Defining the nation: Kurdish historiography in Turkey in the 1990s

Middle Eastern Studies

Volumn 37, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 145-166

  Hirschler, Konrad ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

IDENTITY CONSTRUCTION; NATIONAL IDENTITY; NATIONALISM;

TURKEY;

EID: 0034901887     PISSN: 00263206     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/714004406     Document Type: Article

References (121)

1. 'Kurdish historiography' here is understood as texts with historical subjects published in publications or within publishing houses sympathetic to or supporting one of the actors of the Kurdish national movement.
2. With the exception of A. Vali, 'Nationalism and Kurdish Historical Writing', in New Perspectives on Turkey, Vol.14, pp.23-51 (1996), whose source basis is monographs written by Kurds from Iraq, and K.M. Ahmed, Tarihin Tarihi, Kürtlerde Tarih, Tarihte Kadin (Istanbul, 1997), pp.51-116, which is mainly interesting for information on individual writers.
3. With the exception of A. Vali, 'Nationalism and Kurdish Historical Writing', in New Perspectives on Turkey, Vol.14, pp.23-51 (1996), whose source basis is monographs written by Kurds from Iraq, and K.M. Ahmed, Tarihin Tarihi, Kürtlerde Tarih, Tarihte Kadin (Istanbul, 1997), pp.51-116, which is mainly interesting for information on individual writers.
4. A. Vali, 'The Kurds and their "Others'", Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, Vol.18 (1998), pp.82-95.
5. C. Geertz, 'Ideology as a Cultural System', in C. Geertz., The Interpretation of Cultures (New York, 1973), pp.193-233.
6. Referring to the debate which started in the early 1980s, especially with the studies: E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (eds.), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983) and B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983/1991).
7. Referring to the debate which started in the early 1980s, especially with the studies: E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (eds.), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983) and B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983/1991).
8. G. Behrendt, Nationalismus in Kurdistan (Hamburg, 1992); M. van Bruinessen, 'Kurden zwischen ethnischer, religiöser und regionaler Identität', in C. Borck, E. Savelsberg and S. Hajo (eds.), Kurdologie: Ethnizität, Nationalismus, Religion und Politik in Kurdistan (Münster, 1997(a)), pp.185-216, or to a lesser degree H. Aǧuiçenoǧlu, Genese der türkischen und kurdischen Nationalismen im Vergleich (Münster, 1997).
9. G. Behrendt, Nationalismus in Kurdistan (Hamburg, 1992); M. van Bruinessen, 'Kurden zwischen ethnischer, religiöser und regionaler Identität', in C. Borck, E. Savelsberg and S. Hajo (eds.), Kurdologie: Ethnizität, Nationalismus, Religion und Politik in Kurdistan (Münster, 1997(a)), pp.185-216, or to a lesser degree H. Aǧuiçenoǧlu, Genese der türkischen und kurdischen Nationalismen im Vergleich (Münster, 1997).
10. G. Behrendt, Nationalismus in Kurdistan (Hamburg, 1992); M. van Bruinessen, 'Kurden zwischen ethnischer, religiöser und regionaler Identität', in C. Borck, E. Savelsberg and S. Hajo (eds.), Kurdologie: Ethnizität, Nationalismus, Religion und Politik in Kurdistan (Münster, 1997(a)), pp.185-216, or to a lesser degree H. Aǧuiçenoǧlu, Genese der türkischen und kurdischen Nationalismen im Vergleich (Münster, 1997).
11. Such as, for example, A.C. Turner, 'Kurdish Nationalism', in P.J. Chelkowski and R.J. Pranger (eds.), Ideology and Power in the Middle East (Durham and London, 1988), pp.379-410 or J. Blau and Y. Suleiman, 'Language and Ethnic Identity in Kurdistan: A Historical Overview', in Y. Suleiman (ed.), Language and Identity in the Middle East and North Africa (Richmond, 1996), pp.153-64.
12. Such as, for example, A.C. Turner, 'Kurdish Nationalism', in P.J. Chelkowski and R.J. Pranger (eds.), Ideology and Power in the Middle East (Durham and London, 1988), pp.379-410 or J. Blau and Y. Suleiman, 'Language and Ethnic Identity in Kurdistan: A Historical Overview', in Y. Suleiman (ed.), Language and Identity in the Middle East and North Africa (Richmond, 1996), pp.153-64.
13. I found the following studies particularly helpful for this issue: N. Entessar, Kurdish Ethnonationalism (Boulder, CO and London, 1992); G. Gürbey. 'The Development of the Kurdish Nationalist Movement in Turkey since the 1980s', in R. Olson (ed.), The Kurdish Nationalist Movement in the 1990s (Lexington: 1996), pp.9-37; M. van Bruinessen, 'Kurdish Society and the Modern State', in T. Atabaki and M. Dorlejin (eds.), Kurdistan in Search of Ethnic Identity (Utrecht, 1990), pp.24-51.
14. I found the following studies particularly helpful for this issue: N. Entessar, Kurdish Ethnonationalism (Boulder, CO and London, 1992); G. Gürbey. 'The Development of the Kurdish Nationalist Movement in Turkey since the 1980s', in R. Olson (ed.), The Kurdish Nationalist Movement in the 1990s (Lexington: 1996), pp.9-37; M. van Bruinessen, 'Kurdish Society and the Modern State', in T. Atabaki and M. Dorlejin (eds.), Kurdistan in Search of Ethnic Identity (Utrecht, 1990), pp.24-51.
15. I found the following studies particularly helpful for this issue: N. Entessar, Kurdish Ethnonationalism (Boulder, CO and London, 1992); G. Gürbey. 'The Development of the Kurdish Nationalist Movement in Turkey since the 1980s', in R. Olson (ed.), The Kurdish Nationalist Movement in the 1990s (Lexington: 1996), pp.9-37; M. van Bruinessen, 'Kurdish Society and the Modern State', in T. Atabaki and M. Dorlejin (eds.), Kurdistan in Search of Ethnic Identity (Utrecht, 1990), pp.24-51.
16. H.J. Barkey and G.E. Fuller, Turkey's Kurdish Question (New York, 1998), pp.15 f.
17. Ü.C. Sakallioǧlu, 'Historicising the Present and Problematising the Future of The Kurdish Question in Turkey', in New Perspectives on Turkey, Vol.14 (1996), pp.1-22.
18. Zaza is differently defined as a Kurdish dialect or an independent language. Bruinessen includes the Alevis among them within the overall category 'Kurdish Alevis', while Vorhoff differentiates between 'Kurds' and 'speakers of Zazaki'. M. van Bruinessen, 'Aslini inkar eden haramzadedir!' The Debate on the Ethnic Identity of the Kurdish Alevis, in K. Kehl-Bodrogi, B. Kellner-Heinkele and A. Otter Beaujean (eds.), Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East (Leiden/New York/Cologne, 1997(b)), pp.1-23; K. Vorhoff, Zwischen Glaube, Nation und neuer Gemeinschaft: Alevitische Identität in der Türkei der Gegenwart (Berlin, 1995).
19. Zaza is differently defined as a Kurdish dialect or an independent language. Bruinessen includes the Alevis among them within the overall category 'Kurdish Alevis', while Vorhoff differentiates between 'Kurds' and 'speakers of Zazaki'. M. van Bruinessen, 'Aslini inkar eden haramzadedir!' The Debate on the Ethnic Identity of the Kurdish Alevis, in K. Kehl-Bodrogi, B. Kellner-Heinkele and A. Otter Beaujean (eds.), Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East (Leiden/New York/Cologne, 1997(b)), pp.1-23; K. Vorhoff, Zwischen Glaube, Nation und neuer Gemeinschaft: Alevitische Identität in der Türkei der Gegenwart (Berlin, 1995).
20. Bruinessen, Kurdish Society, pp.35 ff.
21. Bruinessen, Identität, pp.205 ff.
22. Bruinessen, Kurdish Alevis, pp.15 f.
23. For details of the developments, see M. Strohmeier, Seldschukische Geschichte und türkische Geschichtswissenschaft (Berlin, 1984), pp.102 ff.
24. İ. Beşjkçi, Türk Tarih Tezi ve Kürt sorunu (Ankara, 1977), p.20.
25. As expressed for example in the works of Turkish historians of the Ottoman Empire such as Halil İnalcik, Selim Deringil or Şerif Mardin.
26. H. Millas, 'History Textbooks in Greece and Turkey', in History Workshop Journal, Vol.31 (1991), pp.21-3.3.
27. M. Yeǧen, 'The Turkish State Discourse and the Exclusion of Kurdish Identity', in S. Kedourie (ed.), Turkey, Identity, Democracy, Politics (London/Portland, 1996), pp.216-29, here p.216.
28. M. van Bruinessen, 'Shifting National and Ethnic Identities: the Kurds in Turkey and Europe', Paper presented at the international Symposium 'Redefining the Nation, State and Citizen', Istanbul, 28-29 March (1996) (a), p.2.
29. K. Kirişçi and G.M. Winrow, The Kurdish Question and Turkey an Example of Trans-State Ethnic Conflict (London, 1997).
30. D. Köksal, 'Who Writes about the Kurdish Problem (review article)', in New Perspectives on Turkey, Vol.17 (1997), pp.174-80, here p.175.
31. For example 'Dicle-Firat' in 1962 or Yeni Akiş', in 1966; for information on the Kurdish press until the 1980s see K. Burkay, Geçmişten bugüne Kür'ler ve Kürdistan. Vol.1 (Istanbul, 1992); especially for the 1990s see M. Yücel, Kürt Basin Tarihi (Istanbul, 1998).
32. For example 'Dicle-Firat' in 1962 or Yeni Akiş', in 1966; for information on the Kurdish press until the 1980s see K. Burkay, Geçmişten bugüne Kür'ler ve Kürdistan. Vol.1 (Istanbul, 1992); especially for the 1990s see M. Yücel, Kürt Basin Tarihi (Istanbul, 1998).
33. I.G. Imset, 'Turkish Roulette: The Freedom Enjoyed by Turkey's Profuse and Daily Newspapers Does Not Extend To Their Kurdish Counterparts', in Index on Censorship, Vol.25 (1996), pp.74-7.
34. Imset, Turkish Roulette, p.74.
35. Özgür Politika, 10 May 1999, p.2.
36. Currently there are efforts in the exiled community in Europe to unify and modernize Kurdish: Bruinessen, 'Shifting National' (1996) (a). Here Kurd sh satellite TV plays an important role.
37. In terms of contributions to the newspaper and other publication cited in the present article.
38. S. Mihutuli, Arya uygarliklarindan Kürtlere (Istanbul, 1992) ('From the Aryan civilizations to the Kurds').
39. C. Bender, Kürt uygarliḡinda Alevilik (Istanbul, 1991) ('Alevism in the Kurdish civilization').
40. G. Aksoy, Tarihi yazilmayan halk: Kürtler (Istanbul, 1996) ('The people whose history has not been written: the Kurds').
41. M.S. Bilgin, Yapraklar açana dek (Stockholm, 1997) ('Until the leaves open').
42. Torî, Qolinç (Istanbul, 1992) (in Kurdish).
43. Torî, Ferheng Kurdî-Tirkî, Türkçe-Kürtçe (Istanbul, 1992).
44. Gürdal Aksoy, 'Kürtlerde tarih bilinci ve söylenci' ('Historical consciousness and story among the Kurds') (23 Nov. 1994, p.10).
45. Rohat Alakom, 'Bir halkin tarihini düşman yazamaz' ('The history of a people cannot be written by the enemy') (11 June 1996, p.9).
46. Şerefxan Cizirî, 'Tarih anlayişi üzerine' ('On the comprehension of history') (12 Nov. 1994, p. 10).
47. Şerefxan Cizirî, 'Birey ve tarih' ('The individual and history') (18 Dec. 1994, p. 10).
48. Hasan Oǧuz, 'Tarih biliminin öncüsü' ('The pioneer of history [writing]') (24, 25 and 26 Oct. 1996, p.8).
49. G. Aksoy, 'Kürtlerin kökeni bilim dünyasi'ndaki yeri' ('The place of the Kurds' roots in the scientific community') in Berhem, Vol.6-7 (1993).
50. Aksoy, Tarihi yazilmayan halk.
51. M. Siraç Bilgin, Tarih yazicilari' ('The writers of history') (27 June 1996, p.9) or Şerefxan Cizirî: 'Özgür tarih' ('Free history') (15 July 1996, p.9).
52. M. Siraç Bilgin, Tarih yazicilari' ('The writers of history') (27 June 1996, p.9) or Şerefxan Cizirî: 'Özgür tarih' ('Free history') (15 July 1996, p.9).
53. Şerefxan Cizirî, 'Tarih anlayişi üzerine' ('On the comprehension of history') (12 Nov. 1994, p. 10).
54. Deniz Çelik, 'Resmi Kürt tarihinin sonu mu?' ('The end of the official Kurdish history?') (29 March 1996, p.9).
55. Gürdal Aksoy, 'Tarihte Kürtler, Kürtlerde tarih' ('The Kurds in history, history among the Kurds') (4 Jan. 1995, p. 10).
56. Gürdal Aksoy (4 Jan. 1995).
57. M. Can Yüce, 'Kürt tarih yaziciliǧinda yöntem üzerine' ('On the method in Kurdish history writing') (17 and 18 June 1996, p.2).
58. S. İzzet Güven, 'Cemşid Bender'in tezleri üzerine' ('On Cemşid Bender's theses') (21 Dec. 1994, p.10).
59. Torî, 'Tarih tartişmasi' (The discussion of history) (14 June 1996, p.9).
60. Gürdal Aksoy, Tarihte Türk isimleri' (Turkish names in history) (13 July 1994, p.10).
61. Torî, 'Kürtçe'de dil birliklerinin oluşmasi' ('The development of linguistic units within the Kurdish language') (6 Oct. 1995, p.9).
62. Geertz, Ideology, p.220.
63. G. Smith, V. Law, A. Wilson, A. Bohr and E. Allworth, Nation-Building in the Post-Soviet Borderlands (Cambridge, 1998), pp.24 ff.
64. Selahaddin Mihutuli, 'Arya-Sümer Kürt anonim kültüründen motifler' ('Motifs from an anonymous Aryan-Sumerian Kurdish culture') (10 July 1997, p.9).
65. Toplum Yaşam Servisi, 'Adim adim güneş ülkesi'ne - Mereş (Gurgum)' ('Step by step towards the country of the sun - Maraş') (2 Nov. 1995, p.12).
66. M. Can Yüce (17 and 18 June 1996).
67. V. Minorsky, 'Kurden' in Enzyklopaedie des Islam (Leiden, 1913-36).
68. Cemşid Bender interviewed by Aydin Dere, 'Cemşid Bender'le Kürt tarihi üzerine . . .' ('With Cemşid Bender on Kurdish history . . .') (26 Sept. 1995, p.9).
69. Gürdal Aksoy (4 Jan. 1995).
70. Toplum Yaşam Servisi, 'Adim adim, güneş ülkesi'ne: Erzincan, Mereş, Qers, Erzirom' ('Step by step towards the country of the sun - Erzincan, Maraş. Kars, Erzurum') (5 Oct., 2, 16 and 30 Nov. 1995).
71. Selahaddin Mihutuli (10 July 1997).
72. Toplum Yaşam Servisi, 'Adim adim günes, ülkesi'ne - Agrî' (Ararat) ('Step by step towards the country of the sun - Aǧrî') (12 Oct. 1995, p.12).
73. Torî, 'Anadolu uygarliǧinda Kürt etkisi' ('The Kurdish influence in the Anatolian civilization') (9 April 1994, p.8).
74. Cemşid Bender interviewed by Aydin Dere (26 Sept. 1995).
75. Toplum Yaşam Servisi, 'Adim adim güneş ülkesi'ne doǧru - Mêrdin' ('Step by step towards the country of the sun - Mardin') (28 Sept. 1995, p.12).
76. For example M. Ali Welat, 'Kürdistan ortak kültürlerin anasidir' ('Kurdistan is the mother of the common cultures') (7 Oct. 1994, p.10).
77. Fatih Sönmez, 'Türk egemenlik sistemi içinde: Ermeni halkinin trajik sonu' (Within the system of Turkish sovereignty: the tragic end of the Armenian people) (24, 25, 26, 27 and 28 April 1996, p.8).
78. Ragip Zarakolu, 'Adlarini başkalari verdi' ('Others gave their names') (29 Sept. 1997, p.5).
79. Selahaddin Mihutuli, 'Halki kurtaran kahraman' (The hero who liberated-liberates the people') (17 July 1997, p.9).
80. Toplum Yaşam Servisi (2 Nov. 1995).
81. Toplum Yaşam Servisi (16 Nov. 1995).
82. Torî, 'Tarihte duygu sömürüsü' ('The exploitation of emotion in history') (1 Aug. 1996, p.9).
83. Hüsseyin Kaytan, 'Ateşi bedenler uyandiriyor' ('The bodies lighten the fire') (22 March 1994, p. 12).
84. Sharaf-nāma written by Sharaf al-Dīn Khān Bidlisi (b. 1543) is a history of the Kurds written in Persian. Today the author is often perceived in the sources under scrutiny as an early Kurdish nationalist; see for example Mehmet Can, 'Xanê, Kürt ulusalciliǧinin babasidir' ('Xanê is the father of Kurdish national consciousness') (24 Oct. 1995, p.9).
85. Yilmaz Varol, 'Kawa Kürt mü?' ('Is Kawa a Kurd?') (7 July 1994, p.10).
86. Cemşid Bender interviewed by Aydin Dere (26 Sept. 1995; Torî (9 April 1994); Selahaddin Mihutuli (17 July 1997).
87. Selahaddin Mihutuli, 'Uygarliǧiri yaraticilari; Aryalar' ('The creators of civilization: the Aryans') (2 April 1994, p.8).
88. Cemşid Bender interviewed by Aydin Dere (26 Sept. 1995).
89. Selahaddin Mihutuli (2 April 1994).
90. Cemşid Bender interviewed with Aydin Dere (26 Sept. 1995).
91. Selahaddin Mihutuli (2 April 1994).
92. Torî, 'Kültürün bütünselliḡi' ('The consistency of the cultures') (29 March 1996, p.9).
93. Çetin Arkaş, Burhan Babaoǧlu, Nurset Benek, 'Türk-Bati ilişkiterinin tarihsel temelleri' ('The historical bases of Turkish-West relations') (12 Sept. 1996, p.8).
94. Fatma Gönen, 'Türk ordusunun dünü bugünü - Vahşet Osmanli'dan miras' ('The present and past of the Turkish army - Cruelty is a heritage from the Ottomans') (22 Jan. 1996, p.8).
95. M. Ali Welat (7 Oct. 1994).
96. Araştirma Servisi, 'Tarihi kürt kişilikleri' ('Historical Kurdish personalities') (19, 20, 21 and 22 Sept. 1995, p.8).
97. İlhami Yazgan, 'Kürt orijinli Islam Sultani' ('The Islamic Sultar of Kurdish origins') (17 June 1997, p.9).
98. See for example Vorhoff, op. cit. (1995).
99. M. van Bruinessen, 'Kurds, Turks and the Alevi Revival in Turkey', in Middle East Report 200 (1996 (b)), pp.7-10, here p.7.
100. P.A. Andrews (ed.), Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey (W esbaden, 1989), p.57 and pp.116-17.
101. This debate is the subject of the study by Vorhoff (1995).
102. Barkey and Fuller, Kurdish Question, p.67.
103. Hobsbawm and Ranger, Invention.
104. Vorhoff, Alevitische Identität, pp.111 ff.
105. Vorhoff, Alevitische Identität.
106. 'Aslini inkar eden haramzadedir!'.
107. Cemşid Bender, Aleviliǧen Tarihi Kökeni (The Historical Root of Alevism) (7 Aug. 1995, p.8).
108. This is an Islamic mystical order traced back to the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and to Haci Bektaş Veli. Owing to its close interweaving with Alevism, both terms are today often used interchangeably.
109. Cemşid Bender, 'Aleviliǧin kökeni üzerine düşüncüler' (part 3 of 3) ('Reflections on the roots of Alevism') (28 Sept. 1996, p.8).
110. Ziya Aydin, 'Tarihini unutan bir halk, köledir' ('The people who forgets its history is a slave') (14 March 1996, p.9).
111. Haydar Demir, 'Arap kültürünün boǧduǧu din: Zerdüştlük' ('The religion, which was throttled by the Arab culture: Zoroastrianism') (1 April 1994, p.8).
112. Vorhoff, Alevitische Identität (1995), p. 114.
113. Haydar Demir (1 April 1994).
114. See for example S. Berger, M. Donovan, and K. Passmore eds.), Writing National Histories (London/New York, 1999).
115. Vorhoff, Alevitische Identität (1995), p.79.
116. Vali, Kurdish Historical Writing, p.50.
117. Guardian, 10 Feb. 2000.
118. For example, M. Can Yüce (17 June 1996) or Şerefxan Cizirî (18 Dec. 1994).
119. With the exception of M. Can Yüce (17 and 18 June 1996).
120. Sakallioǧlu, Historicising, p.14.
121. Vali, Kurdish Historical Writing, pp.31 ff.