Independents and party formation: Elite partisanship as an intervening variable in Russian politics

Comparative Politics

Volumn 31, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 147-165

  Moser, Robert G ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0007338134     PISSN: 00104159     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/422142     Document Type: Review

References (63)

1. See E. E. Schattschneider, Party Government (New York: Rinehart, 1942), p. 1.
2. See Herbert Kitschelt, "Political Regime Change: Structure and Process-Driven Explanations?," American Political Science Review, 86 (1992), 1028-34.
3. See Seymour Martin Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy," American Political Science Review, 53 (March 1959), 69-105; Robert A. Dahl, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971); Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966); Gregory M. Luebbert, Liberalism, Fascism, or Social Democracy: Social Classes and the Political Origins of Regimes in Interwar Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens, and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan, eds., Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York: The Free Press, 1965); Herbert Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Politics and Society, 20 (1992), 7-50; Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, "Identifying the Bases of Party Competition in Eastern Europe," British Journal of Political Science, 23 (1993), 521-48.
4. See Seymour Martin Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy," American Political Science Review, 53 (March 1959), 69-105; Robert A. Dahl, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971); Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966); Gregory M. Luebbert, Liberalism, Fascism, or Social Democracy: Social Classes and the Political Origins of Regimes in Interwar Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens, and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan, eds., Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York: The Free Press, 1965); Herbert Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Politics and Society, 20 (1992), 7-50; Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, "Identifying the Bases of Party Competition in Eastern Europe," British Journal of Political Science, 23 (1993), 521-48.
5. See Seymour Martin Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy," American Political Science Review, 53 (March 1959), 69-105; Robert A. Dahl, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971); Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966); Gregory M. Luebbert, Liberalism, Fascism, or Social Democracy: Social Classes and the Political Origins of Regimes in Interwar Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens, and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan, eds., Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York: The Free Press, 1965); Herbert Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Politics and Society, 20 (1992), 7-50; Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, "Identifying the Bases of Party Competition in Eastern Europe," British Journal of Political Science, 23 (1993), 521-48.
6. See Seymour Martin Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy," American Political Science Review, 53 (March 1959), 69-105; Robert A. Dahl, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971); Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966); Gregory M. Luebbert, Liberalism, Fascism, or Social Democracy: Social Classes and the Political Origins of Regimes in Interwar Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens, and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan, eds., Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York: The Free Press, 1965); Herbert Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Politics and Society, 20 (1992), 7-50; Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, "Identifying the Bases of Party Competition in Eastern Europe," British Journal of Political Science, 23 (1993), 521-48.
7. See Seymour Martin Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy," American Political Science Review, 53 (March 1959), 69-105; Robert A. Dahl, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971); Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966); Gregory M. Luebbert, Liberalism, Fascism, or Social Democracy: Social Classes and the Political Origins of Regimes in Interwar Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens, and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan, eds., Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York: The Free Press, 1965); Herbert Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Politics and Society, 20 (1992), 7-50; Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, "Identifying the Bases of Party Competition in Eastern Europe," British Journal of Political Science, 23 (1993), 521-48.
8. See Seymour Martin Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy," American Political Science Review, 53 (March 1959), 69-105; Robert A. Dahl, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971); Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966); Gregory M. Luebbert, Liberalism, Fascism, or Social Democracy: Social Classes and the Political Origins of Regimes in Interwar Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens, and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan, eds., Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York: The Free Press, 1965); Herbert Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Politics and Society, 20 (1992), 7-50; Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, "Identifying the Bases of Party Competition in Eastern Europe," British Journal of Political Science, 23 (1993), 521-48.
9. See Seymour Martin Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy," American Political Science Review, 53 (March 1959), 69-105; Robert A. Dahl, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971); Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966); Gregory M. Luebbert, Liberalism, Fascism, or Social Democracy: Social Classes and the Political Origins of Regimes in Interwar Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens, and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan, eds., Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York: The Free Press, 1965); Herbert Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Politics and Society, 20 (1992), 7-50; Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, "Identifying the Bases of Party Competition in Eastern Europe," British Journal of Political Science, 23 (1993), 521-48.
10. See Seymour Martin Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy," American Political Science Review, 53 (March 1959), 69-105; Robert A. Dahl, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971); Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966); Gregory M. Luebbert, Liberalism, Fascism, or Social Democracy: Social Classes and the Political Origins of Regimes in Interwar Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens, and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan, eds., Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York: The Free Press, 1965); Herbert Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Politics and Society, 20 (1992), 7-50; Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, "Identifying the Bases of Party Competition in Eastern Europe," British Journal of Political Science, 23 (1993), 521-48.
11. See Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead, eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Michael McFaul, Post-Communist Politics: Democratic Prospects in Russia and Eastern Europe (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1993); Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics, 23 (1990), 1-21; Minxin Pei, From Reform to Revolution: The Demise of Communism in China and the Soviet Union (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994).
12. See Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead, eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Michael McFaul, Post-Communist Politics: Democratic Prospects in Russia and Eastern Europe (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1993); Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics, 23 (1990), 1-21; Minxin Pei, From Reform to Revolution: The Demise of Communism in China and the Soviet Union (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994).
13. See Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead, eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Michael McFaul, Post-Communist Politics: Democratic Prospects in Russia and Eastern Europe (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1993); Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics, 23 (1990), 1-21; Minxin Pei, From Reform to Revolution: The Demise of Communism in China and the Soviet Union (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994).
14. See Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead, eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Michael McFaul, Post-Communist Politics: Democratic Prospects in Russia and Eastern Europe (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1993); Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics, 23 (1990), 1-21; Minxin Pei, From Reform to Revolution: The Demise of Communism in China and the Soviet Union (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994).
15. Steven White, Richard Rose, and Ian McAllister, How Russia Votes (New York: Chatham House, 1997), p. 135.
16. See Laura Belin and Robert W. Orttung, The Russian Parliamentary Elections of 1995 (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), p. 20; Robert G. Moser, "The Impact of the Electoral System on Post-Communist Party Development: A Comparison of the 1993 and 1995 Russian Parliamentary Elections," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, August 29, 1996, p. 30.
17. See Laura Belin and Robert W. Orttung, The Russian Parliamentary Elections of 1995 (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), p. 20; Robert G. Moser, "The Impact of the Electoral System on Post-Communist Party Development: A Comparison of the 1993 and 1995 Russian Parliamentary Elections," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, August 29, 1996, p. 30.
18. Non-Russian regions (republics and autonomous okrugs) were excluded from this study because they present an additional cleavage, ethnicity, that is not currently salient in the national party system in Russia and makes comparisons of partisan activity in Russian and non-Russian regions problematic. Major parties in Russia have had a distinctively Russian character and have tended to be less active in non-Russian regions. See Robert G. Moser, "The Impact of the Electoral System on Post-Communist Party Development: The Case of the 1993 Russian Parliamentary Elections," Electoral Studies, 14 (1995), 385. Even though political parties increased their activity in non-Russian regions from 1993 to 1995, their activity appeared to be most geared toward Russian-speaking voters in urban districts. See John Ishiyama, "The Russian Proto-parties and the National Republics," Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 29 (1996), 395-411.
19. Non-Russian regions (republics and autonomous okrugs) were excluded from this study because they present an additional cleavage, ethnicity, that is not currently salient in the national party system in Russia and makes comparisons of partisan activity in Russian and non-Russian regions problematic. Major parties in Russia have had a distinctively Russian character and have tended to be less active in non-Russian regions. See Robert G. Moser, "The Impact of the Electoral System on Post-Communist Party Development: The Case of the 1993 Russian Parliamentary Elections," Electoral Studies, 14 (1995), 385. Even though political parties increased their activity in non-Russian regions from 1993 to 1995, their activity appeared to be most geared toward Russian-speaking voters in urban districts. See John Ishiyama, "The Russian Proto-parties and the National Republics," Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 29 (1996), 395-411.
20. The LDPR finished a surprising first in the PR contest in 1993 with nearly 23 percent of the vote and a respectable second in the 1995 PR race with 11 percent of the vote.
21. The LDPR won five seats in single member district races in 1993 and only one in 1995.
22. There are similar difficulties in ascribing partisan affiliation to legislators in early American history. See Aldrich, p. 82; and Kenneth C. Martis, The Historical Atlas of the Political Parties in the United States Congress: 1789-1989 (New York: Macmillan, 1989).
23. There are similar difficulties in ascribing partisan affiliation to legislators in early American history. See Aldrich, p. 82; and Kenneth C. Martis, The Historical Atlas of the Political Parties in the United States Congress: 1789-1989 (New York: Macmillan, 1989).
24. See Timothy Colton and Jerry Hough, eds., Growing Pains: Russian Democracy and the Election of 1993 (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, forthcoming).
25. Official lists of candidates in single member districts appeared in Rossiiskaya gazeta, Nov. 30, 1993, Sept. 6-Oct. 17, 1995.
26. Argumenty i fakty, 49 (1993).
27. This comparison of PR and single member district candidates was made for all thirteen parties in 1993 and eleven major parties in 1995: Communist Party of the Russian Federation, Liberal Democratic Party of Russia, Our Home Is Russia, Yabloko, Agrarian Party of Russia, Congress of Russian Communities, Party of Self-Government, Women of Russia, Forward, Russia!, Democratic Russia's Choice, Communists-Working Russia-For the Soviet Union, and Power to the People. Lists of PR candidates were published in Rossiiskaya gazeta, Nov. 30, 1993, Sept. 6-Oct. 17, 1995.
28. See Federal'noe Sobranie: Spravochnik (Moscow: Panorama, 1994); Federal'noe Sobranie: Sovet Federatsii and Gosudarstvennaya Duma Spravochnik (Moscow: Panorama, 1996).
29. See Federal'noe Sobranie: Spravochnik (Moscow: Panorama, 1994); Federal'noe Sobranie: Sovet Federatsii and Gosudarstvennaya Duma Spravochnik (Moscow: Panorama, 1996).
30. Joseph A. Schlesinger, Political Parties and the Winning of Office (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991).
31. See Kenneth A. Shepsle, "Institutional Equilibrium and Equilibrium Institutions," in Herbert F. Weisberg, ed., Political Science: The Science of Politics (New York: Agathon Press, 1986), pp. 51-81.
32. Aldrich argues that transaction costs in forming parties are far less than in forming new majorities for each new issue area over the long term providing another incentive for party building in the legislature. John H. Aldrich, Why Parties? The Origin and Transformation of Political Parties in America (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995), p. 35.
33. Ibid. p. 89.
34. Ibid. pp. 48-50.
35. Ibid. p. 24.
36. Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968), p. 440.
37. Urban areas were almost all fully politicized a few decades following the introduction of the written ballot for local elections in 1896, but not until the end of World War II did almost 90 percent of rural communes have at least one national party list. As late as 1963 only around half of rural areas were fully dominated by national parties. Stein Rokkan, Citizens, Elections, Parties (New York: David McKay, 1970), pp. 191-96.
38. See Robert E. Lane, Political Life: Why and How People Get Involved in Politics (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1959), p. 300.
39. Sidney Tarrow, "The Urban-Rural Cleavage in Political Involvement: The Case of France," American Political Science Review, 61 (1971), 354-56.
40. Paul Goodman, "The First American Party System," in William Nisbet Chambers and Walter Dean Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), pp. 65-72.
41. Robert E. Dawson, "Social Development, Party Competition, and Policy," in Chambers and Burnham, eds., pp. 222-26.
42. Polarized districts are districts with at least one candidate from both reformist and opposition blocs. In 1993 reformist blocs included Russia's Choice, Yabloko, Party of Russian Unity and Accord (PRES), and Russian Movement of Democratic Reform; opposition blocs included the Communist Party of the Russian Federation (KPRF), Agrarian Party of Russia (APR), and Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR). In 1995 reformist blocs included Our Home Is Russia, Yabloko, Democratic Russia's Choice, Common Cause, Party of Economic Freedom, Pamfilova-Gurov-Lysenko bloc, Party of Self-Government, PRES, and Transformation of the Fatherland; opposition blocs included KPRF, LDPR, APR, Power to the People, Derzhava, Communists-Working Russia-For the Soviet Union, National Republican Party of Russia, and Congress of Russian Communities (KRO).
43. Members of regional executive branches included heads of administration, deputy heads of administration, and high-ranking members of regional administrations such as department chairs at the regional (oblast) and local (city or rayon) levels. Members of regional and local legislatures were intentionally excluded because they tended to be more partisan than this group of regional elites.
44. For information on the occupational status of the winning candidates to the State Duma, see Federal'noe Sobranie: Spravochnik (Moscow: Panorama, 1994).
45. Much of this difference is due to the fact that members of the regional elite who won in 1993 were coded as incumbents in the State Duma and thus members of the national elite in 1995.
46. For American examples see Richard Hofstadter, The Idea of a Party System (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970); and Richard P McCormick, "Political Development and the Second Party System," in Chambers and Burnham, eds., pp. 96-97.
47. For American examples see Richard Hofstadter, The Idea of a Party System (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970); and Richard P McCormick, "Political Development and the Second Party System," in Chambers and Burnham, eds., pp. 96-97.
48. Members of newly emerging electoral blocs such as Democratic Russia and nationalist-patriotic blocs tended to draw candidates from outside the CPSU upper hierarchy, while the CPSU hierarchy remained relatively unorganized and ill-prepared for competitive elections. On occupational backgrounds of deputies elected in late Soviet-era elections see Timothy Colton, "The Politics of Democratization: The Moscow Election of 1990," Soviet Economy, 6 (1990), 311-21; and Regina Smyth, "Ideological vs. Regional Cleavages: Do the Radicals Control the RSFSR Parliament?," Journal of Soviet Nationalities (Fall 1990), 135-36.
49. Members of newly emerging electoral blocs such as Democratic Russia and nationalist-patriotic blocs tended to draw candidates from outside the CPSU upper hierarchy, while the CPSU hierarchy remained relatively unorganized and ill-prepared for competitive elections. On occupational backgrounds of deputies elected in late Soviet-era elections see Timothy Colton, "The Politics of Democratization: The Moscow Election of 1990," Soviet Economy, 6 (1990), 311-21; and Regina Smyth, "Ideological vs. Regional Cleavages: Do the Radicals Control the RSFSR Parliament?," Journal of Soviet Nationalities (Fall 1990), 135-36.
50. See M. Steven Fish, "The Advent of Multipartism in Russia, 1993-1995," Post-Soviet Affairs, 11 (1995), 353-59.
51. However, despite the emergence of pro-and antigovernment coalitions in nominating and supporting candidates in gubernatorial elections, political parties played a relatively limited role in initial elections for governor in Russia's regions. See Steven L. Solnick, "Gubernatorial Elections in Russia, 1996-1997," Post-Soviet Affairs, 14 (1998), 63-68.
52. The intelligentsia includes all professionals - doctors, lawyers, journalists, economists, engineers, academics, artists, and teachers. Also included in this category are activists of political parties, social movements, and trade unions. Other refers to workers, students, pensioners, and unemployed.
53. Party abbreviations are RC, Russia's Choice; YAB, Yabloko; CU, Civic Union; APR, Agrarian Party of Russia; KPRF, Communist Party of the Russian Federation; LDPR, Liberal Democratic Party of Russia; NDR, Our Home Is Russia; PP, Power to the People.
54. Russia's Choice used a strong showing in the single member district tier to win the most seats in the 1993 election and form the largest faction in the State Duma. However, its gains paled in comparison to the number of independents winning seats in the single member districts.
55. Thus, there was a significantly higher correlation between the PR and single member district vote for major parties in 1995 compared to 1993. In 1993 only Russia's Choice, LDPR, and the Agrarian Party had statistically significant correlations between the two tiers. Yabloko and the KPRF did not. In 1995 all five major parties (Our Home Is Russia, KPRF, LDPR, Yabloko, and the Agrarian Party) had statistically significant correlations between their PR and single member district vote, double the level found in 1993.
56. Lane, p. 300; Rokkan, p. 355.
57. Rokkan, p. 261.
58. V. O. Key, Jr., Southern Politics in State and Nation (New York: Vintage Books, 1949).
59. All data were aggregated at the district level.
60. Ralph Clem and Peter Craumer, "A Rayon Level Analysis of the Russian Parliamentary Election and Constitutional Plebiscite of December 1993," Post-Soviet Geography, 36 (1995), 459-75; and Ralph S. Clem and Peter R. Craumer, "Regional Patterns of Voter Turnout in Russian Elections, 1993-1996," in Stephen White, Matthew Wyman, and Sarah Oates, eds., Elections and Voters in Postcommunist Russia (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, forthcoming), pp. 40-67.
61. Ralph Clem and Peter Craumer, "A Rayon Level Analysis of the Russian Parliamentary Election and Constitutional Plebiscite of December 1993," Post-Soviet Geography, 36 (1995), 459-75; and Ralph S. Clem and Peter R. Craumer, "Regional Patterns of Voter Turnout in Russian Elections, 1993-1996," in Stephen White, Matthew Wyman, and Sarah Oates, eds., Elections and Voters in Postcommunist Russia (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, forthcoming), pp. 40-67.
62. Herbert Kitschelt, "Formation of Party Cleavages in Post-Communist Democracies," Party Politics, 1 (1995), 457.
63. Maurice Duverger, Political Parties: Their Organization and Activity in the Modern State (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1954), pp. xxiv-xxx.