Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin-resistant enterococci: Emerging problems and new prospects for management

Annals of the Academy of Medicine Singapore

Volumn 30, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 320-331

  Noskin, G A ^a  

^a NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Gram positive; Linezolid; Oxazolidinone; Quinupristin dalfopristin; Resistance; Review; Staphylococci; Streptogramin

Indexed keywords

AZTREONAM; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CEFAZOLIN; CEFPODOXIME; CEFPODOXIME PROXETIL; CEFTAZIDIME; CEFTRIAXONE; CIPROFLOXACIN; CLARITHROMYCIN; CYCLOSPORIN; DALFOPRISTIN PLUS QUINUPRISTIN; DICLOXACILLIN; DIPHENHYDRAMINE; FLUCONAZOLE; HEPARIN; HYDROCORTISONE; LINEZOLID; METICILLIN; MIDAZOLAM; NIFEDIPINE; OXACILLIN; OXAZOLIDINONE DERIVATIVE; SODIUM CHLORIDE; STREPTOGRAMIN; TACROLIMUS; VANCOMYCIN;

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTIBIOTIC SENSITIVITY; BACTERIAL INFECTION; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONFERENCE PAPER; CRITICAL ILLNESS; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG INDUCED DISEASE; DRUG MECHANISM; ENTEROCOCCUS; GRAM POSITIVE BACTERIUM; HEALTH CARE MANAGEMENT; HIGH RISK PATIENT; HUMAN; INFECTION RISK; INTENSIVE CARE; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; MORTALITY; MULTIDRUG RESISTANCE; NONHUMAN; PENICILLIN RESISTANCE; STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS;

EID: 0034872268     PISSN: 03044602     EISSN: 29724066     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (109)

1. Edmond M B, Wallace S E, McClish D K, Pfaller M A, Jones R N, Wenzel R P. Nosocomial bloodstream infections in United States hospitals: a three-year analysis. Clin Infect Dis 1999; 29:239-44.
2. Pfaller M A, Jones R N, Doern G V, Sader H S, Kugler K C, Beach M L, and the SENTRY Participants Group. Survey of blood stream infections attributable to gram-positive cocci: frequency of occurrence and antimicrobial susceptibility of isolates collected in 1997 in the United States, Canada, and Latin America from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1999; 33:283-97.
3. Richards M J, Edwards J R, Culver D H, Gaynes R P. Nosocomial infections in medical intensive care units in the United States. Crit Care Med 1999; 27:887-92.
4. Doern G V, Jones R N, Pfaller M A, Kugler K C, Beach M L, and the SENTRY Study Group (North America). Bacterial pathogens isolated from patients with skin and soft tissue infections: frequency of occurrence and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (United States and Canada, 1997). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1999; 34:65-72.
5. Dennesen P J W, Bonten M J M, Weinstein R A. Multiresistant bacteria as a hospital epidemic problem. Ann Med 1998; 30:176-85.
6. Jones R N. Impact of changing pathogens and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns in the treatment of serious infections in hospitalized patients. Am J Med 1996; 100(Suppl 6A):3S-12S.
7. Archibald L, Phillips L, Monnet D, McGowan J E Jr, Tenover F, Gaynes R. Antimicrobial resistance in isolates from inpatients and outpatients in the United States: increasing importance of the intensive care unit. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 24:211-5.
8. File T M Jr. Overview of resistance in the 1990s. Chest 1999; 115(Suppl):3S-8S.
9. Fridkin S K, Gaynes R P. Antimicrobial resistance in intensive care units. Clin Chest Med 1999; 20:303-16.
10. Baquero F. Gram-positive resistance: challenge for the development of new antibiotics. J Antimicrob Chemother 1997; 39(Suppl A):1-6.
11. Barie P S. Antibiotic-resistant gram-positive cocci: implications for surgical practice. World J Sur 1998; 22:118-26.
12. Linden P K. Clinical implications of nosocomial gram-positive bacteremia and superimposed antimicrobial resistance. Am J Med 1998; 104:24S-33S.
13. Murray B E. Vancomycin-resistant enterococcal infections. N Engl J Med 2000; 342:710-21.
14. Zyvox® (linezolid) prescribing information. Kalamazoo, MI: Pharmacia, April 2000.
15. Synercid® (quinupristin/dalfopristin) prescribing information. Bridgewater, NJ: Aventis Pharmaceuticals Products Inc., July 1999.
16. Eliopoulos G M, Wennersten C B, Gold H S, Moellering R C Jr. In vitro activities of new oxazolidinone antimicrobial agents against enterococci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996; 40:1745-7.
17. Hill R L, Smith C T, Seyed-Akhavani M, Casewell M W. Bactericidal and inhibitory activity of quinupristin/dalfopristin against vancomycin- and gentamicin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. J Antimicrob Chemother 1997; 39(Suppl A):23-8.
18. Jones M E, Visser M R, Klootwijk M, Heisig P, Verhoef J, Schmitz F-J. Comparative activities of clinafloxacin, grepafloxacin, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, ofloxacin, sparfloxacin, and trovafloxacin and nonquinolones linozelid, quinupristin-dalfopristin, gentamicin, and vancomycin against clinical isolates of ciprofloxacin-resistant and -susceptible Staphylococcus aureus strains. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999; 43:421-3.
19. Noskin G A, Siddiqui F, Stosor V, Hacek D, Peterson L R. In vitro activities of linezolid against important gram-positive bacterial pathogens including vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999; 43:2059-62.
20. Rybak M J, Hershberger E, Moldovan T, Grucz R G. In vitro activities of daptomycin, vancomycin, linezolid, and quinupristin/dalfopristin against staphylococci and enterococci, including vancomycin-intermediate and -resistant strains. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000; 44:1062-6.
21. von Eiff C, Reinert R R, Kresken M, Brauers J, Hafner D, Peters G. Nationwide German multicenter study on the prevalence of antibiotic resistance in staphylococcal bloodstream isolates and comparative in vitro activities of quinupristin-dalfopristin. J Clin Microbiol 2000; 38:2819-23.
22. Ayliffe G A J. The progressive intercontinental spread of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 24(Suppl 1):S74-9.
23. Hashimoto H, Inoue M, Hayashi I. A survey of Staphylococcus aureus for typing and drug-resistance in various areas of Japan during 1992 and 1993. Jpn J Antibiot 1994; 47:618-26.
24. Voss A, Milatovic D, Wallrauch-Schwarz C, Rosdahl V T, Braveny I. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Europe. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1994; 13:50-5.
25. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention System. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) system report, data summary from January 1990-May 1999, issued June 1999. Am J Infect Control 1999; 27:520-32.
26. Panlilio A L, Culver D H, Gaynes R P, Banerjee S, Henderson T S, Tolson J S, et al, and the National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in U.S. hospitals, 1975-1991. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1992; 13:582-6.
27. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Staphylococcus aureus with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin - United States, 1997. MMWR 1997; 46:765-6.
28. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Update: Staphylococcus aureus with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin - United States, 1997. MMWR 1997; 46:813-5.
29. Sieradzki K, Roberts R B, Haber S W, Tomasz A. The development of vancomycin resistance in a patient with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. N Engl J Med 1999; 340:517-23.
30. Smith T L, Pearson M L, Wilcox K R, Cruz C, Lancaster M V, Robinson-Dunn B, et al, for the Glycopeptide-Intermediate Staphylococcus aureus Working Group. Emergence of vancomycin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. N Engl J Med 1999; 340: 493-501.
31. Hiramatsu K, Hanaki H, Ino T, Yabuta K, Oguri T, Tenover F C. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clinical strain with reduced vancomycin susceptibility. J Antimicrob Chemother 1997; 40:135-6.
32. Hiramatsu K. The emergence of Staphylococcus aureus with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin in Japan. Am J Med 1998; 104(Suppl 5A):7S-10S.
33. Ploy M C, Grélaud C, Martin C, de Lumley L, Denis F. First clinical isolate of vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus in a French hospital [letter]. Lancet 1998; 351:1212.
34. Hiramatsu K, Aritaka N, Hanaki H, Kawasaki S, Hosoda Y, Hori S, et al. Dissemination in Japanese hospitals of strains of Staphylococcus aureus heterogeneously resistant to vancomycin. Lancet 1997; 350:1670-3.
35. Romero-Vivas J, Rubio M, Fernandez C, Picazo J J. Mortality associated with nosocomial bacteremia due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 21:1417-23.
36. Pujol M, Peña C, Pallares R, Ariza J, Ayats J, Dominguez M A, et al. Nosocomial Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia among nasal carriers of methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible strains. Am J Med 1996; 100:509-16.
37. Abramson M A, Sexton D J. Nosocomial methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus primary bacteremia: at what costs? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999; 20:408-11.
38. Carbon C. Costs of treating infections caused by methicillin-resistant staphylococci and vancomycin-resistant enterococci. J Antimicrob Chemother 1999; 44(Suppl A):31-6.
39. Horváthová Z, Spánik S, Sufliarsky J, Mardiak J, Pichòa P, Pichòova E, et al. Bacteremia due to methicillin-resistant staphylococci occurs more frequently in neutropenic patients who received antimicrobial prophylaxis and is associated with higher mortality in comparison to methicillin-sensitive bacteriemia. Int J Antimicrob Agents 1998; 10: 55-8.
40. Rubin R J, Harrington C A, Poon A, Dietrich K, Greene J A, Moiduddin A. The economic impact of Staphylococcus aureus infection in New York City hospitals. Emerging Infect Dis 1999; 5:9-17.
41. Holmberg S D, Solomon S L, Blake P A. Health and economic impacts of antimicrobial resistance. Rev Infect Dis 1987; 9:1065-78.
42. Boyce J M, Landry M, Deetz T R, DuPont H L. Epidemiologic studies of an outbreak of nosocomial methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections. Infect Control 1981; 2:110-6.
43. Schmitz F-J, Krey A, Geisel R, Verhoef J, Heinz H-P, Fluit AC, and the SENTRY Participants Group. Susceptibility of 302 methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates from 20 European university hospitals to vancomycin and alternative antistaphylococcal compounds. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1999; 18:528-30.
44. Bell J M, Paton J C, Turnidge J. Emergence of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in Australia: phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of isolates. J Clin Microbiol 1998; 36:2187-90.
45. Edmond M B, Ober J F, Weinbaum D L, Pfaller M A, Hwang T, Sanford M D, et al. Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium bacteremia: risk factors for infection. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 20:1126-33.
46. Ostrowsky B E, Venkataraman L, D'Agata E M C, Gold H S, DeGirolami P C, Samore M H. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci in intensive care units: high frequency of stool carriage during a non-outbreak period. Arch Intern Med 1999; 159:1467-72.
47. Tornieporth N G, Roberts R B, John J, Hafner A, Riley L W. Risk factors associated with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium infection or colonization in 145 matched case patients and control patients. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 23:767-2.
48. Montecalvo M A, Shay D K, Patel P, Tacsa L, Maloney S A, Jarvis W R, et al. Bloodstream infections with vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Arch Intern Med 1996; 156:1458-62.
49. Noskin G A. Vancomycin resistant enterococci: clinical, microbiologic and epidemiologic features. J Lab Clin Med 1997; 130:14-20.
50. Shay D K, Maloney S A, Montecalvo M, Banerjee S, Wormser G P, Arduino M J, et al. Epidemiology and mortality risk of vancomycin-resistant enterococcal bloodstream infections. J Infect Dis 1995; 172:993-1000.
51. Stosor V, Peterson L R, Postelnick M, Noskin G A. Enterococcus faecium bacteremia: does vancomycin resistance make a difference? Arch Intern Med 1998; 158:522-7.
52. Linden P K, Miller C B. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci: the clinical effect of a common nosocomial pathogen. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1999; 33:113-20.
53. Linden P K, Pasculle A W, Manez R, Kramer D J, Fung J J, Pinna A D, et al. Differences in outcomes for patients with bacteremia due to vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium or vancomycin-susceptible E. faecium. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 22:663-70.
54. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recommendations for preventing the spread of vancomycin resistance. Recommendations of the hospital infection control practices advisory committee (HICPAC). MMWR 1995; 44:1-13.
55. Edmond M. Isolation. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997; 18:58-64.
56. Wenzel R P, Edmond M B. Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: infection control considerations. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 27:245-51.
57. Wenzel R P, Nettleman M D, Jones R N, Pfaller M A. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: implications for the 1990s and effective control measures. Am J Med 1991; 91(suppl 3B): 221S-227S.
58. Whitehouse J D, Sexton D J, Kirkland K B. Infection control: Past, present, and future issues. Comp Ther 1998; 24:71-7.
59. Shlaes D M, Gerding D N, John J F Jr, et al. Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America and Infectious Diseases Society of America Joint Committee on the Prevention of Antimicrobial Resistance: guidelines for the prevention of antimicrobial resistance in hospitals. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 25:584-99.
60. Struelens M J. The epidemiology of antimicrobial resistance in hospital acquired infections: problems and possible solutions. BMJ 1998; 317:652-4.
61. Jarvis W R. Selected aspects of the socioeconomic impact of nosocomial infections: morbidity, mortality, cost, and prevention. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996; 17:552-7.
62. Haley R W, Culver D H, White J W, Morgan W M, Emori T G, Munn V P, et al. The efficacy of infection surveillance and control programs in preventing nosocomial infections in US hospitals. Am J Epidemiol 1985; 121:182-205.
63. Yates R R. New intervention strategies for reducing antibiotic resistance. Chest 1999; 115(suppl):24S-27S.
64. McGowan J E Jr. Do intensive hospital antibiotic control programs prevent the spread of antibiotic resistance? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1994; 15:478-3.
65. Marr J J, Moffet H L, Kunin C M. Guidelines for improving the use of antimicrobial agents in hospitals: a statement by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. J Infect Dis 1988; 157:869-76.
66. Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC). Recommendations for preventing the spread of vancomycin resistance. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995; 16:105-13.
67. Hamel J C, Stapert D, Moerman J K, Ford C W. Linezolid, critical characteristics. Infection 2000; 28:60-4.
68. Clemett D, Markham A. Linezolid. Drugs 2000; 59:815-27.
69. Fines M, Leclercq R. Activity of linezolid against gram-positive cocci possessing genes conferring resistance to protein synthesis inhibitors. J Antimicrob Chemother 2000; 45:797-802.
70. Zurenko G E, Yagi B H, Schaadt R D, Allison J W, Kilburn J O, Glickman S E, et al. In vitro activities of U-100592 and U-100766, novel oxazol idinone antibacterial agents. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996; 40:839-45.
71. Bostic G D, Perri M B, Thai L A, Zervos M J. Comparative in vitro and bactericidal activity of oxazolidinone antibiotics against multidrug-resistant enterococci. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1998; 30:109-12.
72. Johnson A P, Warner M, Livermore D M. Activity of linezolid against multi-resistant gram-positive bacteria from diverse hospitals in the United Kingdom. J Antimicrob Chemother 2000; 45:225-30.
73. Patel R, Rouse M S, Piper K E, Steckelberg J M. In vitro activity of linezolid against vancomycin-resistant enterococci, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and penicillin-resistant Streplococcus pneumoniae. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1999; 34:119-22.
74. Ballow C H, Jones R N, Biedenbach D J, Schentag J J. Multicenter evaluation of linezolid antimicrobial activity in North America (NA). In: Abstracts from the 40th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; 2000 Sept 17-20; Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Washington DC: American Society for Microbiology, 2000:186. Abstract 2303.
75. Borek A P, Peterson L R, Noskin G A. Activity of linezolid (LIN) against medically important gram-positive bacteria from 1997 to 1999. In: Abstracts from the 40th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; 2000 Sept 17-20; Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Washington DC: American Society for Microbiology, 2000:185. Abstract 2299.
76. Stevens D L, Smith L G, Bruss J B, McConnell-Martin M A, Duvall S E, Todd W M, et al, for the Linezolid Skin and Soft Tissue Infections Study Group. Randomized comparison of linezolid (PNU-100766) versus oxacillin/dicloxacillin for the treatment of complicated skin and soft tissue infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000; 44: 3408-13.
77. Duvall S E, Seas C, Bruss J B, McConnell-Martin M A, Todd W M, Hafkin B. Comparison of oral linezolid to oral clarithromycin in the treatment of uncomplicated skin infections: results from a multinational phase III trial. In: Abstracts of the 9th International Congress on Infectious Diseases; 2000 April 10-13; Buenos Aires, Argentina. Lewiston (NY): B.C. Decker Inc., 2000:181. Abstract 80.005.
78. Rubinstein E, Cammarata S K, Oliphant T H, Wunderink R G, and the Linezolid Nosocomial Pneumonia Study Group. Linezolid (PNU-10076) versus vancomycin in the treatment of hospitalized patients with nosocomial pneumonia: a randomized, double-blind, multicenter study. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32:402-12.
79. Cammarata S K, Schueman L K, Timm J A, Hempsall K A, Chang W, Oliphant T H, et al. Oral linezolid in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia: a phase III trial. In: Program and Abstracts of the American Thoracic Society 2000, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, May 5-10, 2000. New York: American Thoracic Society, 2000:654:E73.
80. Cammarata S K, San Pedro G S, Timm J A, Hempsall K A, Todd W M, Oliphant T H, et al. Comparison of linezolid versus ceftriaxone/ cefpodoxime in the treatment of hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Microbiol Infect 2000; 6(Suppl 1): 136. Abstract WeP237.
81. Hartman C S, Leach T S, Kaja R W, Schaser R J, Todd W M, Hafkin B. Linezolid in the treatment of vancomycin-resistant enterococcus: a dose comparative, multicenter phase III trial. In: Abstracts from the 40th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; 2000 Sept 17-20; Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Washington DC: American Society for Microbiology, 2000:488. Abstract 2235.
82. Leach T S, Kaja R W, Eckert S M, Schaser R J, Todd W M, Hafkin B. et al. Linezolid versus vancomycin for the treatment of MRSA infections: results of a randomized phase III trial. In: Abstracts of the 9th International Congress on Infectious Diseases; 2000 April 10-13; Buenos Aires, Argentina. Lewiston (NY): B.C. Decker Inc., 2000:224. Abstract 95.079.
83. Bruss J B, Smith L G, Duvall S E, Todd W M, Oliphant T H, Cammarata S A, et al. Safety and tolerance of linezolid: adverse events reported in phase III trials. In: Abstracts from the 40th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; 2000 Sept 17-20: Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Washington DC: American Society for Microbiology, 2000:488. Abstract 2236.
84. Leach T S, Lobeck F G, Todd W M, Hafkin B. Lack of serotonin syndrome in phase III patients receiving linezolid and a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) [abstract]. In: Abstracts of the 38th Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, New Orleans, Louisiana, September 7-10, 2000. Alexandria, VA: Infectious Diseases Society, 2000.
85. Rittenhouse B E, Li Z, Willke R J, Pinto L, Click H A, Haftin B. Reexamining hospital length of stay (LOS) reduction potential in a randomized, multi-center clinical trial of methicillin-resistant staphylococci species (MRSS): linezolid v. vancomycin. In: Abstracts from the 40th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; 2000 Sept 17-20; Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Washington DC: American Society for Microbiology, 2000:510. Abstract 2132.
86. Li Z, Willke RJ, Pinto LA, Rittenhouse B E, Rybak M J, Pleil A M, et al. Comparison of length of hospital stay in patients with known or suspected methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus species infections treated with linezolid or vancomycin: a randomized, multicenter trial. Pharmacotherapy 2001; 21:263-74.
87. Leach T S, Schaser R J, Todd W M, Hafkin B, Kaja R W. Efficacy of linezolid in patients infected with vancomycin-resistant enterococcus based on severity of illness [abstract]. In: Abstracts of the 38th Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, New Orleans, Louisiana, September 7-10, 2000. Alexandria, VA: Infectious Diseases Society, 2000.
88. Leach T S, Schaser R J, Todd W M, Hafkin B, Kaja R W. Clinical efficacy of linezolid (LZD) for complicated skin and soft tissue infections (CSST) caused by MRSA [abstract]. In: Abstracts of the 38th Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, New Orleans, Louisiana, September 7-10, 2000. Alexandria, VA: Infectious Diseases Society, 2000.
89. Noskin G A, Siddiqui F, Stosor V, Peterson L R. Linezolid (LZD) for the treatment of vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) in immunocompromised hosts. In: Abstracts of the 37th Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, November 18-21, 1999. Alexandria, VA: Infectious Diseases Society, 1999.
90. Gehman, M H, Pitsakis P G, Mallela S V, Levison M E. Linezolid (L) vs methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in experimental rat endocarditis (E). In: Abstracts of the 37th Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, November 18-21, 1999. Alexandria, VA: Infectious Diseases Society, 1999. Abstract P169.
91. Buchanan L, Dileto-Fang C, Dailey C, Lawson J, Oramas-Shirley M, LeMay R, et al. Antimicrobial effects of linezolid and vancomycin in experimental endocarditis. In: Abstracts of the 37th Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, November 18-21, 1999. Alexandria, VA: Infectious Diseases Society, 1999. Abstract P52.
92. Patel R, Rouse M S, Piper K E, Steckelberg J M. Linezolid therapy of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium experimental endocarditis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001; 45:621-3.
93. Patel R, Piper K E, Rouse M S, Steckelberg J M. Linezolid therapy of Staphylococcus aureus experimental osteomyelitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000; 44:3438-40.
94. Aumercier M, Bouhallab S, Capmau M L, Le Goffic F. RP 59500: a proposed mechanism for its bactericidal activity. J Antimicrob Chemother 1992; 30(Suppl A):9-14.
95. Chevalier P, Rey J, Pasquier O, Leclercq V, Baguet J C, Meyrier A, et al. Pharmacokinetics of quinupristin/dalfopristin in patients with severe chronic renal insufficiency. Clin Pharmacokinet 2000; 39:77-84.
96. Nichols R L, Graham D R, Barriere S L, Rodgers A, Wilson S E, Zervos M, et al, for the Synercid Skin and Skin Structure Infection Group. Treatment of hospitalized patients with complicated gram-positive skin and skin structure infections: two randomized, multicenter studies of quinupristin/dalfopristin versus cefazolin, oxacillin or vancomycin. J Antimicrob Chemother 1999; 44:263-73.
97. Moellering R C, Linden P K. Efficacy and safety of quinupristin/ dalfopristin (RP 59500, Synercid) in the treatment of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (VREF) infections. In: Abstracts of the 20th International Congress of Chemotherapy (ICC), Sydney, Australia, June 29-July 3, 1997.
98. Moellering R C, Linden P K, Reinhardt J, Blumberg E A, Bompart F, Talbot G H. The efficacy and safety of quinupristin/dalfopristin for the treatment of infections caused by vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. J Antimicrob Chemother 1999; 44:251-61.
99. Dowzicky M, Talbot G H, Feger C, Prokocimer P, Etienne J, Leclercq R. Characterization of isolates associated with emerging resistance to quinupristin/dalfopristin (Synercid) during a worldwide clinical program. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2000; 37:57-62.
100. Kugler K C, Denys G A, Wilson M L, Jones R N. Serious streptococcal infections produced by isolates resistant to streptogramins (quinupristin/ dalfopristin): case reports from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2000; 36:269-72.
101. Lewis M T, Gales A C, Sader H S, Pfaller M A, Jones R N. Frequency of occurrence and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns for pathogens isolated from Latin American patients with a diagnosis of pneumonia: results from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (1998). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2000; 37:63-74.
102. Winston D J, Emmanouilides C, Kroeber A, Hindler J, Bruckner D A, Territo M C, et al. Quinupristin/dalfopristin therapy for infections due to vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 30:790-7.
103. Werner G, Klare I, Witte W. Association between quinupristin/ dalfopristin resistance in glycopeptide-resistant Enterococcus faecium and the use of additives in animal feed. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1998; 17:401-2.
104. Werner G, Klare I, Heier H, Hinz K H, Bohme G, Wendt M, et al. Quinupristin/dalfopristin-resistant enterococci of the satA (vatD) and satG (vatE) genotypes from different ecological origins in Germany. Microb Drug Resist 2000; 6:37-47.
105. Rubinstein E, Prokocimer P, Talbot G H. Safety and tolerability of quinupristin/dalfopristin: administration guidelines. J Antimicrob Chemother 1999; 44(Suppl A):37-46.
106. Drew R H, Perfect J R, Srinath L, Kurkimilis E, Dowzicky M, Talbot G H. Treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections with quinupristin/dalfopristin in patients intolerant of or failing prior therapy. J Antimicrob Chemother 2000; 46:775-84.
107. Linden P K, Pasculle A W, McDevitt D, Kramer D J. Effect of quinupristin/dalfopristin on the outcome of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium bacteraemia: comparison with a control cohort. J Antimicrob Chemother 1997; 39(Suppl A):145-51.
108. Livermore D M. Quinupristin/dalfopristin and linezolid: where, when, which and whether to use? J Antimicrob Chemother 2000; 46:347-50.
109. Moise P A, Schentag J J. Vancomycin treatment failures in S. aureus lower respiratory infections. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2000; 16(Suppl 1):S31-4.