuable sociological framework that describes categories of work, each socially constructed and interactively negotiated with other components in the hospital system (e.g., physicians, nurses, patients, and families). What is missing, however, is an historical perspective that considers the specific context (persons, place, and time) in understanding the fluidity of the division of labor and perceptions of work. See Anselm Strauss, et al., Social Organization of Medical Work (Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1985). Thomas P. Hughes, "The Evolution of Large Technological Systems," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems, ed. Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes, and Trevor J. Pinch (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989), 53-54. Canadian sociologist George Torrance described hospitals as health factories, building on eighteenth century work by French hospital analyst J. R. Tenon, who referred to hospitals as machines that cure ("un instrument qui facilite la curation"). See George M. Torrance, "Hospitals as Health Factories," in Health and Canadian Society: Sociological Perspectives, ed. David Coburn, et al. (Don Mills, Ontario: Fitzhenry and Whiteside, 1981). The original reference to Tenon can be found in Dora B. Weiner, The Citizen-Patient in Revolutionary and Imperial Paris (Baltimore, Md.: John Hopkins University Press, 1993), p. 373.
16. I would like to thank the reviewers for suggesting this analytical concept. As a beginning discussion of hospital work, Anselm Strauss and his colleagues contribute a valuable sociological framework that describes categories of work, each socially constructed and interactively negotiated with other components in the hospital system (e.g., physicians, nurses, patients, and families). What is missing, however, is an historical perspective that considers the specific context (persons, place, and time) in understanding the fluidity of the division of labor and perceptions of work. See Anselm Strauss, et al., Social Organization of Medical Work (Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1985). Thomas P. Hughes, "The Evolution of Large Technological Systems," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems, ed. Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes, and Trevor J. Pinch (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989), 53-54. Canadian sociologist George Torrance described hospitals as health factories, building on eighteenth century work by French hospital analyst J. R. Tenon, who referred to hospitals as machines that cure ("un instrument qui facilite la curation"). See George M. Torrance, "Hospitals as Health Factories," in Health and Canadian Society: Sociological Perspectives, ed. David Coburn, et al. (Don Mills, Ontario: Fitzhenry and Whiteside, 1981). The original reference to Tenon can be found in Dora B. Weiner, The Citizen-Patient in Revolutionary and Imperial Paris (Baltimore, Md.: John Hopkins University Press, 1993), p. 373.
17. Peter Hutchin, "History of Blood Transfusion: A Tercentennial Look," Surgery 64, no. 3 (September, 1968): 685-700. See also Pauline M. Mazumdar, Essays on the History of Immunology, 1930-1980 (Toronto, Ontario: Wall and Thompson, 1989) and Pauline M. Mazumdar, Species and Specificity: An Interpretation of the History of Immunology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
18. Peter Hutchin, "History of Blood Transfusion: A Tercentennial Look," Surgery 64, no. 3 (September, 1968): 685-700. See also Pauline M. Mazumdar, Essays on the History of Immunology, 1930-1980 (Toronto, Ontario: Wall and Thompson, 1989) and Pauline M. Mazumdar, Species and Specificity: An Interpretation of the History of Immunology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
19. Peter Hutchin, "History of Blood Transfusion: A Tercentennial Look," Surgery 64, no. 3 (September, 1968): 685-700. See also Pauline M. Mazumdar, Essays on the History of Immunology, 1930-1980 (Toronto, Ontario: Wall and Thompson, 1989) and Pauline M. Mazumdar, Species and Specificity: An Interpretation of the History of Immunology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
20. Beginning references for traditional history of blood accounts include Maxwell M. Wintrobe, Blood, Pure and Eloquent: A Story of Discovery, of People, and of Ideas (Toronto, Ontario: McGraw-Hill, 1980); William H. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion in Peace and War, 1900-1918," Social History of Medicine 10, no. 1 (April 1997): 105-26; Geoffrey Keynes, ed., Blood Transfusion (London: Simpkin Marshall, 1949); Camille Dreyfus, Some Milestones in the History of Hematology (New York: Grune and Stratton, 1957); John Boyd Coates and Elizabeth M. McFetridge, eds., Blood Program in World War II (Washington, DC.: Office of the Surgeon General Department of the Army, 1964); C. C. Bowley, K. L. G. Goldsmith, and W. Maycock, ed., Blood Transfusion: A Guide to the Formation and Operation of a Transfusion Service (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1971); George Milles, Hiram T. Langston, and William Dalessandro, Autologous Transfusions (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1971); Richard K. Spence, et al., "Transfusion and Surgery," Current Problems in Surgery 30, no. 12 (December 1993): 1103-71; and Norman Miles Guiou, Transfusion: A Canadian Surgeon's Story in War and in Peace (Yarmouth, Nova Scotia: Stoneycroft Publishers, 1985).
21. Beginning references for traditional history of blood accounts include Maxwell M. Wintrobe, Blood, Pure and Eloquent: A Story of Discovery, of People, and of Ideas (Toronto, Ontario: McGraw-Hill, 1980); William H. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion in Peace and War, 1900-1918," Social History of Medicine 10, no. 1 (April 1997): 105-26; Geoffrey Keynes, ed., Blood Transfusion (London: Simpkin Marshall, 1949); Camille Dreyfus, Some Milestones in the History of Hematology (New York: Grune and Stratton, 1957); John Boyd Coates and Elizabeth M. McFetridge, eds., Blood Program in World War II (Washington, DC.: Office of the Surgeon General Department of the Army, 1964); C. C. Bowley, K. L. G. Goldsmith, and W. Maycock, ed., Blood Transfusion: A Guide to the Formation and Operation of a Transfusion Service (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1971); George Milles, Hiram T. Langston, and William Dalessandro, Autologous Transfusions (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1971); Richard K. Spence, et al., "Transfusion and Surgery," Current Problems in Surgery 30, no. 12 (December 1993): 1103-71; and Norman Miles Guiou, Transfusion: A Canadian Surgeon's Story in War and in Peace (Yarmouth, Nova Scotia: Stoneycroft Publishers, 1985).
22. Beginning references for traditional history of blood accounts include Maxwell M. Wintrobe, Blood, Pure and Eloquent: A Story of Discovery, of People, and of Ideas (Toronto, Ontario: McGraw-Hill, 1980); William H. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion in Peace and War, 1900-1918," Social History of Medicine 10, no. 1 (April 1997): 105-26; Geoffrey Keynes, ed., Blood Transfusion (London: Simpkin Marshall, 1949); Camille Dreyfus, Some Milestones in the History of Hematology (New York: Grune and Stratton, 1957); John Boyd Coates and Elizabeth M. McFetridge, eds., Blood Program in World War II (Washington, DC.: Office of the Surgeon General Department of the Army, 1964); C. C. Bowley, K. L. G. Goldsmith, and W. Maycock, ed., Blood Transfusion: A Guide to the Formation and Operation of a Transfusion Service (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1971); George Milles, Hiram T. Langston, and William Dalessandro, Autologous Transfusions (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1971); Richard K. Spence, et al., "Transfusion and Surgery," Current Problems in Surgery 30, no. 12 (December 1993): 1103-71; and Norman Miles Guiou, Transfusion: A Canadian Surgeon's Story in War and in Peace (Yarmouth, Nova Scotia: Stoneycroft Publishers, 1985).
23. Beginning references for traditional history of blood accounts include Maxwell M. Wintrobe, Blood, Pure and Eloquent: A Story of Discovery, of People, and of Ideas (Toronto, Ontario: McGraw-Hill, 1980); William H. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion in Peace and War, 1900-1918," Social History of Medicine 10, no. 1 (April 1997): 105-26; Geoffrey Keynes, ed., Blood Transfusion (London: Simpkin Marshall, 1949); Camille Dreyfus, Some Milestones in the History of Hematology (New York: Grune and Stratton, 1957); John Boyd Coates and Elizabeth M. McFetridge, eds., Blood Program in World War II (Washington, DC.: Office of the Surgeon General Department of the Army, 1964); C. C. Bowley, K. L. G. Goldsmith, and W. Maycock, ed., Blood Transfusion: A Guide to the Formation and Operation of a Transfusion Service (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1971); George Milles, Hiram T. Langston, and William Dalessandro, Autologous Transfusions (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1971); Richard K. Spence, et al., "Transfusion and Surgery," Current Problems in Surgery 30, no. 12 (December 1993): 1103-71; and Norman Miles Guiou, Transfusion: A Canadian Surgeon's Story in War and in Peace (Yarmouth, Nova Scotia: Stoneycroft Publishers, 1985).
24. Beginning references for traditional history of blood accounts include Maxwell M. Wintrobe, Blood, Pure and Eloquent: A Story of Discovery, of People, and of Ideas (Toronto, Ontario: McGraw-Hill, 1980); William H. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion in Peace and War, 1900-1918," Social History of Medicine 10, no. 1 (April 1997): 105-26; Geoffrey Keynes, ed., Blood Transfusion (London: Simpkin Marshall, 1949); Camille Dreyfus, Some Milestones in the History of Hematology (New York: Grune and Stratton, 1957); John Boyd Coates and Elizabeth M. McFetridge, eds., Blood Program in World War II (Washington, DC.: Office of the Surgeon General Department of the Army, 1964); C. C. Bowley, K. L. G. Goldsmith, and W. Maycock, ed., Blood Transfusion: A Guide to the Formation and Operation of a Transfusion Service (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1971); George Milles, Hiram T. Langston, and William Dalessandro, Autologous Transfusions (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1971); Richard K. Spence, et al., "Transfusion and Surgery," Current Problems in Surgery 30, no. 12 (December 1993): 1103-71; and Norman Miles Guiou, Transfusion: A Canadian Surgeon's Story in War and in Peace (Yarmouth, Nova Scotia: Stoneycroft Publishers, 1985).
25. Beginning references for traditional history of blood accounts include Maxwell M. Wintrobe, Blood, Pure and Eloquent: A Story of Discovery, of People, and of Ideas (Toronto, Ontario: McGraw-Hill, 1980); William H. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion in Peace and War, 1900-1918," Social History of Medicine 10, no. 1 (April 1997): 105-26; Geoffrey Keynes, ed., Blood Transfusion (London: Simpkin Marshall, 1949); Camille Dreyfus, Some Milestones in the History of Hematology (New York: Grune and Stratton, 1957); John Boyd Coates and Elizabeth M. McFetridge, eds., Blood Program in World War II (Washington, DC.: Office of the Surgeon General Department of the Army, 1964); C. C. Bowley, K. L. G. Goldsmith, and W. Maycock, ed., Blood Transfusion: A Guide to the Formation and Operation of a Transfusion Service (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1971); George Milles, Hiram T. Langston, and William Dalessandro, Autologous Transfusions (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1971); Richard K. Spence, et al., "Transfusion and Surgery," Current Problems in Surgery 30, no. 12 (December 1993): 1103-71; and Norman Miles Guiou, Transfusion: A Canadian Surgeon's Story in War and in Peace (Yarmouth, Nova Scotia: Stoneycroft Publishers, 1985).
26. Beginning references for traditional history of blood accounts include Maxwell M. Wintrobe, Blood, Pure and Eloquent: A Story of Discovery, of People, and of Ideas (Toronto, Ontario: McGraw-Hill, 1980); William H. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion in Peace and War, 1900-1918," Social History of Medicine 10, no. 1 (April 1997): 105-26; Geoffrey Keynes, ed., Blood Transfusion (London: Simpkin Marshall, 1949); Camille Dreyfus, Some Milestones in the History of Hematology (New York: Grune and Stratton, 1957); John Boyd Coates and Elizabeth M. McFetridge, eds., Blood Program in World War II (Washington, DC.: Office of the Surgeon General Department of the Army, 1964); C. C. Bowley, K. L. G. Goldsmith, and W. Maycock, ed., Blood Transfusion: A Guide to the Formation and Operation of a Transfusion Service (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1971); George Milles, Hiram T. Langston, and William Dalessandro, Autologous Transfusions (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1971); Richard K. Spence, et al., "Transfusion and Surgery," Current Problems in Surgery 30, no. 12 (December 1993): 1103-71; and Norman Miles Guiou, Transfusion: A Canadian Surgeon's Story in War and in Peace (Yarmouth, Nova Scotia: Stoneycroft Publishers, 1985).
27. Beginning references for traditional history of blood accounts include Maxwell M. Wintrobe, Blood, Pure and Eloquent: A Story of Discovery, of People, and of Ideas (Toronto, Ontario: McGraw-Hill, 1980); William H. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion in Peace and War, 1900-1918," Social History of Medicine 10, no. 1 (April 1997): 105-26; Geoffrey Keynes, ed., Blood Transfusion (London: Simpkin Marshall, 1949); Camille Dreyfus, Some Milestones in the History of Hematology (New York: Grune and Stratton, 1957); John Boyd Coates and Elizabeth M. McFetridge, eds., Blood Program in World War II (Washington, DC.: Office of the Surgeon General Department of the Army, 1964); C. C. Bowley, K. L. G. Goldsmith, and W. Maycock, ed., Blood Transfusion: A Guide to the Formation and Operation of a Transfusion Service (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1971); George Milles, Hiram T. Langston, and William Dalessandro, Autologous Transfusions (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1971); Richard K. Spence, et al., "Transfusion and Surgery," Current Problems in Surgery 30, no. 12 (December 1993): 1103-71; and Norman Miles Guiou, Transfusion: A Canadian Surgeon's Story in War and in Peace (Yarmouth, Nova Scotia: Stoneycroft Publishers, 1985).
28. Beginning references for traditional history of blood accounts include Maxwell M. Wintrobe, Blood, Pure and Eloquent: A Story of Discovery, of People, and of Ideas (Toronto, Ontario: McGraw-Hill, 1980); William H. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion in Peace and War, 1900-1918," Social History of Medicine 10, no. 1 (April 1997): 105-26; Geoffrey Keynes, ed., Blood Transfusion (London: Simpkin Marshall, 1949); Camille Dreyfus, Some Milestones in the History of Hematology (New York: Grune and Stratton, 1957); John Boyd Coates and Elizabeth M. McFetridge, eds., Blood Program in World War II (Washington, DC.: Office of the Surgeon General Department of the Army, 1964); C. C. Bowley, K. L. G. Goldsmith, and W. Maycock, ed., Blood Transfusion: A Guide to the Formation and Operation of a Transfusion Service (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1971); George Milles, Hiram T. Langston, and William Dalessandro, Autologous Transfusions (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1971); Richard K. Spence, et al., "Transfusion and Surgery," Current Problems in Surgery 30, no. 12 (December 1993): 1103-71; and Norman Miles Guiou, Transfusion: A Canadian Surgeon's Story in War and in Peace (Yarmouth, Nova Scotia: Stoneycroft Publishers, 1985).
29. Guiou, Transfusion; Richard W. Kapp, "Charles H. Best, the Canadian Red Cross Society, and Canada's First National Blood Donation Program," Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 12, no. 1 (1995): 27-46; William H. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion in Peace and War, 1900-1918," Social History of Medicine 10, no. 1 (April 1997): 105-26.
30. Guiou, Transfusion; Richard W. Kapp, "Charles H. Best, the Canadian Red Cross Society, and Canada's First National Blood Donation Program," Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 12, no. 1 (1995): 27-46; William H. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion in Peace and War, 1900-1918," Social History of Medicine 10, no. 1 (April 1997): 105-26.
31. Guiou, Transfusion; Richard W. Kapp, "Charles H. Best, the Canadian Red Cross Society, and Canada's First National Blood Donation Program," Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 12, no. 1 (1995): 27-46; William H. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion in Peace and War, 1900-1918," Social History of Medicine 10, no. 1 (April 1997): 105-26.
32. Guiou, Transfusion, 90-95; and H. J. G. Geggie, The Extra Mile: Medicine in Rural Quebec, 1885-1965, ed. Norma Geggie and Stuart Geggie (1987): 107-9.
33. Guiou, Transfusion, 90-95; and H. J. G. Geggie, The Extra Mile: Medicine in Rural Quebec, 1885-1965, ed. Norma Geggie and Stuart Geggie (1987): 107-9.
34. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion" ; Guiou, Transfusion. W. Stuart Stanbury conducted a national survey on the state of hospital blood banks which he summarized in A National Blood Transfusion Service: What it Means to You, (radio address and monograph of the Canadian Red Cross Society, January 25, 1949); G. Harvey Agnew, Canadian Hospitals, 1920-1970: A Dramatic Half Century (Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 1974); Guiou, Transfusion; Kapp, "Charles H. Best." "Civic Hospital May Supply Blood Free," Mary Lamb Collection, OCH School of Nursing Files, Box 30, City of Ottawa Archives, Canada (hereafter referred to as COA). Refer also to the memo from Dr. W. Douglas Piercey (superintendent of the OCH), "Schedule of Fees and Services: Blood Bank Policy," COA, MG 38, box 10, p. 2. Letter from the Canadian Red Cross (CRC) to the Ottawa Civic Hospital (OCH) on 20 December 1947, contained in the files of the Finance and Properties Committee, COA, MG 38, box 10, file 38-1 -3-11. E. H. A., Watson, History Ontario Red Cross, 1914-1946 (Toronto, Ontario: Division Headquarters, n.d.); Kapp, "Charles H. Best," 3; Guiou, Transfusion, 98-101.The HAR,1940, OCHA, contains a note of thanks to James Potter for blood donated free to patients in the public wards. A scrapbook of newspaper clippings and photos was maintained by Mary Lamb, one of the early graduates of the school of nursing at OCH. Among these clippings are "Start DVA Blood Bank," Ottawa Journal, 18 April 1957, in which members of the Ottawa and District Branch of the DVA Employees Association are pictured during donation, an entry simply dated 1951, in which Willis Kuhns is pictured after a donation for the Employees' Blood Bank at the OCH; and "Civic Hospital May Supply Blood Free," (source unidentified)1958, which contains a description of how the volunteer blood banks work. Mary Lamb Collection, COA, Box 30.
35. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion" ; Guiou, Transfusion. W. Stuart Stanbury conducted a national survey on the state of hospital blood banks which he summarized in A National Blood Transfusion Service: What it Means to You, (radio address and monograph of the Canadian Red Cross Society, January 25, 1949); G. Harvey Agnew, Canadian Hospitals, 1920-1970: A Dramatic Half Century (Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 1974); Guiou, Transfusion; Kapp, "Charles H. Best." "Civic Hospital May Supply Blood Free," Mary Lamb Collection, OCH School of Nursing Files, Box 30, City of Ottawa Archives, Canada (hereafter referred to as COA). Refer also to the memo from Dr. W. Douglas Piercey (superintendent of the OCH), "Schedule of Fees and Services: Blood Bank Policy," COA, MG 38, box 10, p. 2. Letter from the Canadian Red Cross (CRC) to the Ottawa Civic Hospital (OCH) on 20 December 1947, contained in the files of the Finance and Properties Committee, COA, MG 38, box 10, file 38-1 -3-11. E. H. A., Watson, History Ontario Red Cross, 1914-1946 (Toronto, Ontario: Division Headquarters, n.d.); Kapp, "Charles H. Best," 3; Guiou, Transfusion, 98-101.The HAR,1940, OCHA, contains a note of thanks to James Potter for blood donated free to patients in the public wards. A scrapbook of newspaper clippings and photos was maintained by Mary Lamb, one of the early graduates of the school of nursing at OCH. Among these clippings are "Start DVA Blood Bank," Ottawa Journal, 18 April 1957, in which members of the Ottawa and District Branch of the DVA Employees Association are pictured during donation, an entry simply dated 1951, in which Willis Kuhns is pictured after a donation for the Employees' Blood Bank at the OCH; and "Civic Hospital May Supply Blood Free," (source unidentified)1958, which contains a description of how the volunteer blood banks work. Mary Lamb Collection, COA, Box 30.
36. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion" ; Guiou, Transfusion. W. Stuart Stanbury conducted a national survey on the state of hospital blood banks which he summarized in A National Blood Transfusion Service: What it Means to You, (radio address and monograph of the Canadian Red Cross Society, January 25, 1949); G. Harvey Agnew, Canadian Hospitals, 1920-1970: A Dramatic Half Century (Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 1974); Guiou, Transfusion; Kapp, "Charles H. Best." "Civic Hospital May Supply Blood Free," Mary Lamb Collection, OCH School of Nursing Files, Box 30, City of Ottawa Archives, Canada (hereafter referred to as COA). Refer also to the memo from Dr. W. Douglas Piercey (superintendent of the OCH), "Schedule of Fees and Services: Blood Bank Policy," COA, MG 38, box 10, p. 2. Letter from the Canadian Red Cross (CRC) to the Ottawa Civic Hospital (OCH) on 20 December 1947, contained in the files of the Finance and Properties Committee, COA, MG 38, box 10, file 38-1 -3-11. E. H. A., Watson, History Ontario Red Cross, 1914-1946 (Toronto, Ontario: Division Headquarters, n.d.); Kapp, "Charles H. Best," 3; Guiou, Transfusion, 98-101.The HAR,1940, OCHA, contains a note of thanks to James Potter for blood donated free to patients in the public wards. A scrapbook of newspaper clippings and photos was maintained by Mary Lamb, one of the early graduates of the school of nursing at OCH. Among these clippings are "Start DVA Blood Bank," Ottawa Journal, 18 April 1957, in which members of the Ottawa and District Branch of the DVA Employees Association are pictured during donation, an entry simply dated 1951, in which Willis Kuhns is pictured after a donation for the Employees' Blood Bank at the OCH; and "Civic Hospital May Supply Blood Free," (source unidentified)1958, which contains a description of how the volunteer blood banks work. Mary Lamb Collection, COA, Box 30.
37. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion" ; Guiou, Transfusion. W. Stuart Stanbury conducted a national survey on the state of hospital blood banks which he summarized in A National Blood Transfusion Service: What it Means to You, (radio address and monograph of the Canadian Red Cross Society, January 25, 1949); G. Harvey Agnew, Canadian Hospitals, 1920-1970: A Dramatic Half Century (Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 1974); Guiou, Transfusion; Kapp, "Charles H. Best." "Civic Hospital May Supply Blood Free," Mary Lamb Collection, OCH School of Nursing Files, Box 30, City of Ottawa Archives, Canada (hereafter referred to as COA). Refer also to the memo from Dr. W. Douglas Piercey (superintendent of the OCH), "Schedule of Fees and Services: Blood Bank Policy," COA, MG 38, box 10, p. 2. Letter from the Canadian Red Cross (CRC) to the Ottawa Civic Hospital (OCH) on 20 December 1947, contained in the files of the Finance and Properties Committee, COA, MG 38, box 10, file 38-1 -3-11. E. H. A., Watson, History Ontario Red Cross, 1914-1946 (Toronto, Ontario: Division Headquarters, n.d.); Kapp, "Charles H. Best," 3; Guiou, Transfusion, 98-101.The HAR,1940, OCHA, contains a note of thanks to James Potter for blood donated free to patients in the public wards. A scrapbook of newspaper clippings and photos was maintained by Mary Lamb, one of the early graduates of the school of nursing at OCH. Among these clippings are "Start DVA Blood Bank," Ottawa Journal, 18 April 1957, in which members of the Ottawa and District Branch of the DVA Employees Association are pictured during donation, an entry simply dated 1951, in which Willis Kuhns is pictured after a donation for the Employees' Blood Bank at the OCH; and "Civic Hospital May Supply Blood Free," (source unidentified)1958, which contains a description of how the volunteer blood banks work. Mary Lamb Collection, COA, Box 30.
38. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion" ; Guiou, Transfusion. W. Stuart Stanbury conducted a national survey on the state of hospital blood banks which he summarized in A National Blood Transfusion Service: What it Means to You, (radio address and monograph of the Canadian Red Cross Society, January 25, 1949); G. Harvey Agnew, Canadian Hospitals, 1920-1970: A Dramatic Half Century (Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 1974); Guiou, Transfusion; Kapp, "Charles H. Best." "Civic Hospital May Supply Blood Free," Mary Lamb Collection, OCH School of Nursing Files, Box 30, City of Ottawa Archives, Canada (hereafter referred to as COA). Refer also to the memo from Dr. W. Douglas Piercey (superintendent of the OCH), "Schedule of Fees and Services: Blood Bank Policy," COA, MG 38, box 10, p. 2. Letter from the Canadian Red Cross (CRC) to the Ottawa Civic Hospital (OCH) on 20 December 1947, contained in the files of the Finance and Properties Committee, COA, MG 38, box 10, file 38-1 -3-11. E. H. A., Watson, History Ontario Red Cross, 1914-1946 (Toronto, Ontario: Division Headquarters, n.d.); Kapp, "Charles H. Best," 3; Guiou, Transfusion, 98-101.The HAR,1940, OCHA, contains a note of thanks to James Potter for blood donated free to patients in the public wards. A scrapbook of newspaper clippings and photos was maintained by Mary Lamb, one of the early graduates of the school of nursing at OCH. Among these clippings are "Start DVA Blood Bank," Ottawa Journal, 18 April 1957, in which members of the Ottawa and District Branch of the DVA Employees Association are pictured during donation, an entry simply dated 1951, in which Willis Kuhns is pictured after a donation for the Employees' Blood Bank at the OCH; and "Civic Hospital May Supply Blood Free," (source unidentified)1958, which contains a description of how the volunteer blood banks work. Mary Lamb Collection, COA, Box 30.
39. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion" ; Guiou, Transfusion. W. Stuart Stanbury conducted a national survey on the state of hospital blood banks which he summarized in A National Blood Transfusion Service: What it Means to You, (radio address and monograph of the Canadian Red Cross Society, January 25, 1949); G. Harvey Agnew, Canadian Hospitals, 1920-1970: A Dramatic Half Century (Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 1974); Guiou, Transfusion; Kapp, "Charles H. Best." "Civic Hospital May Supply Blood Free," Mary Lamb Collection, OCH School of Nursing Files, Box 30, City of Ottawa Archives, Canada (hereafter referred to as COA). Refer also to the memo from Dr. W. Douglas Piercey (superintendent of the OCH), "Schedule of Fees and Services: Blood Bank Policy," COA, MG 38, box 10, p. 2. Letter from the Canadian Red Cross (CRC) to the Ottawa Civic Hospital (OCH) on 20 December 1947, contained in the files of the Finance and Properties Committee, COA, MG 38, box 10, file 38-1 -3-11. E. H. A., Watson, History Ontario Red Cross, 1914-1946 (Toronto, Ontario: Division Headquarters, n.d.); Kapp, "Charles H. Best," 3; Guiou, Transfusion, 98-101.The HAR,1940, OCHA, contains a note of thanks to James Potter for blood donated free to patients in the public wards. A scrapbook of newspaper clippings and photos was maintained by Mary Lamb, one of the early graduates of the school of nursing at OCH. Among these clippings are "Start DVA Blood Bank," Ottawa Journal, 18 April 1957, in which members of the Ottawa and District Branch of the DVA Employees Association are pictured during donation, an entry simply dated 1951, in which Willis Kuhns is pictured after a donation for the Employees' Blood Bank at the OCH; and "Civic Hospital May Supply Blood Free," (source unidentified)1958, which contains a description of how the volunteer blood banks work. Mary Lamb Collection, COA, Box 30.
40. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion" ; Guiou, Transfusion. W. Stuart Stanbury conducted a national survey on the state of hospital blood banks which he summarized in A National Blood Transfusion Service: What it Means to You, (radio address and monograph of the Canadian Red Cross Society, January 25, 1949); G. Harvey Agnew, Canadian Hospitals, 1920-1970: A Dramatic Half Century (Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 1974); Guiou, Transfusion; Kapp, "Charles H. Best." "Civic Hospital May Supply Blood Free," Mary Lamb Collection, OCH School of Nursing Files, Box 30, City of Ottawa Archives, Canada (hereafter referred to as COA). Refer also to the memo from Dr. W. Douglas Piercey (superintendent of the OCH), "Schedule of Fees and Services: Blood Bank Policy," COA, MG 38, box 10, p. 2. Letter from the Canadian Red Cross (CRC) to the Ottawa Civic Hospital (OCH) on 20 December 1947, contained in the files of the Finance and Properties Committee, COA, MG 38, box 10, file 38-1 -3-11. E. H. A., Watson, History Ontario Red Cross, 1914-1946 (Toronto, Ontario: Division Headquarters, n.d.); Kapp, "Charles H. Best," 3; Guiou, Transfusion, 98-101.The HAR,1940, OCHA, contains a note of thanks to James Potter for blood donated free to patients in the public wards. A scrapbook of newspaper clippings and photos was maintained by Mary Lamb, one of the early graduates of the school of nursing at OCH. Among these clippings are "Start DVA Blood Bank," Ottawa Journal, 18 April 1957, in which members of the Ottawa and District Branch of the DVA Employees Association are pictured during donation, an entry simply dated 1951, in which Willis Kuhns is pictured after a donation for the Employees' Blood Bank at the OCH; and "Civic Hospital May Supply Blood Free," (source unidentified)1958, which contains a description of how the volunteer blood banks work. Mary Lamb Collection, COA, Box 30.
41. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion" ; Guiou, Transfusion. W. Stuart Stanbury conducted a national survey on the state of hospital blood banks which he summarized in A National Blood Transfusion Service: What it Means to You, (radio address and monograph of the Canadian Red Cross Society, January 25, 1949); G. Harvey Agnew, Canadian Hospitals, 1920-1970: A Dramatic Half Century (Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 1974); Guiou, Transfusion; Kapp, "Charles H. Best." "Civic Hospital May Supply Blood Free," Mary Lamb Collection, OCH School of Nursing Files, Box 30, City of Ottawa Archives, Canada (hereafter referred to as COA). Refer also to the memo from Dr. W. Douglas Piercey (superintendent of the OCH), "Schedule of Fees and Services: Blood Bank Policy," COA, MG 38, box 10, p. 2. Letter from the Canadian Red Cross (CRC) to the Ottawa Civic Hospital (OCH) on 20 December 1947, contained in the files of the Finance and Properties Committee, COA, MG 38, box 10, file 38-1 -3-11. E. H. A., Watson, History Ontario Red Cross, 1914-1946 (Toronto, Ontario: Division Headquarters, n.d.); Kapp, "Charles H. Best," 3; Guiou, Transfusion, 98-101.The HAR,1940, OCHA, contains a note of thanks to James Potter for blood donated free to patients in the public wards. A scrapbook of newspaper clippings and photos was maintained by Mary Lamb, one of the early graduates of the school of nursing at OCH. Among these clippings are "Start DVA Blood Bank," Ottawa Journal, 18 April 1957, in which members of the Ottawa and District Branch of the DVA Employees Association are pictured during donation, an entry simply dated 1951, in which Willis Kuhns is pictured after a donation for the Employees' Blood Bank at the OCH; and "Civic Hospital May Supply Blood Free," (source unidentified)1958, which contains a description of how the volunteer blood banks work. Mary Lamb Collection, COA, Box 30.
42. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion" ; Guiou, Transfusion. W. Stuart Stanbury conducted a national survey on the state of hospital blood banks which he summarized in A National Blood Transfusion Service: What it Means to You, (radio address and monograph of the Canadian Red Cross Society, January 25, 1949); G. Harvey Agnew, Canadian Hospitals, 1920-1970: A Dramatic Half Century (Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 1974); Guiou, Transfusion; Kapp, "Charles H. Best." "Civic Hospital May Supply Blood Free," Mary Lamb Collection, OCH School of Nursing Files, Box 30, City of Ottawa Archives, Canada (hereafter referred to as COA). Refer also to the memo from Dr. W. Douglas Piercey (superintendent of the OCH), "Schedule of Fees and Services: Blood Bank Policy," COA, MG 38, box 10, p. 2. Letter from the Canadian Red Cross (CRC) to the Ottawa Civic Hospital (OCH) on 20 December 1947, contained in the files of the Finance and Properties Committee, COA, MG 38, box 10, file 38-1 -3-11. E. H. A., Watson, History Ontario Red Cross, 1914-1946 (Toronto, Ontario: Division Headquarters, n.d.); Kapp, "Charles H. Best," 3; Guiou, Transfusion, 98-101.The HAR,1940, OCHA, contains a note of thanks to James Potter for blood donated free to patients in the public wards. A scrapbook of newspaper clippings and photos was maintained by Mary Lamb, one of the early graduates of the school of nursing at OCH. Among these clippings are "Start DVA Blood Bank," Ottawa Journal, 18 April 1957, in which members of the Ottawa and District Branch of the DVA Employees Association are pictured during donation, an entry simply dated 1951, in which Willis Kuhns is pictured after a donation for the Employees' Blood Bank at the OCH; and "Civic Hospital May Supply Blood Free," (source unidentified)1958, which contains a description of how the volunteer blood banks work. Mary Lamb Collection, COA, Box 30.
43. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion" ; Guiou, Transfusion. W. Stuart Stanbury conducted a national survey on the state of hospital blood banks which he summarized in A National Blood Transfusion Service: What it Means to You, (radio address and monograph of the Canadian Red Cross Society, January 25, 1949); G. Harvey Agnew, Canadian Hospitals, 1920-1970: A Dramatic Half Century (Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 1974); Guiou, Transfusion; Kapp, "Charles H. Best." "Civic Hospital May Supply Blood Free," Mary Lamb Collection, OCH School of Nursing Files, Box 30, City of Ottawa Archives, Canada (hereafter referred to as COA). Refer also to the memo from Dr. W. Douglas Piercey (superintendent of the OCH), "Schedule of Fees and Services: Blood Bank Policy," COA, MG 38, box 10, p. 2. Letter from the Canadian Red Cross (CRC) to the Ottawa Civic Hospital (OCH) on 20 December 1947, contained in the files of the Finance and Properties Committee, COA, MG 38, box 10, file 38-1 -3-11. E. H. A., Watson, History Ontario Red Cross, 1914-1946 (Toronto, Ontario: Division Headquarters, n.d.); Kapp, "Charles H. Best," 3; Guiou, Transfusion, 98-101.The HAR,1940, OCHA, contains a note of thanks to James Potter for blood donated free to patients in the public wards. A scrapbook of newspaper clippings and photos was maintained by Mary Lamb, one of the early graduates of the school of nursing at OCH. Among these clippings are "Start DVA Blood Bank," Ottawa Journal, 18 April 1957, in which members of the Ottawa and District Branch of the DVA Employees Association are pictured during donation, an entry simply dated 1951, in which Willis Kuhns is pictured after a donation for the Employees' Blood Bank at the OCH; and "Civic Hospital May Supply Blood Free," (source unidentified)1958, which contains a description of how the volunteer blood banks work. Mary Lamb Collection, COA, Box 30.
44. Schneider, "Blood Transfusion" ; Guiou, Transfusion. W. Stuart Stanbury conducted a national survey on the state of hospital blood banks which he summarized in A National Blood Transfusion Service: What it Means to You, (radio address and monograph of the Canadian Red Cross Society, January 25, 1949); G. Harvey Agnew, Canadian Hospitals, 1920-1970: A Dramatic Half Century (Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 1974); Guiou, Transfusion; Kapp, "Charles H. Best." "Civic Hospital May Supply Blood Free," Mary Lamb Collection, OCH School of Nursing Files, Box 30, City of Ottawa Archives, Canada (hereafter referred to as COA). Refer also to the memo from Dr. W. Douglas Piercey (superintendent of the OCH), "Schedule of Fees and Services: Blood Bank Policy," COA, MG 38, box 10, p. 2. Letter from the Canadian Red Cross (CRC) to the Ottawa Civic Hospital (OCH) on 20 December 1947, contained in the files of the Finance and Properties Committee, COA, MG 38, box 10, file 38-1 -3-11. E. H. A., Watson, History Ontario Red Cross, 1914-1946 (Toronto, Ontario: Division Headquarters, n.d.); Kapp, "Charles H. Best," 3; Guiou, Transfusion, 98-101.The HAR,1940, OCHA, contains a note of thanks to James Potter for blood donated free to patients in the public wards. A scrapbook of newspaper clippings and photos was maintained by Mary Lamb, one of the early graduates of the school of nursing at OCH. Among these clippings are "Start DVA Blood Bank," Ottawa Journal, 18 April 1957, in which members of the Ottawa and District Branch of the DVA Employees Association are pictured during donation, an entry simply dated 1951, in which Willis Kuhns is pictured after a donation for the Employees' Blood Bank at the OCH; and "Civic Hospital May Supply Blood Free," (source unidentified)1958, which contains a description of how the volunteer blood banks work. Mary Lamb Collection, COA, Box 30.
45. Stanbury, A National Blood Transfusion Service; see also CCR Despatch 5, no. 7 (November, 1946). Letter from W. Stuart Stanbury to the Honourable Paul Martin, Minister of National Health and Welfare, 24 February 1951, National Archives, Ottawa, Ontario, RG 29, 20-C-4, vol. 4 (hereafter cited as NA). For more comprehensive discussions regarding the Canadian health care system, refer to C. David Naylor, Private Practice, Public Payment: Canadian Medicine and the Politics of Health Insurance, 1911-1966 (Kingston, Ontario: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1986); Malcolm G. Taylor, Health Insurance and Canadian Public Policy: The Seven Decisions That Created the Canadian Health Insurance System (Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1978); Jacalyn Duffin, "The Guru and the Godfather: Henry Sigerist, Hugh MacLean, and the Politics of Health Care Reform in 1940s Canada," Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 9 (1992): 191-218; and Juanne Nancarrow Clarke, Health, Illness, and Medicine in Canada, 2nd ed. (Toronto, Ontario: Oxford University Press, 1996).
46. Stanbury, A National Blood Transfusion Service; see also CCR Despatch 5, no. 7 (November, 1946). Letter from W. Stuart Stanbury to the Honourable Paul Martin, Minister of National Health and Welfare, 24 February 1951, National Archives, Ottawa, Ontario, RG 29, 20-C-4, vol. 4 (hereafter cited as NA). For more comprehensive discussions regarding the Canadian health care system, refer to C. David Naylor, Private Practice, Public Payment: Canadian Medicine and the Politics of Health Insurance, 1911-1966 (Kingston, Ontario: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1986); Malcolm G. Taylor, Health Insurance and Canadian Public Policy: The Seven Decisions That Created the Canadian Health Insurance System (Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1978); Jacalyn Duffin, "The Guru and the Godfather: Henry Sigerist, Hugh MacLean, and the Politics of Health Care Reform in 1940s Canada," Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 9 (1992): 191-218; and Juanne Nancarrow Clarke, Health, Illness, and Medicine in Canada, 2nd ed. (Toronto, Ontario: Oxford University Press, 1996).
47. Stanbury, A National Blood Transfusion Service; see also CCR Despatch 5, no. 7 (November, 1946). Letter from W. Stuart Stanbury to the Honourable Paul Martin, Minister of National Health and Welfare, 24 February 1951, National Archives, Ottawa, Ontario, RG 29, 20-C-4, vol. 4 (hereafter cited as NA). For more comprehensive discussions regarding the Canadian health care system, refer to C. David Naylor, Private Practice, Public Payment: Canadian Medicine and the Politics of Health Insurance, 1911-1966 (Kingston, Ontario: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1986); Malcolm G. Taylor, Health Insurance and Canadian Public Policy: The Seven Decisions That Created the Canadian Health Insurance System (Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1978); Jacalyn Duffin, "The Guru and the Godfather: Henry Sigerist, Hugh MacLean, and the Politics of Health Care Reform in 1940s Canada," Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 9 (1992): 191-218; and Juanne Nancarrow Clarke, Health, Illness, and Medicine in Canada, 2nd ed. (Toronto, Ontario: Oxford University Press, 1996).
48. Stanbury, A National Blood Transfusion Service; see also CCR Despatch 5, no. 7 (November, 1946). Letter from W. Stuart Stanbury to the Honourable Paul Martin, Minister of National Health and Welfare, 24 February 1951, National Archives, Ottawa, Ontario, RG 29, 20-C-4, vol. 4 (hereafter cited as NA). For more comprehensive discussions regarding the Canadian health care system, refer to C. David Naylor, Private Practice, Public Payment: Canadian Medicine and the Politics of Health Insurance, 1911-1966 (Kingston, Ontario: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1986); Malcolm G. Taylor, Health Insurance and Canadian Public Policy: The Seven Decisions That Created the Canadian Health Insurance System (Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1978); Jacalyn Duffin, "The Guru and the Godfather: Henry Sigerist, Hugh MacLean, and the Politics of Health Care Reform in 1940s Canada," Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 9 (1992): 191-218; and Juanne Nancarrow Clarke, Health, Illness, and Medicine in Canada, 2nd ed. (Toronto, Ontario: Oxford University Press, 1996).
49. Stanbury, A National Blood Transfusion Service; see also CCR Despatch 5, no. 7 (November, 1946). Letter from W. Stuart Stanbury to the Honourable Paul Martin, Minister of National Health and Welfare, 24 February 1951, National Archives, Ottawa, Ontario, RG 29, 20-C-4, vol. 4 (hereafter cited as NA). For more comprehensive discussions regarding the Canadian health care system, refer to C. David Naylor, Private Practice, Public Payment: Canadian Medicine and the Politics of Health Insurance, 1911-1966 (Kingston, Ontario: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1986); Malcolm G. Taylor, Health Insurance and Canadian Public Policy: The Seven Decisions That Created the Canadian Health Insurance System (Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1978); Jacalyn Duffin, "The Guru and the Godfather: Henry Sigerist, Hugh MacLean, and the Politics of Health Care Reform in 1940s Canada," Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 9 (1992): 191-218; and Juanne Nancarrow Clarke, Health, Illness, and Medicine in Canada, 2nd ed. (Toronto, Ontario: Oxford University Press, 1996).
50. Stanbury, A National Blood Transfusion Service; see also CCR Despatch 5, no. 7 (November, 1946). Letter from W. Stuart Stanbury to the Honourable Paul Martin, Minister of National Health and Welfare, 24 February 1951, National Archives, Ottawa, Ontario, RG 29, 20-C-4, vol. 4 (hereafter cited as NA). For more comprehensive discussions regarding the Canadian health care system, refer to C. David Naylor, Private Practice, Public Payment: Canadian Medicine and the Politics of Health Insurance, 1911-1966 (Kingston, Ontario: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1986); Malcolm G. Taylor, Health Insurance and Canadian Public Policy: The Seven Decisions That Created the Canadian Health Insurance System (Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1978); Jacalyn Duffin, "The Guru and the Godfather: Henry Sigerist, Hugh MacLean, and the Politics of Health Care Reform in 1940s Canada," Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 9 (1992): 191-218; and Juanne Nancarrow Clarke, Health, Illness, and Medicine in Canada, 2nd ed. (Toronto, Ontario: Oxford University Press, 1996).
51. Emergency Blood Transfusion, (Montreal, Quebec: National Film Board, 1970) filmstrip; Miracle Fluid, (Associated Screen Productions, 1950),filmstrip; Great Also in Peace: The Role of the Red Cross in Peace (Associated Screen Production, 1950), filmstrip. Each was produced in collaboration with Dr. W. Stuart Stanbury and the CRC, and is available from NA. Illustrations of the baby saving themes in the news media include: "Blood To Save Babies' Lives," The Toronto Star Weekly, 28 February 1948; Marjorie Earl, "Red Cross Scheme 'Can Save Rh Babies',The Toronto Telegram, 13 May 1949; and "Race Death With Rh Baby," The Toronto Telegram, 11 May 1949.
52. Emergency Blood Transfusion, (Montreal, Quebec: National Film Board, 1970) filmstrip; Miracle Fluid, (Associated Screen Productions, 1950),filmstrip; Great Also in Peace: The Role of the Red Cross in Peace (Associated Screen Production, 1950), filmstrip. Each was produced in collaboration with Dr. W. Stuart Stanbury and the CRC, and is available from NA. Illustrations of the baby saving themes in the news media include: "Blood To Save Babies' Lives," The Toronto Star Weekly, 28 February 1948; Marjorie Earl, "Red Cross Scheme 'Can Save Rh Babies',The Toronto Telegram, 13 May 1949; and "Race Death With Rh Baby," The Toronto Telegram, 11 May 1949.
53. Emergency Blood Transfusion, (Montreal, Quebec: National Film Board, 1970) filmstrip; Miracle Fluid, (Associated Screen Productions, 1950),filmstrip; Great Also in Peace: The Role of the Red Cross in Peace (Associated Screen Production, 1950), filmstrip. Each was produced in collaboration with Dr. W. Stuart Stanbury and the CRC, and is available from NA. Illustrations of the baby saving themes in the news media include: "Blood To Save Babies' Lives," The Toronto Star Weekly, 28 February 1948; Marjorie Earl, "Red Cross Scheme 'Can Save Rh Babies',The Toronto Telegram, 13 May 1949; and "Race Death With Rh Baby," The Toronto Telegram, 11 May 1949.
54. Emergency Blood Transfusion, (Montreal, Quebec: National Film Board, 1970) filmstrip; Miracle Fluid, (Associated Screen Productions, 1950),filmstrip; Great Also in Peace: The Role of the Red Cross in Peace (Associated Screen Production, 1950), filmstrip. Each was produced in collaboration with Dr. W. Stuart Stanbury and the CRC, and is available from NA. Illustrations of the baby saving themes in the news media include: "Blood To Save Babies' Lives," The Toronto Star Weekly, 28 February 1948; Marjorie Earl, "Red Cross Scheme 'Can Save Rh Babies',The Toronto Telegram, 13 May 1949; and "Race Death With Rh Baby," The Toronto Telegram, 11 May 1949.
55. Emergency Blood Transfusion, (Montreal, Quebec: National Film Board, 1970) filmstrip; Miracle Fluid, (Associated Screen Productions, 1950),filmstrip; Great Also in Peace: The Role of the Red Cross in Peace (Associated Screen Production, 1950), filmstrip. Each was produced in collaboration with Dr. W. Stuart Stanbury and the CRC, and is available from NA. Illustrations of the baby saving themes in the news media include: "Blood To Save Babies' Lives," The Toronto Star Weekly, 28 February 1948; Marjorie Earl, "Red Cross Scheme 'Can Save Rh Babies',The Toronto Telegram, 13 May 1949; and "Race Death With Rh Baby," The Toronto Telegram, 11 May 1949.
56. Emergency Blood Transfusion, (Montreal, Quebec: National Film Board, 1970) filmstrip; Miracle Fluid, (Associated Screen Productions, 1950),filmstrip; Great Also in Peace: The Role of the Red Cross in Peace (Associated Screen Production, 1950), filmstrip. Each was produced in collaboration with Dr. W. Stuart Stanbury and the CRC, and is available from NA. Illustrations of the baby saving themes in the news media include: "Blood To Save Babies' Lives," The Toronto Star Weekly, 28 February 1948; Marjorie Earl, "Red Cross Scheme 'Can Save Rh Babies',The Toronto Telegram, 13 May 1949; and "Race Death With Rh Baby," The Toronto Telegram, 11 May 1949.
57. HARs, 1924-1975, OCHA. Patricia Crossley, interview by author, audiotape, Ottawa, Ontario, 26 January 1998.
58. F. B. Bowman and Sidney Katz. "Three Blood Transfusions Out of Four are More Likely to Harm Than to Heal," Maclean's (26 August 1961): 19 (available from CRC Archives, Ottawa, Ontario); "Krever on Trail of Tainted Blood - 2," The Ottawa Citizen, 26 February 1996; and "Krever on Trail of Tainted Blood - 3," 27 February 1996; Michael Grange," Blood is 'Filthy,' Inquiry Told," The Globe and Mail (Toronto), 11 December 1996. Andrd Picard, The Gift of Death: Confronting Canada's Tainted Blood Tragedy (Toronto, Ontario: Harper Collins, 1995); and Crossley, interview.
59. F. B. Bowman and Sidney Katz. "Three Blood Transfusions Out of Four are More Likely to Harm Than to Heal," Maclean's (26 August 1961): 19 (available from CRC Archives, Ottawa, Ontario); "Krever on Trail of Tainted Blood - 2," The Ottawa Citizen, 26 February 1996; and "Krever on Trail of Tainted Blood - 3," 27 February 1996; Michael Grange," Blood is 'Filthy,' Inquiry Told," The Globe and Mail (Toronto), 11 December 1996. Andrd Picard, The Gift of Death: Confronting Canada's Tainted Blood Tragedy (Toronto, Ontario: Harper Collins, 1995); and Crossley, interview.
60. F. B. Bowman and Sidney Katz. "Three Blood Transfusions Out of Four are More Likely to Harm Than to Heal," Maclean's (26 August 1961): 19 (available from CRC Archives, Ottawa, Ontario); "Krever on Trail of Tainted Blood - 2," The Ottawa Citizen, 26 February 1996; and "Krever on Trail of Tainted Blood - 3," 27 February 1996; Michael Grange," Blood is 'Filthy,' Inquiry Told," The Globe and Mail (Toronto), 11 December 1996. Andrd Picard, The Gift of Death: Confronting Canada's Tainted Blood Tragedy (Toronto, Ontario: Harper Collins, 1995); and Crossley, interview.
61. F. B. Bowman and Sidney Katz. "Three Blood Transfusions Out of Four are More Likely to Harm Than to Heal," Maclean's (26 August 1961): 19 (available from CRC Archives, Ottawa, Ontario); "Krever on Trail of Tainted Blood - 2," The Ottawa Citizen, 26 February 1996; and "Krever on Trail of Tainted Blood - 3," 27 February 1996; Michael Grange," Blood is 'Filthy,' Inquiry Told," The Globe and Mail (Toronto), 11 December 1996. Andrd Picard, The Gift of Death: Confronting Canada's Tainted Blood Tragedy (Toronto, Ontario: Harper Collins, 1995); and Crossley, interview.
62. F. B. Bowman and Sidney Katz. "Three Blood Transfusions Out of Four are More Likely to Harm Than to Heal," Maclean's (26 August 1961): 19 (available from CRC Archives, Ottawa, Ontario); "Krever on Trail of Tainted Blood - 2," The Ottawa Citizen, 26 February 1996; and "Krever on Trail of Tainted Blood - 3," 27 February 1996; Michael Grange," Blood is 'Filthy,' Inquiry Told," The Globe and Mail (Toronto), 11 December 1996. Andrd Picard, The Gift of Death: Confronting Canada's Tainted Blood Tragedy (Toronto, Ontario: Harper Collins, 1995); and Crossley, interview.
63. Margaret Henricks, interview by author, audiotape, Ottawa, Ontario, 2 February 1998; Gwen Hefferman, interview by author, audiotape, Ottawa, Ontario, 29 January 1998; and Florence Kinsella, interview with author, audiotape Ottawa, Ontario, 24 February 1998. See also, Rita Maloney, "Technological Issues," in Canadian Nursing Faces the Future, 2nd ed., ed. Alice J. Baumgart and Jenniece Larsen (Toronto, Ontario: Mosby Year Book, 1992).
64. HARs, 1924-1975, OCHA.
65. Similarly, Margarete Sandelowski argues that when tasks were considered easy enough for nurses to perform them, the skill was degraded. She suggests delegation constituted an ideological device to maintain power over nurses. See both "Venous Envy: The Post-World War II Debate Over IV Nursing," Advances in Nursing Science 22, no.1 (1999): 52-62 and "The Physician's Eyes: American Nursing and the Diagnostic Revolution in Medicine," NHR 8 (2000): 3-38.
66. Similarly, Margarete Sandelowski argues that when tasks were considered easy enough for nurses to perform them, the skill was degraded. She suggests delegation constituted an ideological device to maintain power over nurses. See both "Venous Envy: The Post-World War II Debate Over IV Nursing," Advances in Nursing Science 22, no.1 (1999): 52-62 and "The Physician's Eyes: American Nursing and the Diagnostic Revolution in Medicine," NHR 8 (2000): 3-38.
67. One of the interview participants, Patricia Crossley, had a direct transfusion from her father when she was three years old. Guiou, Transfusion ; and Hutchin, "History of Blood Transfusion," 685-700.
68. One of the interview participants, Patricia Crossley, had a direct transfusion from her father when she was three years old. Guiou, Transfusion ; and Hutchin, "History of Blood Transfusion," 685-700.
69. Blood procedures such as this one were described in the procedure books used by students, educators, and staff at OCH. The earliest procedure book is simply noted as "in use prior to 1948," and with each revision over the ensuing years the procedures related to transfusion became more involved and lengthy, OCHA.
70. Milligan, interview.
71. Dr. H. William Henderson, "Delegation of Special Procedures: The Current Situation" (address to the Session for Chiefs of Staff, Ontario Hospital Association Convention, 1 December 1981), from the files of the College of Nurses of Ontario, Toronto.
72. Ibid., 3.
73. This material has been summarized from Henderson's "Delegation of Special Procedures." The Registered Nurses Association of Ontario (RNAO) disseminated current information on these acts through the RNAO News Bulletin, often with a focus on the self-protection strategies nurses should use when participating in delegation; See, for examples " Medical Procedures - Important New Notice," RNAO News Bulletin 18, no. 1 (January-February, 1962): 1; "Medical Procedures by Nurses," RNAO News Bulletin 21, no. 5 (September-October, 1965): 11.
74. This material has been summarized from Henderson's "Delegation of Special Procedures." The Registered Nurses Association of Ontario (RNAO) disseminated current information on these acts through the RNAO News Bulletin, often with a focus on the self-protection strategies nurses should use when participating in delegation; See, for examples " Medical Procedures - Important New Notice," RNAO News Bulletin 18, no. 1 (January-February, 1962): 1; "Medical Procedures by Nurses," RNAO News Bulletin 21, no. 5 (September-October, 1965): 11.
75. This material has been summarized from Henderson's "Delegation of Special Procedures." The Registered Nurses Association of Ontario (RNAO) disseminated current information on these acts through the RNAO News Bulletin, often with a focus on the self-protection strategies nurses should use when participating in delegation; See, for examples " Medical Procedures - Important New Notice," RNAO News Bulletin 18, no. 1 (January-February, 1962): 1; "Medical Procedures by Nurses," RNAO News Bulletin 21, no. 5 (September-October, 1965): 11.
76. Hefferman, interview; and Donna Martin, personal communication with author, Ottawa, Ontario, 1 April 1998.
77. Hefferman, interview; and Donna Martin, personal communication with author, Ottawa, Ontario, 1 April 1998.
78. Elizabeth Fenten, retired chief technologist of the OCH Blood Bank from 1943 to 1985, personal communication with author, 22 May 1998.
79. Strauss, et al., Social Organization, 268-272, The precipitating events were documented in two editorials of the Ottawa Citizen, 28 February 1949 and 4 March 1949. Three volumes of court evidence offer insight to the care received and concerns of these patients; refer to the files on "Judicial Inquiry, vol. 1-III," City of Ottawa Archives, Ontario, MG 38, vol. 36; and to the final report as "Civic Hospital," Minutes of the City Council, 2 August 1949, City of Ottawa Archives, Ontario, pp. 662-76.
80. Strauss, et al., Social Organization, 268-272, The precipitating events were documented in two editorials of the Ottawa Citizen, 28 February 1949 and 4 March 1949. Three volumes of court evidence offer insight to the care received and concerns of these patients; refer to the files on "Judicial Inquiry, vol. 1-III," City of Ottawa Archives, Ontario, MG 38, vol. 36; and to the final report as "Civic Hospital," Minutes of the City Council, 2 August 1949, City of Ottawa Archives, Ontario, pp. 662-76.
81. Strauss, et al., Social Organization, 268-272, The precipitating events were documented in two editorials of the Ottawa Citizen, 28 February 1949 and 4 March 1949. Three volumes of court evidence offer insight to the care received and concerns of these patients; refer to the files on "Judicial Inquiry, vol. 1-III," City of Ottawa Archives, Ontario, MG 38, vol. 36; and to the final report as "Civic Hospital," Minutes of the City Council, 2 August 1949, City of Ottawa Archives, Ontario, pp. 662-76.
82. Strauss, et al., Social Organization, 268-272, The precipitating events were documented in two editorials of the Ottawa Citizen, 28 February 1949 and 4 March 1949. Three volumes of court evidence offer insight to the care received and concerns of these patients; refer to the files on "Judicial Inquiry, vol. 1-III," City of Ottawa Archives, Ontario, MG 38, vol. 36; and to the final report as "Civic Hospital," Minutes of the City Council, 2 August 1949, City of Ottawa Archives, Ontario, pp. 662-76.
83. Strauss, et al., Social Organization, 268-272, The precipitating events were documented in two editorials of the Ottawa Citizen, 28 February 1949 and 4 March 1949. Three volumes of court evidence offer insight to the care received and concerns of these patients; refer to the files on "Judicial Inquiry, vol. 1-III," City of Ottawa Archives, Ontario, MG 38, vol. 36; and to the final report as "Civic Hospital," Minutes of the City Council, 2 August 1949, City of Ottawa Archives, Ontario, pp. 662-76.
84. Strauss, et al., Social Organization, 268-272, The precipitating events were documented in two editorials of the Ottawa Citizen, 28 February 1949 and 4 March 1949. Three volumes of court evidence offer insight to the care received and concerns of these patients; refer to the files on "Judicial Inquiry, vol. 1-III," City of Ottawa Archives, Ontario, MG 38, vol. 36; and to the final report as "Civic Hospital," Minutes of the City Council, 2 August 1949, City of Ottawa Archives, Ontario, pp. 662-76.
85. Crossley, interview; and Kathy Slattery, interview by author, tape recording, Ottawa, Ontario, 10 February 1998. These expectations and penalties were also described in the Henricks, interview; Kinsella, interview; and Crossley interview.
86. Crossley, interview; Henricks, interview; and Kinsella, interview.
87. Hefferman, interview, Slattery, interview.
88. Blood Transfusion Alternatives: What You Should Know, Monograph Series EPXSUR-9637 (North York, Ontario: Ortho Biotech, n.d.); "Bloodless Surgery," interviews by Joan Leishman, Sunday Morning Program, Canadian Broadcast Corporation, 17 November 1996; and Jean-Yves, Dupuis, "An Analysis of Transfusion Decision Making in Cardiac Surgery: Comparing Patients Who Predonated Autologous Blood to Matched Controls," (presentation at Loeb Research Institute, Ottawa, 21 February 1997).
89. Blood Transfusion Alternatives: What You Should Know, Monograph Series EPXSUR-9637 (North York, Ontario: Ortho Biotech, n.d.); "Bloodless Surgery," interviews by Joan Leishman, Sunday Morning Program, Canadian Broadcast Corporation, 17 November 1996; and Jean-Yves, Dupuis, "An Analysis of Transfusion Decision Making in Cardiac Surgery: Comparing Patients Who Predonated Autologous Blood to Matched Controls," (presentation at Loeb Research Institute, Ottawa, 21 February 1997).
90. Blood Transfusion Alternatives: What You Should Know, Monograph Series EPXSUR-9637 (North York, Ontario: Ortho Biotech, n.d.); "Bloodless Surgery," interviews by Joan Leishman, Sunday Morning Program, Canadian Broadcast Corporation, 17 November 1996; and Jean-Yves, Dupuis, "An Analysis of Transfusion Decision Making in Cardiac Surgery: Comparing Patients Who Predonated Autologous Blood to Matched Controls," (presentation at Loeb Research Institute, Ottawa, 21 February 1997).
91. Henricks, interview, and Personal experience of the author.
92. Results of a meta-analysis of the published professional literature on alternatives to blood transfusions from ten countries during the timeframe of 1966-1994, were presented by Ian Graham, "Bibliometric Analysis," (paper presented to the International Study of Perioperative Transfusion, [ISPOT],Ottawa, Ontario, 25 May 1996). Some 8707 articles were identified, and the data were analyzed for frequency by the blood technologies studied: autologous transfusions, cell savers, aprotinin, erythropoletin, desmopressin (DDAVP), and hemwilution. The number of documents remained fewer than ten per year from 1966 until 1986, when sharp rises in publication were noted in all ten countries. These increases continued through 1994. For example, in the United States alone, there were five documents in 1986, ten in 1987, twenty-four in 1988, thirty-five in 1989, and fifty-eight in 1990. Dupuis, "An Analysis of Transfusion" T. Gwynford Jones, personal communication with author, 12 April 1998; Hefferman interview.
93. Results of a meta-analysis of the published professional literature on alternatives to blood transfusions from ten countries during the timeframe of 1966-1994, were presented by Ian Graham, "Bibliometric Analysis," (paper presented to the International Study of Perioperative Transfusion, [ISPOT],Ottawa, Ontario, 25 May 1996). Some 8707 articles were identified, and the data were analyzed for frequency by the blood technologies studied: autologous transfusions, cell savers, aprotinin, erythropoletin, desmopressin (DDAVP), and hemwilution. The number of documents remained fewer than ten per year from 1966 until 1986, when sharp rises in publication were noted in all ten countries. These increases continued through 1994. For example, in the United States alone, there were five documents in 1986, ten in 1987, twenty-four in 1988, thirty-five in 1989, and fifty-eight in 1990. Dupuis, "An Analysis of Transfusion" T. Gwynford Jones, personal communication with author, 12 April 1998; Hefferman interview.
94. Results of a meta-analysis of the published professional literature on alternatives to blood transfusions from ten countries during the timeframe of 1966-1994, were presented by Ian Graham, "Bibliometric Analysis," (paper presented to the International Study of Perioperative Transfusion, [ISPOT],Ottawa, Ontario, 25 May 1996). Some 8707 articles were identified, and the data were analyzed for frequency by the blood technologies studied: autologous transfusions, cell savers, aprotinin, erythropoletin, desmopressin (DDAVP), and hemwilution. The number of documents remained fewer than ten per year from 1966 until 1986, when sharp rises in publication were noted in all ten countries. These increases continued through 1994. For example, in the United States alone, there were five documents in 1986, ten in 1987, twenty-four in 1988, thirty-five in 1989, and fifty-eight in 1990. Dupuis, "An Analysis of Transfusion" T. Gwynford Jones, personal communication with author, 12 April 1998; Hefferman interview.
95. Milligan, interview; Hefferman, interview; and Crossley interview described these technologies and the process of delegation, as parallels to transfusion, in the manner of transferral to nurses' domain. They are also described in the procedure manuals and in various minutes of the Medical Advisory Board, as physicians discussed what, when, and how to delegate each.
96. See photograph in Gulou's, Translation, 114. Photographs included in Guiou's Translation, were taken at the OCH by the National Film Board of Canada. One of these shows the nurse "being" the suction force to create a vacuum in the blood collection bottle. See also, photos in the CRC news bulletin, Despatch 5, no. 7 (November, 1946) and the description in Frances Brown, "A Blood Donor Service in Halifax," CN 38, no. 11 (1942): 872-74. The CRC produced an audiotape for circulation in Canada as part of a campaign for blood donations during World War II in which radio reporter Bill Herbert described his experience during an actual donation of his own blood. Part of the description elaborated on the process as the nurse provided the suction during the entire procedure. Refer to " Our Blood for Their Lives," narrated by Bill Herbert, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, Documentary Art and Photography Division, NA. Two student nurses were the blood donors in Helen Marie Caraher, "An Emergency Splenectomy," CN 37, no. 3 (1941): 185-86.
97. See photograph in Gulou's, Translation, 114. Photographs included in Guiou's Translation, were taken at the OCH by the National Film Board of Canada. One of these shows the nurse "being" the suction force to create a vacuum in the blood collection bottle. See also, photos in the CRC news bulletin, Despatch 5, no. 7 (November, 1946) and the description in Frances Brown, "A Blood Donor Service in Halifax," CN 38, no. 11 (1942): 872-74. The CRC produced an audiotape for circulation in Canada as part of a campaign for blood donations during World War II in which radio reporter Bill Herbert described his experience during an actual donation of his own blood. Part of the description elaborated on the process as the nurse provided the suction during the entire procedure. Refer to " Our Blood for Their Lives," narrated by Bill Herbert, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, Documentary Art and Photography Division, NA. Two student nurses were the blood donors in Helen Marie Caraher, "An Emergency Splenectomy," CN 37, no. 3 (1941): 185-86.
98. See photograph in Gulou's, Translation, 114. Photographs included in Guiou's Translation, were taken at the OCH by the National Film Board of Canada. One of these shows the nurse "being" the suction force to create a vacuum in the blood collection bottle. See also, photos in the CRC news bulletin, Despatch 5, no. 7 (November, 1946) and the description in Frances Brown, "A Blood Donor Service in Halifax," CN 38, no. 11 (1942): 872-74. The CRC produced an audiotape for circulation in Canada as part of a campaign for blood donations during World War II in which radio reporter Bill Herbert described his experience during an actual donation of his own blood. Part of the description elaborated on the process as the nurse provided the suction during the entire procedure. Refer to " Our Blood for Their Lives," narrated by Bill Herbert, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, Documentary Art and Photography Division, NA. Two student nurses were the blood donors in Helen Marie Caraher, "An Emergency Splenectomy," CN 37, no. 3 (1941): 185-86.
99. See photograph in Gulou's, Translation, 114. Photographs included in Guiou's Translation, were taken at the OCH by the National Film Board of Canada. One of these shows the nurse "being" the suction force to create a vacuum in the blood collection bottle. See also, photos in the CRC news bulletin, Despatch 5, no. 7 (November, 1946) and the description in Frances Brown, "A Blood Donor Service in Halifax," CN 38, no. 11 (1942): 872-74. The CRC produced an audiotape for circulation in Canada as part of a campaign for blood donations during World War II in which radio reporter Bill Herbert described his experience during an actual donation of his own blood. Part of the description elaborated on the process as the nurse provided the suction during the entire procedure. Refer to " Our Blood for Their Lives," narrated by Bill Herbert, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, Documentary Art and Photography Division, NA. Two student nurses were the blood donors in Helen Marie Caraher, "An Emergency Splenectomy," CN 37, no. 3 (1941): 185-86.
100. See photograph in Gulou's, Translation, 114. Photographs included in Guiou's Translation, were taken at the OCH by the National Film Board of Canada. One of these shows the nurse "being" the suction force to create a vacuum in the blood collection bottle. See also, photos in the CRC news bulletin, Despatch 5, no. 7 (November, 1946) and the description in Frances Brown, "A Blood Donor Service in Halifax," CN 38, no. 11 (1942): 872-74. The CRC produced an audiotape for circulation in Canada as part of a campaign for blood donations during World War II in which radio reporter Bill Herbert described his experience during an actual donation of his own blood. Part of the description elaborated on the process as the nurse provided the suction during the entire procedure. Refer to " Our Blood for Their Lives," narrated by Bill Herbert, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, Documentary Art and Photography Division, NA. Two student nurses were the blood donors in Helen Marie Caraher, "An Emergency Splenectomy," CN 37, no. 3 (1941): 185-86.
101. See photograph in Gulou's, Translation, 114. Photographs included in Guiou's Translation, were taken at the OCH by the National Film Board of Canada. One of these shows the nurse "being" the suction force to create a vacuum in the blood collection bottle. See also, photos in the CRC news bulletin, Despatch 5, no. 7 (November, 1946) and the description in Frances Brown, "A Blood Donor Service in Halifax," CN 38, no. 11 (1942): 872-74. The CRC produced an audiotape for circulation in Canada as part of a campaign for blood donations during World War II in which radio reporter Bill Herbert described his experience during an actual donation of his own blood. Part of the description elaborated on the process as the nurse provided the suction during the entire procedure. Refer to " Our Blood for Their Lives," narrated by Bill Herbert, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, Documentary Art and Photography Division, NA. Two student nurses were the blood donors in Helen Marie Caraher, "An Emergency Splenectomy," CN 37, no. 3 (1941): 185-86.
102. Crossley, interview.
103. Hefferman, interview. The technician was allowed greater discretion to 'needle' the transfusion line. This procedure involved using a syringe to clear a sluggish needle or tubing by flushing it with saline. Crossley, interview.
104. Milligan interview; and Slattery, interview.
105. W. Stuart Stanbury, "Gamma Globulin," CN 50, no. 6 (1954): 466; and loose poster collection, uncatalogued, CRC archives, Ottawa, Ontario.
106. Crossley, interview.
107. Ibid.
108. E. C. Hughes, The Sociological Eye (Chicago. Ill.: Aldine, 1971) as cited in Strauss et al., Social Organization, 246-51.
109. E. C. Hughes, The Sociological Eye (Chicago. Ill.: Aldine, 1971) as cited in Strauss et al., Social Organization, 246-51.
110. These statistics are constructed from the HARs, 1924-1973, OCHA.
111. E. Stanley Ryerson, "The Preparation of a Curriculum," CN, 25, no. 9 (1929): 535-40.
112. Hefferman, interview.
113. Henricks, interview.
114. Loose papers dated 1 March 1976 and contained in the SMA binder on delegated acts, OCHA. Letter from B. Jean Milligan to Shirley Kerr, 5 February 1975, OCHA.
115. Kathryn McPherson, Bedside Matters: The Transformation of Canadian Nursing, 1900-1990 (Toronto, Ontario: Oxford University Press,1996), and Milligan, interview.
116. A fuller understanding of immigration and racial construction in Canadian nursing contexts is needed. An important beginning point is Agnes Calliste, "Women of 'Exceptional Merit': Immigration of Caribbean Nurses to Canada," Canadian Journal of Women and the Law 6, no.1 (1993): 85-102; and Milligan interview.
117. Slattery, interview; Donna Martin, personal communication, 1 April 1998; and Katherine B. Knuckolls, "Who Decides What the Nurse Can Do?," Nursing Outlook 22 (1974): 627.
118. Slattery, interview; Donna Martin, personal communication, 1 April 1998; and Katherine B. Knuckolls, "Who Decides What the Nurse Can Do?," Nursing Outlook 22 (1974): 627.
119. Slattery, interview; Donna Martin, personal communication, 1 April 1998; and Katherine B. Knuckolls, "Who Decides What the Nurse Can Do?," Nursing Outlook 22 (1974): 627.
120. Wendy McKnight Nicklin, interview by author, audiotape, Ottawa, Ontario, 21 April 1998.