Superpresidentialism and political party development in Russia, Ukraine, Armenia and Kyrgyzstan

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 53, Issue 8, 2001, Pages 1177-1191

  Ishiyama, John T ^b   Kennedy, Ryan ^b  

^a TRUMAN STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ELECTORAL SYSTEM; PARTY POLITICS; POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT; POLITICAL SYSTEM;

ARMENIA; KYRGYZSTAN; RUSSIAN FEDERATION; UKRAINE;

EID: 0035202380     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09668130120093183     Document Type: Article

References (100)

1. Alexander Dallin (ed.), Political Parties in Russia (Berkeley, 1993); M. Steven Fish, Democracy from Scratch: Opposition and Regime in the New Russian Revolution (Princeton, 1995); Ian McAllister & Stephen White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations in Post-communist Russia', Party Politics, 1, 1, 1995, pp. 49-72; Stephen White, Matthew Wyman & Olga Kryshtanovskaya, 'Parties and Politics in Post-Communist Russia', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 25, 2, 1995, pp. 185-202. McAllister & White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations ...'; Richard Sakwa, 'The Development of the Russian Party System: Did the Elections Change Anything?', in Peter Lentini (ed.), Elections and the Political Order in Russia (London, 1995), pp. 169-201; Richard Sakwa, 'Parties and the Multiparty System in Russia', RFE/RL Research Report, 2, 28, 1993, pp. 7-15; Michael McFaul & Sergei Markov, The Troubled Birth of Russian Democracy: Parties, Personalities and Programs (Stanford, 1993); Michael McFaul & Nikolai Petrov (eds), Previewing Russia's 1995 Parliamentary Election (Moscow, 1995); M. Steven Fish, 'The Predicament of Russian Liberalism: Evidence from the December 1995 Parliamentary Elections', Europe-Asia Studies, 49, 2, 1997, pp. 191-220; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'New Russian Political Parties and the Transition to Democracy: the Case of Western Siberia', Government and Opposition, 30, 2, 1995, pp. 110-119; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Russian Political Parties and the "Bosses"', Party Politics, 3, 1, 1997, pp. 5-21; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Who Survives? Party Origins, Organizational Development and Electoral Performance in Post-Communist Russia',
2. Alexander Dallin (ed.), Political Parties in Russia (Berkeley, 1993); M. Steven Fish, Democracy from Scratch: Opposition and Regime in the New Russian Revolution (Princeton, 1995); Ian McAllister & Stephen White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations in Post-communist Russia', Party Politics, 1, 1, 1995, pp. 49-72; Stephen White, Matthew Wyman & Olga Kryshtanovskaya, 'Parties and Politics in Post-Communist Russia', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 25, 2, 1995, pp. 185-202. McAllister & White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations ...'; Richard Sakwa, 'The Development of the Russian Party System: Did the Elections Change Anything?', in Peter Lentini (ed.), Elections and the Political Order in Russia (London, 1995), pp. 169-201; Richard Sakwa, 'Parties and the Multiparty System in Russia', RFE/RL Research Report, 2, 28, 1993, pp. 7-15; Michael McFaul & Sergei Markov, The Troubled Birth of Russian Democracy: Parties, Personalities and Programs (Stanford, 1993); Michael McFaul & Nikolai Petrov (eds), Previewing Russia's 1995 Parliamentary Election (Moscow, 1995); M. Steven Fish, 'The Predicament of Russian Liberalism: Evidence from the December 1995 Parliamentary Elections', Europe-Asia Studies, 49, 2, 1997, pp. 191-220; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'New Russian Political Parties and the Transition to Democracy: the Case of Western Siberia', Government and Opposition, 30, 2, 1995, pp. 110-119; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Russian Political Parties and the "Bosses"', Party Politics, 3, 1, 1997, pp. 5-21; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Who Survives? Party Origins, Organizational Development and Electoral Performance in Post-Communist Russia',
3. Alexander Dallin (ed.), Political Parties in Russia (Berkeley, 1993); M. Steven Fish, Democracy from Scratch: Opposition and Regime in the New Russian Revolution (Princeton, 1995); Ian McAllister & Stephen White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations in Post-communist Russia', Party Politics, 1, 1, 1995, pp. 49-72; Stephen White, Matthew Wyman & Olga Kryshtanovskaya, 'Parties and Politics in Post-Communist Russia', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 25, 2, 1995, pp. 185-202. McAllister & White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations ...'; Richard Sakwa, 'The Development of the Russian Party System: Did the Elections Change Anything?', in Peter Lentini (ed.), Elections and the Political Order in Russia (London, 1995), pp. 169-201; Richard Sakwa, 'Parties and the Multiparty System in Russia', RFE/RL Research Report, 2, 28, 1993, pp. 7-15; Michael McFaul & Sergei Markov, The Troubled Birth of Russian Democracy: Parties, Personalities and Programs (Stanford, 1993); Michael McFaul & Nikolai Petrov (eds), Previewing Russia's 1995 Parliamentary Election (Moscow, 1995); M. Steven Fish, 'The Predicament of Russian Liberalism: Evidence from the December 1995 Parliamentary Elections', Europe-Asia Studies, 49, 2, 1997, pp. 191-220; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'New Russian Political Parties and the Transition to Democracy: the Case of Western Siberia', Government and Opposition, 30, 2, 1995, pp. 110-119; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Russian Political Parties and the "Bosses"', Party Politics, 3, 1, 1997, pp. 5-21; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Who Survives? Party Origins, Organizational Development and Electoral Performance in Post-Communist Russia',
4. Alexander Dallin (ed.), Political Parties in Russia (Berkeley, 1993); M. Steven Fish, Democracy from Scratch: Opposition and Regime in the New Russian Revolution (Princeton, 1995); Ian McAllister & Stephen White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations in Post-communist Russia', Party Politics, 1, 1, 1995, pp. 49-72; Stephen White, Matthew Wyman & Olga Kryshtanovskaya, 'Parties and Politics in Post-Communist Russia', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 25, 2, 1995, pp. 185-202. McAllister & White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations ...'; Richard Sakwa, 'The Development of the Russian Party System: Did the Elections Change Anything?', in Peter Lentini (ed.), Elections and the Political Order in Russia (London, 1995), pp. 169-201; Richard Sakwa, 'Parties and the Multiparty System in Russia', RFE/RL Research Report, 2, 28, 1993, pp. 7-15; Michael McFaul & Sergei Markov, The Troubled Birth of Russian Democracy: Parties, Personalities and Programs (Stanford, 1993); Michael McFaul & Nikolai Petrov (eds), Previewing Russia's 1995 Parliamentary Election (Moscow, 1995); M. Steven Fish, 'The Predicament of Russian Liberalism: Evidence from the December 1995 Parliamentary Elections', Europe-Asia Studies, 49, 2, 1997, pp. 191-220; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'New Russian Political Parties and the Transition to Democracy: the Case of Western Siberia', Government and Opposition, 30, 2, 1995, pp. 110-119; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Russian Political Parties and the "Bosses"', Party Politics, 3, 1, 1997, pp. 5-21; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Who Survives? Party Origins, Organizational Development and Electoral Performance in Post-Communist Russia',
5. Alexander Dallin (ed.), Political Parties in Russia (Berkeley, 1993); M. Steven Fish, Democracy from Scratch: Opposition and Regime in the New Russian Revolution (Princeton, 1995); Ian McAllister & Stephen White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations in Post-communist Russia', Party Politics, 1, 1, 1995, pp. 49-72; Stephen White, Matthew Wyman & Olga Kryshtanovskaya, 'Parties and Politics in Post-Communist Russia', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 25, 2, 1995, pp. 185-202. McAllister & White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations ...'; Richard Sakwa, 'The Development of the Russian Party System: Did the Elections Change Anything?', in Peter Lentini (ed.), Elections and the Political Order in Russia (London, 1995), pp. 169-201; Richard Sakwa, 'Parties and the Multiparty System in Russia', RFE/RL Research Report, 2, 28, 1993, pp. 7-15; Michael McFaul & Sergei Markov, The Troubled Birth of Russian Democracy: Parties, Personalities and Programs (Stanford, 1993); Michael McFaul & Nikolai Petrov (eds), Previewing Russia's 1995 Parliamentary Election (Moscow, 1995); M. Steven Fish, 'The Predicament of Russian Liberalism: Evidence from the December 1995 Parliamentary Elections', Europe-Asia Studies, 49, 2, 1997, pp. 191-220; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'New Russian Political Parties and the Transition to Democracy: the Case of Western Siberia', Government and Opposition, 30, 2, 1995, pp. 110-119; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Russian Political Parties and the "Bosses"', Party Politics, 3, 1, 1997, pp. 5-21; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Who Survives? Party Origins, Organizational Development and Electoral Performance in Post-Communist Russia',
6. Alexander Dallin (ed.), Political Parties in Russia (Berkeley, 1993); M. Steven Fish, Democracy from Scratch: Opposition and Regime in the New Russian Revolution (Princeton, 1995); Ian McAllister & Stephen White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations in Post-communist Russia', Party Politics, 1, 1, 1995, pp. 49-72; Stephen White, Matthew Wyman & Olga Kryshtanovskaya, 'Parties and Politics in Post-Communist Russia', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 25, 2, 1995, pp. 185-202. McAllister & White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations ...'; Richard Sakwa, 'The Development of the Russian Party System: Did the Elections Change Anything?', in Peter Lentini (ed.), Elections and the Political Order in Russia (London, 1995), pp. 169-201; Richard Sakwa, 'Parties and the Multiparty System in Russia', RFE/RL Research Report, 2, 28, 1993, pp. 7-15; Michael McFaul & Sergei Markov, The Troubled Birth of Russian Democracy: Parties, Personalities and Programs (Stanford, 1993); Michael McFaul & Nikolai Petrov (eds), Previewing Russia's 1995 Parliamentary Election (Moscow, 1995); M. Steven Fish, 'The Predicament of Russian Liberalism: Evidence from the December 1995 Parliamentary Elections', Europe-Asia Studies, 49, 2, 1997, pp. 191-220; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'New Russian Political Parties and the Transition to Democracy: the Case of Western Siberia', Government and Opposition, 30, 2, 1995, pp. 110-119; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Russian Political Parties and the "Bosses"', Party Politics, 3, 1, 1997, pp. 5-21; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Who Survives? Party Origins, Organizational Development and Electoral Performance in Post-Communist Russia',
7. Alexander Dallin (ed.), Political Parties in Russia (Berkeley, 1993); M. Steven Fish, Democracy from Scratch: Opposition and Regime in the New Russian Revolution (Princeton, 1995); Ian McAllister & Stephen White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations in Post-communist Russia', Party Politics, 1, 1, 1995, pp. 49-72; Stephen White, Matthew Wyman & Olga Kryshtanovskaya, 'Parties and Politics in Post-Communist Russia', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 25, 2, 1995, pp. 185-202. McAllister & White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations ...'; Richard Sakwa, 'The Development of the Russian Party System: Did the Elections Change Anything?', in Peter Lentini (ed.), Elections and the Political Order in Russia (London, 1995), pp. 169-201; Richard Sakwa, 'Parties and the Multiparty System in Russia', RFE/RL Research Report, 2, 28, 1993, pp. 7-15; Michael McFaul & Sergei Markov, The Troubled Birth of Russian Democracy: Parties, Personalities and Programs (Stanford, 1993); Michael McFaul & Nikolai Petrov (eds), Previewing Russia's 1995 Parliamentary Election (Moscow, 1995); M. Steven Fish, 'The Predicament of Russian Liberalism: Evidence from the December 1995 Parliamentary Elections', Europe-Asia Studies, 49, 2, 1997, pp. 191-220; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'New Russian Political Parties and the Transition to Democracy: the Case of Western Siberia', Government and Opposition, 30, 2, 1995, pp. 110-119; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Russian Political Parties and the "Bosses"', Party Politics, 3, 1, 1997, pp. 5-21; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Who Survives? Party Origins, Organizational Development and Electoral Performance in Post-Communist Russia',
8. Alexander Dallin (ed.), Political Parties in Russia (Berkeley, 1993); M. Steven Fish, Democracy from Scratch: Opposition and Regime in the New Russian Revolution (Princeton, 1995); Ian McAllister & Stephen White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations in Post-communist Russia', Party Politics, 1, 1, 1995, pp. 49-72; Stephen White, Matthew Wyman & Olga Kryshtanovskaya, 'Parties and Politics in Post-Communist Russia', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 25, 2, 1995, pp. 185-202. McAllister & White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations ...'; Richard Sakwa, 'The Development of the Russian Party System: Did the Elections Change Anything?', in Peter Lentini (ed.), Elections and the Political Order in Russia (London, 1995), pp. 169-201; Richard Sakwa, 'Parties and the Multiparty System in Russia', RFE/RL Research Report, 2, 28, 1993, pp. 7-15; Michael McFaul & Sergei Markov, The Troubled Birth of Russian Democracy: Parties, Personalities and Programs (Stanford, 1993); Michael McFaul & Nikolai Petrov (eds), Previewing Russia's 1995 Parliamentary Election (Moscow, 1995); M. Steven Fish, 'The Predicament of Russian Liberalism: Evidence from the December 1995 Parliamentary Elections', Europe-Asia Studies, 49, 2, 1997, pp. 191-220; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'New Russian Political Parties and the Transition to Democracy: the Case of Western Siberia', Government and Opposition, 30, 2, 1995, pp. 110-119; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Russian Political Parties and the "Bosses"', Party Politics, 3, 1, 1997, pp. 5-21; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Who Survives? Party Origins, Organizational Development and Electoral Performance in Post-Communist Russia',
9. Alexander Dallin (ed.), Political Parties in Russia (Berkeley, 1993); M. Steven Fish, Democracy from Scratch: Opposition and Regime in the New Russian Revolution (Princeton, 1995); Ian McAllister & Stephen White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations in Post-communist Russia', Party Politics, 1, 1, 1995, pp. 49-72; Stephen White, Matthew Wyman & Olga Kryshtanovskaya, 'Parties and Politics in Post-Communist Russia', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 25, 2, 1995, pp. 185-202. McAllister & White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations ...'; Richard Sakwa, 'The Development of the Russian Party System: Did the Elections Change Anything?', in Peter Lentini (ed.), Elections and the Political Order in Russia (London, 1995), pp. 169-201; Richard Sakwa, 'Parties and the Multiparty System in Russia', RFE/RL Research Report, 2, 28, 1993, pp. 7-15; Michael McFaul & Sergei Markov, The Troubled Birth of Russian Democracy: Parties, Personalities and Programs (Stanford, 1993); Michael McFaul & Nikolai Petrov (eds), Previewing Russia's 1995 Parliamentary Election (Moscow, 1995); M. Steven Fish, 'The Predicament of Russian Liberalism: Evidence from the December 1995 Parliamentary Elections', Europe-Asia Studies, 49, 2, 1997, pp. 191-220; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'New Russian Political Parties and the Transition to Democracy: the Case of Western Siberia', Government and Opposition, 30, 2, 1995, pp. 110-119; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Russian Political Parties and the "Bosses"', Party Politics, 3, 1, 1997, pp. 5-21; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Who Survives? Party Origins, Organizational Development and Electoral Performance in Post-Communist Russia',
10. Alexander Dallin (ed.), Political Parties in Russia (Berkeley, 1993); M. Steven Fish, Democracy from Scratch: Opposition and Regime in the New Russian Revolution (Princeton, 1995); Ian McAllister & Stephen White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations in Post-communist Russia', Party Politics, 1, 1, 1995, pp. 49-72; Stephen White, Matthew Wyman & Olga Kryshtanovskaya, 'Parties and Politics in Post-Communist Russia', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 25, 2, 1995, pp. 185-202. McAllister & White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations ...'; Richard Sakwa, 'The Development of the Russian Party System: Did the Elections Change Anything?', in Peter Lentini (ed.), Elections and the Political Order in Russia (London, 1995), pp. 169-201; Richard Sakwa, 'Parties and the Multiparty System in Russia', RFE/RL Research Report, 2, 28, 1993, pp. 7-15; Michael McFaul & Sergei Markov, The Troubled Birth of Russian Democracy: Parties, Personalities and Programs (Stanford, 1993); Michael McFaul & Nikolai Petrov (eds), Previewing Russia's 1995 Parliamentary Election (Moscow, 1995); M. Steven Fish, 'The Predicament of Russian Liberalism: Evidence from the December 1995 Parliamentary Elections', Europe-Asia Studies, 49, 2, 1997, pp. 191-220; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'New Russian Political Parties and the Transition to Democracy: the Case of Western Siberia', Government and Opposition, 30, 2, 1995, pp. 110-119; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Russian Political Parties and the "Bosses"', Party Politics, 3, 1, 1997, pp. 5-21; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Who Survives? Party Origins, Organizational Development and Electoral Performance in Post-Communist Russia',
11. Alexander Dallin (ed.), Political Parties in Russia (Berkeley, 1993); M. Steven Fish, Democracy from Scratch: Opposition and Regime in the New Russian Revolution (Princeton, 1995); Ian McAllister & Stephen White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations in Post-communist Russia', Party Politics, 1, 1, 1995, pp. 49-72; Stephen White, Matthew Wyman & Olga Kryshtanovskaya, 'Parties and Politics in Post-Communist Russia', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 25, 2, 1995, pp. 185-202. McAllister & White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations ...'; Richard Sakwa, 'The Development of the Russian Party System: Did the Elections Change Anything?', in Peter Lentini (ed.), Elections and the Political Order in Russia (London, 1995), pp. 169-201; Richard Sakwa, 'Parties and the Multiparty System in Russia', RFE/RL Research Report, 2, 28, 1993, pp. 7-15; Michael McFaul & Sergei Markov, The Troubled Birth of Russian Democracy: Parties, Personalities and Programs (Stanford, 1993); Michael McFaul & Nikolai Petrov (eds), Previewing Russia's 1995 Parliamentary Election (Moscow, 1995); M. Steven Fish, 'The Predicament of Russian Liberalism: Evidence from the December 1995 Parliamentary Elections', Europe-Asia Studies, 49, 2, 1997, pp. 191-220; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'New Russian Political Parties and the Transition to Democracy: the Case of Western Siberia', Government and Opposition, 30, 2, 1995, pp. 110-119; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Russian Political Parties and the "Bosses"', Party Politics, 3, 1, 1997, pp. 5-21; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Who Survives? Party Origins, Organizational Development and Electoral Performance in Post-Communist Russia',
12. Alexander Dallin (ed.), Political Parties in Russia (Berkeley, 1993); M. Steven Fish, Democracy from Scratch: Opposition and Regime in the New Russian Revolution (Princeton, 1995); Ian McAllister & Stephen White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations in Post-communist Russia', Party Politics, 1, 1, 1995, pp. 49-72; Stephen White, Matthew Wyman & Olga Kryshtanovskaya, 'Parties and Politics in Post-Communist Russia', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 25, 2, 1995, pp. 185-202. McAllister & White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations ...'; Richard Sakwa, 'The Development of the Russian Party System: Did the Elections Change Anything?', in Peter Lentini (ed.), Elections and the Political Order in Russia (London, 1995), pp. 169-201; Richard Sakwa, 'Parties and the Multiparty System in Russia', RFE/RL Research Report, 2, 28, 1993, pp. 7-15; Michael McFaul & Sergei Markov, The Troubled Birth of Russian Democracy: Parties, Personalities and Programs (Stanford, 1993); Michael McFaul & Nikolai Petrov (eds), Previewing Russia's 1995 Parliamentary Election (Moscow, 1995); M. Steven Fish, 'The Predicament of Russian Liberalism: Evidence from the December 1995 Parliamentary Elections', Europe-Asia Studies, 49, 2, 1997, pp. 191-220; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'New Russian Political Parties and the Transition to Democracy: the Case of Western Siberia', Government and Opposition, 30, 2, 1995, pp. 110-119; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Russian Political Parties and the "Bosses"', Party Politics, 3, 1, 1997, pp. 5-21; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Who Survives? Party Origins, Organizational Development and Electoral Performance in Post-Communist Russia',
13. Alexander Dallin (ed.), Political Parties in Russia (Berkeley, 1993); M. Steven Fish, Democracy from Scratch: Opposition and Regime in the New Russian Revolution (Princeton, 1995); Ian McAllister & Stephen White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations in Post-communist Russia', Party Politics, 1, 1, 1995, pp. 49-72; Stephen White, Matthew Wyman & Olga Kryshtanovskaya, 'Parties and Politics in Post-Communist Russia', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 25, 2, 1995, pp. 185-202. McAllister & White, 'Democracy, Political Parties and Party Formations ...'; Richard Sakwa, 'The Development of the Russian Party System: Did the Elections Change Anything?', in Peter Lentini (ed.), Elections and the Political Order in Russia (London, 1995), pp. 169-201; Richard Sakwa, 'Parties and the Multiparty System in Russia', RFE/RL Research Report, 2, 28, 1993, pp. 7-15; Michael McFaul & Sergei Markov, The Troubled Birth of Russian Democracy: Parties, Personalities and Programs (Stanford, 1993); Michael McFaul & Nikolai Petrov (eds), Previewing Russia's 1995 Parliamentary Election (Moscow, 1995); M. Steven Fish, 'The Predicament of Russian Liberalism: Evidence from the December 1995 Parliamentary Elections', Europe-Asia Studies, 49, 2, 1997, pp. 191-220; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'New Russian Political Parties and the Transition to Democracy: the Case of Western Siberia', Government and Opposition, 30, 2, 1995, pp. 110-119; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Russian Political Parties and the "Bosses"', Party Politics, 3, 1, 1997, pp. 5-21; Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Who Survives? Party Origins, Organizational Development and Electoral Performance in Post-Communist Russia',
14. Political Studies, 46, 3, 1998, pp. 511-543;
15. Robert Moser, 'The Impact of the Electoral System on Post-communist Party Development: The Case of the 1993 Russian Parliamentary Elections', Electoral Studies, 14, 3, 1995, pp. 377-398;
16. Robert Moser, 'The Electoral Effects of Presidentialism in Post-Soviet Russia', in John Löwenhardt (ed.), Party Politics in Post-Communist Russia (London, 1998) pp. 54-75;
17. Robert Moser, 'Independents and Party Formation: Elite Partisanship as an Intervening Variable in Russian Politics', Comparative Politics, 31, 2, 1999, pp. 147-165;
18. Vladimir Gel'man & Grigorii V. Golosov, 'Regional Party System Formation in Russia: The Deviant Case of Sverdlovsk Oblast', in Löwenhardt (ed.), Party Politics ..., pp. 31-53;
19. Evgenii Pashentsev, Oppozitsionnyepartii i dvizheniya sovremennoi Rossii (Moscow, 1999).
20. Moser, 'Independents and Party Formation'; Golosov, 'New Russian Political Parties and the Transition to Democracy'.
21. Moser, 'Independents and Party Formation'; Golosov, 'New Russian Political Parties and the Transition to Democracy'.
22. Jack Bielasiak, 'Substance and Process in the Development of Party Systems in East Central Europe', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 30, 1, 1997, p. 25.
23. M. Steven Fish, 'The Executive Deception: Superpresidentialism and the Degradation of Russian Politics', in Valerie Sperling (ed.), Building the Russian State: Institutional Crisis and the Quest for Democratic Governance (Boulder, CO, 2000), pp. 177-192; M. Steven Fish 'The Impact of the 1999-2000 Parliamentary and Presidential Elections on Political Party Development', paper presented at the 2000 meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, IL; Timothy J. Colton, 'Superpresidentialism and Russia's Backward State', Post-Soviet Affairs, 11, 2, 1995, pp. 144-148; Eugene Huskey, 'Kyrgyzstan: The Fate of Political Liberalization', in Karen Dawisha & Bruce Parrott (eds), Conflict, Cleavage and Change in Central Asia and the Caucasus (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 242-276.
24. M. Steven Fish, 'The Executive Deception: Superpresidentialism and the Degradation of Russian Politics', in Valerie Sperling (ed.), Building the Russian State: Institutional Crisis and the Quest for Democratic Governance (Boulder, CO, 2000), pp. 177-192; M. Steven Fish 'The Impact of the 1999-2000 Parliamentary and Presidential Elections on Political Party Development', paper presented at the 2000 meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, IL; Timothy J. Colton, 'Superpresidentialism and Russia's Backward State', Post-Soviet Affairs, 11, 2, 1995, pp. 144-148; Eugene Huskey, 'Kyrgyzstan: The Fate of Political Liberalization', in Karen Dawisha & Bruce Parrott (eds), Conflict, Cleavage and Change in Central Asia and the Caucasus (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 242-276.
25. M. Steven Fish, 'The Executive Deception: Superpresidentialism and the Degradation of Russian Politics', in Valerie Sperling (ed.), Building the Russian State: Institutional Crisis and the Quest for Democratic Governance (Boulder, CO, 2000), pp. 177-192; M. Steven Fish 'The Impact of the 1999-2000 Parliamentary and Presidential Elections on Political Party Development', paper presented at the 2000 meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, IL; Timothy J. Colton, 'Superpresidentialism and Russia's Backward State', Post-Soviet Affairs, 11, 2, 1995, pp. 144-148; Eugene Huskey, 'Kyrgyzstan: The Fate of Political Liberalization', in Karen Dawisha & Bruce Parrott (eds), Conflict, Cleavage and Change in Central Asia and the Caucasus (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 242-276.
26. M. Steven Fish, 'The Executive Deception: Superpresidentialism and the Degradation of Russian Politics', in Valerie Sperling (ed.), Building the Russian State: Institutional Crisis and the Quest for Democratic Governance (Boulder, CO, 2000), pp. 177-192; M. Steven Fish 'The Impact of the 1999-2000 Parliamentary and Presidential Elections on Political Party Development', paper presented at the 2000 meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, IL; Timothy J. Colton, 'Superpresidentialism and Russia's Backward State', Post-Soviet Affairs, 11, 2, 1995, pp. 144-148; Eugene Huskey, 'Kyrgyzstan: The Fate of Political Liberalization', in Karen Dawisha & Bruce Parrott (eds), Conflict, Cleavage and Change in Central Asia and the Caucasus (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 242-276.
27. Fish, 'The Executive Deception ...'; Colton, 'Superpresidentialism and Russia's Backward State'; Huskey 'Kyrgysstan ...'.
28. Fish, 'The Executive Deception ...'; Colton, 'Superpresidentialism and Russia's Backward State'; Huskey 'Kyrgysstan ...'.
29. Fish, 'The Executive Deception ...'; Colton, 'Superpresidentialism and Russia's Backward State'; Huskey 'Kyrgysstan ...'.
30. See for instance Joel Hellman, 'Constitutions and Economic Reform in the Postcommunist Transitions', East European Constitutional Review, 5, 1, 1996, pp. 46-56; Timothy Frye, 'A Politics of Institutional Choice: Post-Communist Presidencies', Comparative Political Studies, 30, 4, 1997, pp. 523-552; John Ishiyama & Matthew Velten, 'Presidential Power and Democratic Development in Post-Communist Politics', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 31, 3, 1998, pp. 217-234.
31. See for instance Joel Hellman, 'Constitutions and Economic Reform in the Postcommunist Transitions', East European Constitutional Review, 5, 1, 1996, pp. 46-56; Timothy Frye, 'A Politics of Institutional Choice: Post-Communist Presidencies', Comparative Political Studies, 30, 4, 1997, pp. 523-552; John Ishiyama & Matthew Velten, 'Presidential Power and Democratic Development in Post-Communist Politics', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 31, 3, 1998, pp. 217-234.
32. See for instance Joel Hellman, 'Constitutions and Economic Reform in the Postcommunist Transitions', East European Constitutional Review, 5, 1, 1996, pp. 46-56; Timothy Frye, 'A Politics of Institutional Choice: Post-Communist Presidencies', Comparative Political Studies, 30, 4, 1997, pp. 523-552; John Ishiyama & Matthew Velten, 'Presidential Power and Democratic Development in Post-Communist Politics', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 31, 3, 1998, pp. 217-234.
33. An important exception to this rule has been the work of M. Steven Fish; see Fish, 'The Executive Deception ...' and 'The Impact of the 1999-2000 Parliamentary and Presidential Elections ...'. The conception of 'party' that I employ here is based upon the 'electoral image' of the party. Thus, Leon Epstein defines the political party as 'any group of individuals, however loosely organised, whose avowed purpose is winning elections'. Leon Epstein, Political Parties in Western Democracies (New York, 1967), p. 1. Similarly, Anthony Downs defines the political party as 'a team seeking to control the governing apparatus by gaining office in a duly constituted election'. Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy (New York, 1957), p. 25. Kenneth Janda defines the political party as 'a set of organisations that pursue a goal of placing their avowed representatives in government positions'. Kenneth Janda, Political Parties: A Cross-National Survey (New York, 1980), p. 5. Thus any group, no matter how organised, qualifies as a political party if it seeks to run candidates for election. To be sure, there are other definitions of a party which are more restrictive (see for instance the definition provided by LaPalombara & Weiner) but defining a party only in terms of organisation ignores the wide variety of different organisational forms parties can take. In sum, there is no 'normal' model for apolitical party - some can be highly organised and internally disciplined (such as the Dutch Party of Labour) and others not much more than a collection of different factions (such as the Japanese Liberal Democratic Party prior to 1992). Joseph LaPalombara & Myron Weiner (eds), Political Parties and Political Development (Princeton, 1966).
34. An important exception to this rule has been the work of M. Steven Fish; see Fish, 'The Executive Deception ...' and 'The Impact of the 1999-2000 Parliamentary and Presidential Elections ...'. The conception of 'party' that I employ here is based upon the 'electoral image' of the party. Thus, Leon Epstein defines the political party as 'any group of individuals, however loosely organised, whose avowed purpose is winning elections'. Leon Epstein, Political Parties in Western Democracies (New York, 1967), p. 1. Similarly, Anthony Downs defines the political party as 'a team seeking to control the governing apparatus by gaining office in a duly constituted election'. Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy (New York, 1957), p. 25. Kenneth Janda defines the political party as 'a set of organisations that pursue a goal of placing their avowed representatives in government positions'. Kenneth Janda, Political Parties: A Cross-National Survey (New York, 1980), p. 5. Thus any group, no matter how organised, qualifies as a political party if it seeks to run candidates for election. To be sure, there are other definitions of a party which are more restrictive (see for instance the definition provided by LaPalombara & Weiner) but defining a party only in terms of organisation ignores the wide variety of different organisational forms parties can take. In sum, there is no 'normal' model for apolitical party - some can be highly organised and internally disciplined (such as the Dutch Party of Labour) and others not much more than a collection of different factions (such as the Japanese Liberal Democratic Party prior to 1992). Joseph LaPalombara & Myron Weiner (eds), Political Parties and Political Development (Princeton, 1966).
35. An important exception to this rule has been the work of M. Steven Fish; see Fish, 'The Executive Deception ...' and 'The Impact of the 1999-2000 Parliamentary and Presidential Elections ...'. The conception of 'party' that I employ here is based upon the 'electoral image' of the party. Thus, Leon Epstein defines the political party as 'any group of individuals, however loosely organised, whose avowed purpose is winning elections'. Leon Epstein, Political Parties in Western Democracies (New York, 1967), p. 1. Similarly, Anthony Downs defines the political party as 'a team seeking to control the governing apparatus by gaining office in a duly constituted election'. Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy (New York, 1957), p. 25. Kenneth Janda defines the political party as 'a set of organisations that pursue a goal of placing their avowed representatives in government positions'. Kenneth Janda, Political Parties: A Cross-National Survey (New York, 1980), p. 5. Thus any group, no matter how organised, qualifies as a political party if it seeks to run candidates for election. To be sure, there are other definitions of a party which are more restrictive (see for instance the definition provided by LaPalombara & Weiner) but defining a party only in terms of organisation ignores the wide variety of different organisational forms parties can take. In sum, there is no 'normal' model for apolitical party - some can be highly organised and internally disciplined (such as the Dutch Party of Labour) and others not much more than a collection of different factions (such as the Japanese Liberal Democratic Party prior to 1992). Joseph LaPalombara & Myron Weiner (eds), Political Parties and Political Development (Princeton, 1966).
36. An important exception to this rule has been the work of M. Steven Fish; see Fish, 'The Executive Deception ...' and 'The Impact of the 1999-2000 Parliamentary and Presidential Elections ...'. The conception of 'party' that I employ here is based upon the 'electoral image' of the party. Thus, Leon Epstein defines the political party as 'any group of individuals, however loosely organised, whose avowed purpose is winning elections'. Leon Epstein, Political Parties in Western Democracies (New York, 1967), p. 1. Similarly, Anthony Downs defines the political party as 'a team seeking to control the governing apparatus by gaining office in a duly constituted election'. Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy (New York, 1957), p. 25. Kenneth Janda defines the political party as 'a set of organisations that pursue a goal of placing their avowed representatives in government positions'. Kenneth Janda, Political Parties: A Cross-National Survey (New York, 1980), p. 5. Thus any group, no matter how organised, qualifies as a political party if it seeks to run candidates for election. To be sure, there are other definitions of a party which are more restrictive (see for instance the definition provided by LaPalombara & Weiner) but defining a party only in terms of organisation ignores the wide variety of different organisational forms parties can take. In sum, there is no 'normal' model for apolitical party - some can be highly organised and internally disciplined (such as the Dutch Party of Labour) and others not much more than a collection of different factions (such as the Japanese Liberal Democratic Party prior to 1992). Joseph LaPalombara & Myron Weiner (eds), Political Parties and Political Development (Princeton, 1966).
37. An important exception to this rule has been the work of M. Steven Fish; see Fish, 'The Executive Deception ...' and 'The Impact of the 1999-2000 Parliamentary and Presidential Elections ...'. The conception of 'party' that I employ here is based upon the 'electoral image' of the party. Thus, Leon Epstein defines the political party as 'any group of individuals, however loosely organised, whose avowed purpose is winning elections'. Leon Epstein, Political Parties in Western Democracies (New York, 1967), p. 1. Similarly, Anthony Downs defines the political party as 'a team seeking to control the governing apparatus by gaining office in a duly constituted election'. Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy (New York, 1957), p. 25. Kenneth Janda defines the political party as 'a set of organisations that pursue a goal of placing their avowed representatives in government positions'. Kenneth Janda, Political Parties: A Cross-National Survey (New York, 1980), p. 5. Thus any group, no matter how organised, qualifies as a political party if it seeks to run candidates for election. To be sure, there are other definitions of a party which are more restrictive (see for instance the definition provided by LaPalombara & Weiner) but defining a party only in terms of organisation ignores the wide variety of different organisational forms parties can take. In sum, there is no 'normal' model for apolitical party - some can be highly organised and internally disciplined (such as the Dutch Party of Labour) and others not much more than a collection of different factions (such as the Japanese Liberal Democratic Party prior to 1992). Joseph LaPalombara & Myron Weiner (eds), Political Parties and Political Development (Princeton, 1966).
38. An important exception to this rule has been the work of M. Steven Fish; see Fish, 'The Executive Deception ...' and 'The Impact of the 1999-2000 Parliamentary and Presidential Elections ...'. The conception of 'party' that I employ here is based upon the 'electoral image' of the party. Thus, Leon Epstein defines the political party as 'any group of individuals, however loosely organised, whose avowed purpose is winning elections'. Leon Epstein, Political Parties in Western Democracies (New York, 1967), p. 1. Similarly, Anthony Downs defines the political party as 'a team seeking to control the governing apparatus by gaining office in a duly constituted election'. Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy (New York, 1957), p. 25. Kenneth Janda defines the political party as 'a set of organisations that pursue a goal of placing their avowed representatives in government positions'. Kenneth Janda, Political Parties: A Cross-National Survey (New York, 1980), p. 5. Thus any group, no matter how organised, qualifies as a political party if it seeks to run candidates for election. To be sure, there are other definitions of a party which are more restrictive (see for instance the definition provided by LaPalombara & Weiner) but defining a party only in terms of organisation ignores the wide variety of different organisational forms parties can take. In sum, there is no 'normal' model for apolitical party - some can be highly organised and internally disciplined (such as the Dutch Party of Labour) and others not much more than a collection of different factions (such as the Japanese Liberal Democratic Party prior to 1992). Joseph LaPalombara & Myron Weiner (eds), Political Parties and Political Development (Princeton, 1966).
39. Fish, 'The Impact of the 1999-2000 Parliamentary and Presidential Elections ...'.
40. Fish, Democracy from Scratch; Golosov, 'New Russian Political Parties and the Transition to Democracy ...'.
41. Fish, Democracy from Scratch; Golosov, 'New Russian Political Parties and the Transition to Democracy ...'.
42. White, Wyman & Kryshtanovskaya, 'Parties and Politics in Post-Communist Russia', p. 199.
43. Ibid., pp. 199-200; Sakwa, 'Parties and the Multiparty System in Russia', p. 221; see also Fish, Democracy from Scratch.
44. Ibid., pp. 199-200; Sakwa, 'Parties and the Multiparty System in Russia', p. 221; see also Fish, Democracy from Scratch.
45. Ibid., pp. 199-200; Sakwa, 'Parties and the Multiparty System in Russia', p. 221; see also Fish, Democracy from Scratch.
46. Huskey, 'Kyrgyzstan ...'; Colton, 'Superpresidentialism and Russia's Backward State'; Philip G. Roeder, 'Varieties of Post-Soviet Authoritarian Regimes', Post-Soviet Affairs, 10, 1, 1994, pp. 61-101; Fish, 'The Executive Deception ...'.
47. Huskey, 'Kyrgyzstan ...'; Colton, 'Superpresidentialism and Russia's Backward State'; Philip G. Roeder, 'Varieties of Post-Soviet Authoritarian Regimes', Post-Soviet Affairs, 10, 1, 1994, pp. 61-101; Fish, 'The Executive Deception ...'.
48. Huskey, 'Kyrgyzstan ...'; Colton, 'Superpresidentialism and Russia's Backward State'; Philip G. Roeder, 'Varieties of Post-Soviet Authoritarian Regimes', Post-Soviet Affairs, 10, 1, 1994, pp. 61-101; Fish, 'The Executive Deception ...'.
49. Huskey, 'Kyrgyzstan ...'; Colton, 'Superpresidentialism and Russia's Backward State'; Philip G. Roeder, 'Varieties of Post-Soviet Authoritarian Regimes', Post-Soviet Affairs, 10, 1, 1994, pp. 61-101; Fish, 'The Executive Deception ...'.
50. Fish, 'The Impact of the 1999-2000 Parliamentary and Presidential Elections ...', pp. 22-23.
51. White, Wyman & Kryshtanovskaya, 'Parties and Politics in Post-Communist Russia'; Moser, 'The Electoral Effects of Presidentialism'.
52. White, Wyman & Kryshtanovskaya, 'Parties and Politics in Post-Communist Russia'; Moser, 'The Electoral Effects of Presidentialism'.
53. Fish, 'The Impact of the 1999-2000 Parliamentary and Presidential Elections ...', p. 23.
54. Ibid. However, according to Fish, Ukraine is 'an ambiguous case' that possesses some of the major features of superpresidentialism but in many ways is different from the other three cases.
55. Timothy Power & Mark J. Gasiorowski, 'Institutional Design and Democratic Consolidation in the Third World', Comparative Political Studies, 30, 2, 1997, pp. 123-155; Ishiyama & Velten, 'Presidential Power and Democratic Development ...'.
56. Timothy Power & Mark J. Gasiorowski, 'Institutional Design and Democratic Consolidation in the Third World', Comparative Political Studies, 30, 2, 1997, pp. 123-155; Ishiyama & Velten, 'Presidential Power and Democratic Development ...'.
57. Moser, 'Independents and Party Formation ...'.
58. Moser, 'The Electoral Effects of Presidentialism', pp. 62-63.
59. Herbert Kitschelt, 'Formation of Party Cleavages in Post-communist Democracies: Theoretical Propositions', Party Politics, 1, 3, 1995, pp. 447-472; Thomas F. Remington & Steven S. Smith, 'The Development of Parliamentary Parties in Russia', Legislative Studies Quarterly, 20, 3, 1995, pp. 457-489; Moshe Haspel, Thomas F. Remington & Steven S. Smith, 'Electoral Institutions and Party Cohesion in the Russian Duma', Journal of Politics, 60, 3, 1998, pp. 417-439; Frederic J. Fleron Jr, Richard Ahl & Finbarr Lane, 'Where now in the Study of Russian Political Parties', in Löwenhardt (ed.), Party Politics ..., pp. 224-252; John T. Ishiyama, 'Red Phoenix? The Communist Party in Post-Soviet Politics', Party Politics, 2, 2, 1996, pp. 147-175; John T. Ishiyama, 'Red versus Expert: Candidate Recruitment and Communist Party Adaptation in Post-Soviet Politics', Party Politics, 4, 3, 1998, pp. 297-318; John T. Ishiyama, 'Political Parties and Candidate Recruitment in Post-Soviet Russian Politics', Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 15, 1, 1999, pp. 41-69.
60. Herbert Kitschelt, 'Formation of Party Cleavages in Post-communist Democracies: Theoretical Propositions', Party Politics, 1, 3, 1995, pp. 447-472; Thomas F. Remington & Steven S. Smith, 'The Development of Parliamentary Parties in Russia', Legislative Studies Quarterly, 20, 3, 1995, pp. 457-489; Moshe Haspel, Thomas F. Remington & Steven S. Smith, 'Electoral Institutions and Party Cohesion in the Russian Duma', Journal of Politics, 60, 3, 1998, pp. 417-439; Frederic J. Fleron Jr, Richard Ahl & Finbarr Lane, 'Where now in the Study of Russian Political Parties', in Löwenhardt (ed.), Party Politics ..., pp. 224-252; John T. Ishiyama, 'Red Phoenix? The Communist Party in Post-Soviet Politics', Party Politics, 2, 2, 1996, pp. 147-175; John T. Ishiyama, 'Red versus Expert: Candidate Recruitment and Communist Party Adaptation in Post-Soviet Politics', Party Politics, 4, 3, 1998, pp. 297-318; John T. Ishiyama, 'Political Parties and Candidate Recruitment in Post-Soviet Russian Politics', Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 15, 1, 1999, pp. 41-69.
61. Herbert Kitschelt, 'Formation of Party Cleavages in Post-communist Democracies: Theoretical Propositions', Party Politics, 1, 3, 1995, pp. 447-472; Thomas F. Remington & Steven S. Smith, 'The Development of Parliamentary Parties in Russia', Legislative Studies Quarterly, 20, 3, 1995, pp. 457-489; Moshe Haspel, Thomas F. Remington & Steven S. Smith, 'Electoral Institutions and Party Cohesion in the Russian Duma', Journal of Politics, 60, 3, 1998, pp. 417-439; Frederic J. Fleron Jr, Richard Ahl & Finbarr Lane, 'Where now in the Study of Russian Political Parties', in Löwenhardt (ed.), Party Politics ..., pp. 224-252; John T. Ishiyama, 'Red Phoenix? The Communist Party in Post-Soviet Politics', Party Politics, 2, 2, 1996, pp. 147-175; John T. Ishiyama, 'Red versus Expert: Candidate Recruitment and Communist Party Adaptation in Post-Soviet Politics', Party Politics, 4, 3, 1998, pp. 297-318; John T. Ishiyama, 'Political Parties and Candidate Recruitment in Post-Soviet Russian Politics', Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 15, 1, 1999, pp. 41-69.
62. Herbert Kitschelt, 'Formation of Party Cleavages in Post-communist Democracies: Theoretical Propositions', Party Politics, 1, 3, 1995, pp. 447-472; Thomas F. Remington & Steven S. Smith, 'The Development of Parliamentary Parties in Russia', Legislative Studies Quarterly, 20, 3, 1995, pp. 457-489; Moshe Haspel, Thomas F. Remington & Steven S. Smith, 'Electoral Institutions and Party Cohesion in the Russian Duma', Journal of Politics, 60, 3, 1998, pp. 417-439; Frederic J. Fleron Jr, Richard Ahl & Finbarr Lane, 'Where now in the Study of Russian Political Parties', in Löwenhardt (ed.), Party Politics ..., pp. 224-252; John T. Ishiyama, 'Red Phoenix? The Communist Party in Post-Soviet Politics', Party Politics, 2, 2, 1996, pp. 147-175; John T. Ishiyama, 'Red versus Expert: Candidate Recruitment and Communist Party Adaptation in Post-Soviet Politics', Party Politics, 4, 3, 1998, pp. 297-318; John T. Ishiyama, 'Political Parties and Candidate Recruitment in Post-Soviet Russian Politics', Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 15, 1, 1999, pp. 41-69.
63. Herbert Kitschelt, 'Formation of Party Cleavages in Post-communist Democracies: Theoretical Propositions', Party Politics, 1, 3, 1995, pp. 447-472; Thomas F. Remington & Steven S. Smith, 'The Development of Parliamentary Parties in Russia', Legislative Studies Quarterly, 20, 3, 1995, pp. 457-489; Moshe Haspel, Thomas F. Remington & Steven S. Smith, 'Electoral Institutions and Party Cohesion in the Russian Duma', Journal of Politics, 60, 3, 1998, pp. 417-439; Frederic J. Fleron Jr, Richard Ahl & Finbarr Lane, 'Where now in the Study of Russian Political Parties', in Löwenhardt (ed.), Party Politics ..., pp. 224-252; John T. Ishiyama, 'Red Phoenix? The Communist Party in Post-Soviet Politics', Party Politics, 2, 2, 1996, pp. 147-175; John T. Ishiyama, 'Red versus Expert: Candidate Recruitment and Communist Party Adaptation in Post-Soviet Politics', Party Politics, 4, 3, 1998, pp. 297-318; John T. Ishiyama, 'Political Parties and Candidate Recruitment in Post-Soviet Russian Politics', Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 15, 1, 1999, pp. 41-69.
64. Herbert Kitschelt, 'Formation of Party Cleavages in Post-communist Democracies: Theoretical Propositions', Party Politics, 1, 3, 1995, pp. 447-472; Thomas F. Remington & Steven S. Smith, 'The Development of Parliamentary Parties in Russia', Legislative Studies Quarterly, 20, 3, 1995, pp. 457-489; Moshe Haspel, Thomas F. Remington & Steven S. Smith, 'Electoral Institutions and Party Cohesion in the Russian Duma', Journal of Politics, 60, 3, 1998, pp. 417-439; Frederic J. Fleron Jr, Richard Ahl & Finbarr Lane, 'Where now in the Study of Russian Political Parties', in Löwenhardt (ed.), Party Politics ..., pp. 224-252; John T. Ishiyama, 'Red Phoenix? The Communist Party in Post-Soviet Politics', Party Politics, 2, 2, 1996, pp. 147-175; John T. Ishiyama, 'Red versus Expert: Candidate Recruitment and Communist Party Adaptation in Post-Soviet Politics', Party Politics, 4, 3, 1998, pp. 297-318; John T. Ishiyama, 'Political Parties and Candidate Recruitment in Post-Soviet Russian Politics', Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 15, 1, 1999, pp. 41-69.
65. Herbert Kitschelt, 'Formation of Party Cleavages in Post-communist Democracies: Theoretical Propositions', Party Politics, 1, 3, 1995, pp. 447-472; Thomas F. Remington & Steven S. Smith, 'The Development of Parliamentary Parties in Russia', Legislative Studies Quarterly, 20, 3, 1995, pp. 457-489; Moshe Haspel, Thomas F. Remington & Steven S. Smith, 'Electoral Institutions and Party Cohesion in the Russian Duma', Journal of Politics, 60, 3, 1998, pp. 417-439; Frederic J. Fleron Jr, Richard Ahl & Finbarr Lane, 'Where now in the Study of Russian Political Parties', in Löwenhardt (ed.), Party Politics ..., pp. 224-252; John T. Ishiyama, 'Red Phoenix? The Communist Party in Post-Soviet Politics', Party Politics, 2, 2, 1996, pp. 147-175; John T. Ishiyama, 'Red versus Expert: Candidate Recruitment and Communist Party Adaptation in Post-Soviet Politics', Party Politics, 4, 3, 1998, pp. 297-318; John T. Ishiyama, 'Political Parties and Candidate Recruitment in Post-Soviet Russian Politics', Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 15, 1, 1999, pp. 41-69.
66. Remington & Smith 'The Development of Parliamentary Parties ...', p. 457.
67. Ibid., p. 483; see also Thomas F. Remington & Steven S. Smith, 'Theories of Legislative Institutions and the Organization of the Russian Duma', American Journal of Political Science, 42, 4, 1998, pp. 545-572; Haspel, Remington & Smith, 'Electoral Institutions and Party Cohesion ...'. Kitschelt also contends that parties are developing in Russia albeit not programmatic parties, or parties that are built to advertise ideals 'about a desirable society as the collective good they promise to produce and to attract activists and leaders ready to propagate and to implement these ideas'. Rather, he argues that charismatic parties and clientelistic parties are likely to develop in Russia. The charismatic party is characterised by 'not much more than an unstructured mass of people rallying around a leader'. Kitschelt, 'Formation of Party Cleavages ...', p. 449. Such parties are inherently unstable and likely to disappear, given that in order to maintain allegiances of followers leaders must sooner or later provide selective incentives to their constituencies and enter upon trajectories of organisational development that are likely to result in clientelistic parties in the Russian context. Clientelistic parties are characterised by an emphasis on personal patronage, and invest much in creating an organisation which effectively disburses resources to followers. These parties, however, avoid the costs of coordinating the activities of followers since the role of the member is not to believe in a set of ideological goals but to be personally loyal.
68. Ibid., p. 483; see also Thomas F. Remington & Steven S. Smith, 'Theories of Legislative Institutions and the Organization of the Russian Duma', American Journal of Political Science, 42, 4, 1998, pp. 545-572; Haspel, Remington & Smith, 'Electoral Institutions and Party Cohesion ...'. Kitschelt also contends that parties are developing in Russia albeit not programmatic parties, or parties that are built to advertise ideals 'about a desirable society as the collective good they promise to produce and to attract activists and leaders ready to propagate and to implement these ideas'. Rather, he argues that charismatic parties and clientelistic parties are likely to develop in Russia. The charismatic party is characterised by 'not much more than an unstructured mass of people rallying around a leader'. Kitschelt, 'Formation of Party Cleavages ...', p. 449. Such parties are inherently unstable and likely to disappear, given that in order to maintain allegiances of followers leaders must sooner or later provide selective incentives to their constituencies and enter upon trajectories of organisational development that are likely to result in clientelistic parties in the Russian context. Clientelistic parties are characterised by an emphasis on personal patronage, and invest much in creating an organisation which effectively disburses resources to followers. These parties, however, avoid the costs of coordinating the activities of followers since the role of the member is not to believe in a set of ideological goals but to be personally loyal.
69. Ibid., p. 483; see also Thomas F. Remington & Steven S. Smith, 'Theories of Legislative Institutions and the Organization of the Russian Duma', American Journal of Political Science, 42, 4, 1998, pp. 545-572; Haspel, Remington & Smith, 'Electoral Institutions and Party Cohesion ...'. Kitschelt also contends that parties are developing in Russia albeit not programmatic parties, or parties that are built to advertise ideals 'about a desirable society as the collective good they promise to produce and to attract activists and leaders ready to propagate and to implement these ideas'. Rather, he argues that charismatic parties and clientelistic parties are likely to develop in Russia. The charismatic party is characterised by 'not much more than an unstructured mass of people rallying around a leader'. Kitschelt, 'Formation of Party Cleavages ...', p. 449. Such parties are inherently unstable and likely to disappear, given that in order to maintain allegiances of followers leaders must sooner or later provide selective incentives to their constituencies and enter upon trajectories of organisational development that are likely to result in clientelistic parties in the Russian context. Clientelistic parties are characterised by an emphasis on personal patronage, and invest much in creating an organisation which effectively disburses resources to followers. These parties, however, avoid the costs of coordinating the activities of followers since the role of the member is not to believe in a set of ideological goals but to be personally loyal.
70. Ibid., p. 483; see also Thomas F. Remington & Steven S. Smith, 'Theories of Legislative Institutions and the Organization of the Russian Duma', American Journal of Political Science, 42, 4, 1998, pp. 545-572; Haspel, Remington & Smith, 'Electoral Institutions and Party Cohesion ...'. Kitschelt also contends that parties are developing in Russia albeit not programmatic parties, or parties that are built to advertise ideals 'about a desirable society as the collective good they promise to produce and to attract activists and leaders ready to propagate and to implement these ideas'. Rather, he argues that charismatic parties and clientelistic parties are likely to develop in Russia. The charismatic party is characterised by 'not much more than an unstructured mass of people rallying around a leader'. Kitschelt, 'Formation of Party Cleavages ...', p. 449. Such parties are inherently unstable and likely to disappear, given that in order to maintain allegiances of followers leaders must sooner or later provide selective incentives to their constituencies and enter upon trajectories of organisational development that are likely to result in clientelistic parties in the Russian context. Clientelistic parties are characterised by an emphasis on personal patronage, and invest much in creating an organisation which effectively disburses resources to followers. These parties, however, avoid the costs of coordinating the activities of followers since the role of the member is not to believe in a set of ideological goals but to be personally loyal.
71. Ruth Brown, 'Party Development in the Regions: When Did Parties Start to Play a Part in Politics', in Löwenhardt (ed.), Party Politics ..., pp. 31-54.
72. Bruce Parrott, 'Perspectives on Postcommunist Democratization', in Karen Dawisha & Bruce Parrott (eds), Democratic Changes and Authoritarian Reactions in Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and Moldova (Cambridge, 1997).
73. Ibid., p. 17.
74. Ibid.
75. Ibid.
76. For illustrations of similar analyses see Moser, 'Independents and Party Formation ...'; Ishiyama, 'Red Phoenix? ...'; Ishiyama, 'Red versus Expert ...'; Ishiyama, 'Political Parties and Candidate Recruitment ...', pp. 41-69.
77. For illustrations of similar analyses see Moser, 'Independents and Party Formation ...'; Ishiyama, 'Red Phoenix? ...'; Ishiyama, 'Red versus Expert ...'; Ishiyama, 'Political Parties and Candidate Recruitment ...', pp. 41-69.
78. For illustrations of similar analyses see Moser, 'Independents and Party Formation ...'; Ishiyama, 'Red Phoenix? ...'; Ishiyama, 'Red versus Expert ...'; Ishiyama, 'Political Parties and Candidate Recruitment ...', pp. 41-69.
79. For illustrations of similar analyses see Moser, 'Independents and Party Formation ...'; Ishiyama, 'Red Phoenix? ...'; Ishiyama, 'Red versus Expert ...'; Ishiyama, 'Political Parties and Candidate Recruitment ...', pp. 41-69.
80. Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, 1968), p. 440; see also Stein Rokkan, Citizens, Elections, Parties (New York, 1970). Fish, 'The Executive Deception ...'.
81. Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, 1968), p. 440; see also Stein Rokkan, Citizens, Elections, Parties (New York, 1970). Fish, 'The Executive Deception ...'.
82. Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, 1968), p. 440; see also Stein Rokkan, Citizens, Elections, Parties (New York, 1970). Fish, 'The Executive Deception ...'.
83. Fish, 'The Impact of the 1999-2000 Parliamentary and Presidential Elections ...'.
84. Joseph A. Schlesinger, 'On the Theory of Party Organization', Journal of Politics, 46, 3, 1984, pp. 369-400.
85. Candidate data for elections in Russia for 1995 were derived from Vybory Deputatov Gosudarstvennoi Dumy 1995 (Moscow, Central Electoral Commission of the Russian Federation (1996)). For candidates in the 1998 Ukrainian Election see the Ukrainian Central Electoral Commission web site http://www.cvk.ukrpack.net. For the candidate information for the 1999 Armenian election see the Central Electoral Commission web site http://www.elections.am/: For the 2000 Kyrgyz election, candidate information reported at Kyrgyz Central Electoral Commission url http://cec.bishkek.su/.
86. For the 1995 Russian election cities and towns identified as largest cities were obtained from the Russian Federation Electoral Commission Web site at www.fci.ru. Actual city and town populations were taken from Demograficheskii ezhegodnik SSSR 1990 (Moscow, Finansy i statistika, 1990), pp. 14-26. For the 1999 Armenian elections, largest towns in districts were derived from precinct locations, reported at the Central Electoral Commission web site http://www.elections.am/: For the 2000 Kyrgyz election, the largest towns in districts were identified via precinct locations, reported at Kyrgyz Central Electoral Commission url http://ccc.bishkek.su/. Ukrainian largest cities in districts were reported in the Ukrainian Central Electoral Commission web site http://www.cvk.ukrpack.net.
87. Hellman, 'Constitutions and Economic Reform ...'; Frye, 'A Politics of Institutional Choice ...'.
88. Hellman, 'Constitutions and Economic Reform ...'; Frye, 'A Politics of Institutional Choice ...'.
89. Frye 'A Politics of Institutional Choice ...'.
90. Fish, 'The Impact of the 1999-2000 Parliamentary and Presidential Elections ...'.
91. Power & Gasiorowski, 'Institutional Design and Democratic Consolidation ...'; Ishiyama & Velten, 'Presidential Power and Democratic Development ...'.
92. Power & Gasiorowski, 'Institutional Design and Democratic Consolidation ...'; Ishiyama & Velten, 'Presidential Power and Democratic Development ...'.
93. Remington & Smith, 'The Development of Parliamentary Parties ...'; Ishiyama & Velten, 'Presidential Power and Democratic Development ...'; Haspel, Remington & Smith, 'Electoral Institutions and Party Cohesion ...'.
94. Remington & Smith, 'The Development of Parliamentary Parties ...'; Ishiyama & Velten, 'Presidential Power and Democratic Development ...'; Haspel, Remington & Smith, 'Electoral Institutions and Party Cohesion ...'.
95. Remington & Smith, 'The Development of Parliamentary Parties ...'; Ishiyama & Velten, 'Presidential Power and Democratic Development ...'; Haspel, Remington & Smith, 'Electoral Institutions and Party Cohesion ...'.
96. Geoffrey Pridham, 'Southern European Democracies on the Road to Consolidation: A Comparative Assessment of the Role of Political Parties', in Geoffrey Pridham (ed), Securing Democracy: Political Parties and Democratic Consolidation in Southern Europe (London, 1990), p. 2.
97. Juan J. Linz, paper presented at conference on 'Political Parties and Democracy', Washington DC, 1996; see www.ned.org/pubs/reports/parties.html, p. 1.
98. Peter Mair, paper presented at conference on 'Political Parties and Democracy', Washington DC, 1996; see www.ned.org/pubs/reports/parties.html, p. 1.
99. There is of course considerable concern over whether these parties can remain as stable and coherent formations. See Richard Rose, Neil Munro & Stephen White, 'Voting in a Floating Party System: The 1999 Duma Election', Europe-Asia Studies, 53, 3, 2001, pp. 419-443.
100. Russell Bova, 'Political Culture, Authority Patterns, and the Architecture of the New Russian Democracy', in H. Eckstein, Frederick Fleron, E. Hoffman & William Reissinger (eds), Can Democracy Take Root in Post-Soviet Russia? (New York, 1998), p. 195.