Unstitching the New Zealand state: Its role in domesticity and its decline

International Review of Social History

Volumn 45, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 251-277

  Nolan, Melanie ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034408295     PISSN: 00208590     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0020859000000134     Document Type: Review

References (127)

1. M. Gilson, "Women in Employment", in John Forster (ed.), Social Process in New Zealand: Readings in Sociology (Auckland, NZ, 1969), pp. 188-190. Bev James and Kay Saville-Smith, Gender, Culture and Power: Challenging New Zealand's Gendered Culture (Auckland, NZ, 1989), p. 15.
2. M. Gilson, "Women in Employment", in John Forster (ed.), Social Process in New Zealand: Readings in Sociology (Auckland, NZ, 1969), pp. 188-190. Bev James and Kay Saville-Smith, Gender, Culture and Power: Challenging New Zealand's Gendered Culture (Auckland, NZ, 1989), p. 15.
3. John Gould, The Rake's Progress?: The New Zealand Economy Since 1945 (Auckland, NZ, 1982), p. 93.
4. Raewyn Dalziel, "The Colonial Helpmeet: Women's Role and the Vote in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand", New Zealand Journal of History (NZJH), 11 (1977), pp. 112-123.
5. Margaret Hayward, "Prime Minister for 2000: A Choice Between Two Very Different Women?", Women Talking Politics: Newsletter of the Aotearoa/New Zealand Women and Politics Network, New Series, 1 (1999) pp. 1-2.
6. United Nations Developement Programme, Human Development Report 1997 (New York [etc.], 1997), pp. 39, 149-154.
7. Charlotte Macdonald (ed.), The Vote, the Pill and the Demon Drink: A History of Feminist Writing in New Zealand, 1869-1993 (Wellington, NZ, 1993), p. 161.
8. Kuni Jenkins and Kay Morris Matthews, "Knowing Their Place: The Political Socialization Of Maori Women In New Zealand Through Schooling Policy And Practice, 1867-1969", Women's History Review, 7 (1998), pp. 85-105.
9. We discover that the "complexity of women's lives" leads to a "muddled picture" and "[p]rogress has been uneven and for individual women can also be subject to reversal". See for example. Sheila Rowbotham, A Century of Women: The History of Women in Britain and the United States (London, 1997), p. 574; and Jane Lewis, Women in Britain since 1945: Women, Family, Work and the State in the Post-War Years (Oxford [etc.], 1992), p. 10.
10. We discover that the "complexity of women's lives" leads to a "muddled picture" and "[p]rogress has been uneven and for individual women can also be subject to reversal". See for example. Sheila Rowbotham, A Century of Women: The History of Women in Britain and the United States (London, 1997), p. 574; and Jane Lewis, Women in Britain since 1945: Women, Family, Work and the State in the Post-War Years (Oxford [etc.], 1992), p. 10.
11. Research and Planning Division, Department of Labour, for the National Advisory Council on the Employment of Women, Women in the Workforce: Facts and Figures (Wellington, NZ, 1980). See also Lisa Davies, Women's Labour Force Participation in New Zealand: The Past 100 Years (Wellington, NZ, 1993), especially pp. 134-153.
12. Research and Planning Division, Department of Labour, for the National Advisory Council on the Employment of Women, Women in the Workforce: Facts and Figures (Wellington, NZ, 1980). See also Lisa Davies, Women's Labour Force Participation in New Zealand: The Past 100 Years (Wellington, NZ, 1993), especially pp. 134-153.
13. There is some debate over whether the wage gap is now widening. Diana Cook and Phil Briggs, Gender Wage Gap: Scenarios of the Gender Wage Gap. Report for Ministry of Women's Affairs (Wellington, NZ, 1997), pp. 2-4.
14. Peter Brosnan and Moira Wilson, The Historical Structuring of the New Zealand Labour Market (Working Paper 4/89, Industrial Relations Centre, Victoria University of Wellington), pp. 22-27.
15. This view is related to the long-standing New Zealand model of the class-based origins of the welfare state. David Thomson, "Society and Social Welfare", in Colin Davis and Peter Lineham (eds), The Future of the Past: Themes in New Zealand History (Palmerston North, NZ, 1991), pp. 99-101.
16. William Pember Reeves, State Experiments in Australia and New Zealand, 2 vols (1902 repr. London, 1913), 1, pp. 59-102. W.B. Sutch, Women with a Cause (Wellington, NZ, 1973), pp. 123-124.
17. William Pember Reeves, State Experiments in Australia and New Zealand, 2 vols (1902 repr. London, 1913), 1, pp. 59-102. W.B. Sutch, Women with a Cause (Wellington, NZ, 1973), pp. 123-124.
18. Miles Fairburn, "The Farmers Take Over (1912-1930)", in Keith Sinclair (ed.), The Oxford Illustrated History of New Zealand (Auckland, NZ, 1990), p. 209.
19. H.D. Lloyd, A Country Without Strikes (New York, 1900).
20. David Thomson, Selfish Generations? The Ageing of New Zealand's Welfare State (Wellington, NZ, 1991), pp. 29-30.
21. New Zealand Censuses, 1874-1926, Conjugal Condition of People.
22. Francis G. Castles, The Working Class and Welfare: Reflections on the Political Development of the Welfare State in Australia and New Zealand, 1890-1980 (Wellington, NZ, 1985), pp. 82-88.
23. Erik Olssen, Building the New World: Work, Politics and Society in Caversham 1880s-1920 (Auckland, NZ, 1995), p. 224.
24. Walter Nash, New Zealand: A Working Democracy (1943; London [etc.], 1944), p. 320.
25. Richard Mitchell, "State Systems of Conciliation and Arbitration: The Legal Origins of the Australasian Model", in Stuart Macintyre and Richard Mitchell (eds), Foundations of Arbitration: The Origins and Effects of State Compulsory Arbitration 1890-1914 (Melbourne, VIC, 1989), pp. 74-103.
26. Melanie Nolan, "Employment Organisations", in Anne Else (ed.), Women Together: A History of Women's Organisations in New Zealand: Nga Ropu Wahine o te Motu (Wellington, NZ, 1993), pp. 193-207.
27. Peggy Koopman-Boyden and Claudia Scott, The Family and Government Policy in New Zealand (Sydney, NSW, 1984), p. 118.
28. W.B. Sutch, Poverty and Progress in New Zealand: A Reassessment (Wellington, NZ, 1969). pp. 169-173.
29. Eleanor F. Rathbone, The Disinherited Family: A Plea for Direct Provision for the Cost of Child Maintenance Through Family Allowance (1924; repr. London, 1927), p. 168.
30. Robin Ingram, "The Politics of Patriarchy: The Response of Capital and Organised Labour to the Movement of Women into the Paid Workforce in New Zealand" (M.A. thesis, University of Auckland, NZ, 1988), pp. 14-18.
31. Some sociologists, in particular, hold a dim view of New Zealand state patriarchy in the twentieth century. Nicola Armstrong, "State", in Paul Spoonley, David Pearson and Ian Shirley (eds), New Zealand Society: A Sociological Introduction (Palmerston North, NZ, 1990). pp. 114-131; Nicola Armstrong, "Handling the Hydra: Feminist Analyses of the State" in Rosemary Du Plessis (ed.) with Phillida Bunkle, Kathie Irwin, Alison Laurie, Sue Middleton, Feminist Voices: Women's Studies Texts for Aotearoa/New Zealand (Auckland, NZ, 1992), pp. 214-238; James and Saville-Smith, Gender, Culture and Power, p. 54; Maureen Molloy, "Citizenship, Property and Bodies: Discourses on Gender and the Inter-War Labour Government in New Zealand", Gender and History, 4 (1991), pp. 293-304.
32. Some sociologists, in particular, hold a dim view of New Zealand state patriarchy in the twentieth century. Nicola Armstrong, "State", in Paul Spoonley, David Pearson and Ian Shirley (eds), New Zealand Society: A Sociological Introduction (Palmerston North, NZ, 1990). pp. 114-131; Nicola Armstrong, "Handling the Hydra: Feminist Analyses of the State" in Rosemary Du Plessis (ed.) with Phillida Bunkle, Kathie Irwin, Alison Laurie, Sue Middleton, Feminist Voices: Women's Studies Texts for Aotearoa/New Zealand (Auckland, NZ, 1992), pp. 214-238; James and Saville-Smith, Gender, Culture and Power, p. 54; Maureen Molloy, "Citizenship, Property and Bodies: Discourses on Gender and the Inter-War Labour Government in New Zealand", Gender and History, 4 (1991), pp. 293-304.
33. Some sociologists, in particular, hold a dim view of New Zealand state patriarchy in the twentieth century. Nicola Armstrong, "State", in Paul Spoonley, David Pearson and Ian Shirley (eds), New Zealand Society: A Sociological Introduction (Palmerston North, NZ, 1990). pp. 114-131; Nicola Armstrong, "Handling the Hydra: Feminist Analyses of the State" in Rosemary Du Plessis (ed.) with Phillida Bunkle, Kathie Irwin, Alison Laurie, Sue Middleton, Feminist Voices: Women's Studies Texts for Aotearoa/New Zealand (Auckland, NZ, 1992), pp. 214-238; James and Saville-Smith, Gender, Culture and Power, p. 54; Maureen Molloy, "Citizenship, Property and Bodies: Discourses on Gender and the Inter-War Labour Government in New Zealand", Gender and History, 4 (1991), pp. 293-304.
34. Some sociologists, in particular, hold a dim view of New Zealand state patriarchy in the twentieth century. Nicola Armstrong, "State", in Paul Spoonley, David Pearson and Ian Shirley (eds), New Zealand Society: A Sociological Introduction (Palmerston North, NZ, 1990). pp. 114-131; Nicola Armstrong, "Handling the Hydra: Feminist Analyses of the State" in Rosemary Du Plessis (ed.) with Phillida Bunkle, Kathie Irwin, Alison Laurie, Sue Middleton, Feminist Voices: Women's Studies Texts for Aotearoa/New Zealand (Auckland, NZ, 1992), pp. 214-238; James and Saville-Smith, Gender, Culture and Power, p. 54; Maureen Molloy, "Citizenship, Property and Bodies: Discourses on Gender and the Inter-War Labour Government in New Zealand", Gender and History, 4 (1991), pp. 293-304.
35. Mira Szaszy, "Maori Women in Pakeha Society" in Sandra Coney (ed.), United Women's Convention, 1973 Report (Auckland, NZ, 1973), pp. 21-24.
36. Margaret Wilson, "Areas of Discrimination", in Coney, United Women's Convention 1973, pp. 18-10.
37. Megan Cook and Jackie Matthews, "Separate Spheres: Ideology at Work in 19105 New Zealand: Letters to The Katipo, 1913-1924", Women's Studies Journal, 6 (1990), pp. 168-193.
38. Thomson, Selfish Generations?, p. 58.
39. Marilyn Waring, Counting for Nothing: What Men Value and What Women are Worth (Wellington, NZ, 1988), pp. 93-117.
40. Ruth Fry, It's Different for Daughters: A History of the Curriculum for Girls in New Zealand Schools, 1900-1975 (Wellington, NZ, 1985), pp. 73-76; Ruth Fry, "Softening the Options in the Curriculum for Girls: The Influence of Back-to-the-Home Movements in Modifying the Curriculum for Girls from the Turn of the Century", in Clare Phillips (ed.), Women's Studies Conference Papers '84 (Auckland, NZ, 1985), pp. 96-107.
41. Ruth Fry, It's Different for Daughters: A History of the Curriculum for Girls in New Zealand Schools, 1900-1975 (Wellington, NZ, 1985), pp. 73-76; Ruth Fry, "Softening the Options in the Curriculum for Girls: The Influence of Back-to-the-Home Movements in Modifying the Curriculum for Girls from the Turn of the Century", in Clare Phillips (ed.), Women's Studies Conference Papers '84 (Auckland, NZ, 1985), pp. 96-107.
42. Erik Olssen, "Truby King and the Plunket Society: An Analysis of a Prescriptive Ideology", NZJH, 15 (1981), pp. 3-23.
43. Jock Phillips, A Man's Country? The Image of the Pakeha Male: A History (Auckland, NZ, 1987), p. 225.
44. Barbara Brookes and Margaret Tennant, "Maori and Pakeha Women: Many Histories, Divergent Pasts?", in Barbara Brookes, Charlotte Macdonald and Margaret Tennant (eds), Women in History 2: Essay, on Women in New Zealand (Wellington, NZ, 1992), pp. 25-48.
45. John E. Martin, "Rural and Industrial Labour and the State in New Zealand", in Chris Wilkes and Ian Shirley (eds), In the Public Interest (Auckland, NZ, 1984), pp. 119-133.
46. John E. Martin, Holding the Balance: A History of New Zealand's Department of Labour 1891-1995 (Christchurch, NZ, 1996), p. 11.
47. F.W. Rowley, The Industrial Situation in New Zealand (Wellington, NZ, 1931), p. 168.
48. Margaret Gait, "Wealth and Income in New Zealand 1870-1939" (Ph.D. thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, 1985), p. 214.
49. Noel Woods, Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration in New Zealand (Wellington, NZ, 1963), pp. 96-97; James Holt, Compulsory Arbitration in New Zealand: The First Forty Years (Auckland, NZ, 1986), p. 105;
50. Noel Woods, Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration in New Zealand (Wellington, NZ, 1963), pp. 96-97; James Holt, Compulsory Arbitration in New Zealand: The First Forty Years (Auckland, NZ, 1986), p. 105;
51. James E. Le Rossignol and W.D. Stewart, State Socialism in New Zealand (London, 1910), p. 239.
52. Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1936, No. 6, s. 3 (5).
53. Stephen Robertson, "Women Workers and the New Zealand Arbitration Court 1894-1920", in Raelene Frances and Bruce Scates (eds), Women, Work and the Labour Movement in Australia and Aotearoa/New Zealand (Sydney, NSW, 1991), p. 40; (special issue of Labour History, 61 (1991)).
54. Stephen Robertson, "Women Workers and the New Zealand Arbitration Court 1894-1920", in Raelene Frances and Bruce Scates (eds), Women, Work and the Labour Movement in Australia and Aotearoa/New Zealand (Sydney, NSW, 1991), p. 40; (special issue of Labour History, 61 (1991)).
55. John E. Martin, "The Public Service, Patronage and Women's Employment: 1860s-1940s", New Zealand Society of Genealogists, Proceedings of 1995 Conference (May 1995), pp. 28-38.
56. Anne Else, Getting On: Women in the Ministry of Commerce and its Predecessors, 1894-1993 (Wellington, NZ, 1993), pp. 8-9; Bronwyn Dalley, Women of Value: A History of Women in the Valuation Department and Valuation New Zealand 1896-1993 (Wellington, NZ, 1993), pp. 24-31; Fiona McKergow, The "Taxwoman": 101 Years Of Women Working In The Inland Revenue Department 1892-1993 (Wellington, NZ, 1993), pp. 16-24.
57. Anne Else, Getting On: Women in the Ministry of Commerce and its Predecessors, 1894-1993 (Wellington, NZ, 1993), pp. 8-9; Bronwyn Dalley, Women of Value: A History of Women in the Valuation Department and Valuation New Zealand 1896-1993 (Wellington, NZ, 1993), pp. 24-31; Fiona McKergow, The "Taxwoman": 101 Years Of Women Working In The Inland Revenue Department 1892-1993 (Wellington, NZ, 1993), pp. 16-24.
58. Anne Else, Getting On: Women in the Ministry of Commerce and its Predecessors, 1894-1993 (Wellington, NZ, 1993), pp. 8-9; Bronwyn Dalley, Women of Value: A History of Women in the Valuation Department and Valuation New Zealand 1896-1993 (Wellington, NZ, 1993), pp. 24-31; Fiona McKergow, The "Taxwoman": 101 Years Of Women Working In The Inland Revenue Department 1892-1993 (Wellington, NZ, 1993), pp. 16-24.
59. Martin, "The Public Service", pp. 34-35 (calculated from). See also Margaret Corner, No Easy Victory: Towards Equal Pay for Women in the Government Service 1800-1960 (Wellington, NZ, 1988), p. 21.
60. Martin, "The Public Service", pp. 34-35 (calculated from). See also Margaret Corner, No Easy Victory: Towards Equal Pay for Women in the Government Service 1800-1960 (Wellington, NZ, 1988), p. 21.
61. Shannon Brown, "Female Office Workers in Auckland: 1891-1936" (M.A. thesis, University of Auckland, 1993), p. 24.
62. Beryl Hughes, "Women and the Professions in New Zealand", in Phillida Bunkle and Beryl Hughes (eds), Women in New Zealand Society (Auckland, NZ, 1980), pp. 118-138.
63. Female Law Practitioners Act, 1896, 11; Carol Brown, "Ethel Benjamin, New Zealand's First Woman Lawyer" (B.A. Hons., University of Otago, 1985), pp. 24-25.
64. Female Law Practitioners Act, 1896, 11; Carol Brown, "Ethel Benjamin, New Zealand's First Woman Lawyer" (B.A. Hons., University of Otago, 1985), pp. 24-25.
65. Colin McGeorge, "Short Adventures? The Mobility, Qualifications and Status of Women Teachers in New Zealand Primary Schools 1894-1904", New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 29 (1994), pp. 47-58.
66. Nurses Registration Act, 1901, 12, s. 4 and s. 6; Midwives Act, 1904, 31, s. 4, s. 5, s. 6, s. 8.
67. Michael Belgrave, "A Subtle Containment: Women in New Zealand Medicine, 1893-1941", NZJH, 22 (1988), p. 45.
68. For a more positive view of the state's actions, see Rosemary Du Plessis, "Women, Politics, and the State", in Brian Roper and Chris Rudd (eds), State and Economy in New Zealand (Auckland, NZ, 1993), pp. 210-225.
69. Castles, The Working Class and Welfare, pp. 21-23.
70. J. A. Dowie, "A Century-Old Estimate of the National Income of New Zealand", Business Archives and History, 6 (1966), pp. 117-131.
71. Brosnan and Wilson observe that in 1986 the ratio of female to male average earnings was much higher in the centralized arbitration systems of New Zealand (0.77) and Australia (0.82) than in the decentralized systems of Japan (0.57), the United Kingdom (0.66) and the United States (0.69). Brosnan and Wilson, "The Historical Structuring of the Labour Market", p. 33.
72. Deborah Montgomerie, "The Limitations of Wartime Change: Women War Workers in New Zealand", NZJH, 23 (1989), p. 85.
73. Phillips, A Man's Country?, p. 273.
74. Patricia Grimshaw, Women's Suffrage in New Zealand (1972; Auckland, NZ, 1987), p. 123. Phillida Bunkle, "The Origins of the Women's Movement in New Zealand: The Women's Christian Temperance Union 1885-1895", in Bunkle and Hughes, Women in New Zealand Society, pp. 52-77. Dalziel, "Colonial Helpmeet", pp. 112-123.
75. Patricia Grimshaw, Women's Suffrage in New Zealand (1972; Auckland, NZ, 1987), p. 123. Phillida Bunkle, "The Origins of the Women's Movement in New Zealand: The Women's Christian Temperance Union 1885-1895", in Bunkle and Hughes, Women in New Zealand Society, pp. 52-77. Dalziel, "Colonial Helpmeet", pp. 112-123.
76. Patricia Grimshaw, Women's Suffrage in New Zealand (1972; Auckland, NZ, 1987), p. 123. Phillida Bunkle, "The Origins of the Women's Movement in New Zealand: The Women's Christian Temperance Union 1885-1895", in Bunkle and Hughes, Women in New Zealand Society, pp. 52-77. Dalziel, "Colonial Helpmeet", pp. 112-123.
77. See, in particular, Roberta Nicholls, "The PSC and the Equal Pay Campaign", in Alan Henderson (with a chapter by Roberta Nicholls), The Quest for Efficiency: The Origins of the State Services Commission (Wellington, NZ, 1990), pp. 247-280; Corner, No Easy Victory, pp. 35-48; Nan Taylor, New Zealand People at War: Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War, 1939-45: The Home Front, 2 vols (Wellington, NZ, 1986), 2, p. 1075.
78. See, in particular, Roberta Nicholls, "The PSC and the Equal Pay Campaign", in Alan Henderson (with a chapter by Roberta Nicholls), The Quest for Efficiency: The Origins of the State Services Commission (Wellington, NZ, 1990), pp. 247-280; Corner, No Easy Victory, pp. 35-48; Nan Taylor, New Zealand People at War: Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War, 1939-45: The Home Front, 2 vols (Wellington, NZ, 1986), 2, p. 1075.
79. See, in particular, Roberta Nicholls, "The PSC and the Equal Pay Campaign", in Alan Henderson (with a chapter by Roberta Nicholls), The Quest for Efficiency: The Origins of the State Services Commission (Wellington, NZ, 1990), pp. 247-280; Corner, No Easy Victory, pp. 35-48; Nan Taylor, New Zealand People at War: Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War, 1939-45: The Home Front, 2 vols (Wellington, NZ, 1986), 2, p. 1075.
80. Harold L. Smith, "British Feminism and the Equal Pay Issue in the 1930s", Women's History Review, 5 (1996), pp. 97-110.
81. There is a huge literature on this subject. See Jane Rendall (ed.), Equal or Difference: Women's Politics 1800-1914 (Oxford, 1987); Felice D. Gordon, After Winning (New Brunswick, NJ, 1986); Iris Marion Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton, NJ, 1990). Janet Zollinger Giele, Two Paths to Women's Equality: Temperance, Suffrage and the Origins of Modern Feminism (New York, 1995).
82. There is a huge literature on this subject. See Jane Rendall (ed.), Equal or Difference: Women's Politics 1800-1914 (Oxford, 1987); Felice D. Gordon, After Winning (New Brunswick, NJ, 1986); Iris Marion Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton, NJ, 1990). Janet Zollinger Giele, Two Paths to Women's Equality: Temperance, Suffrage and the Origins of Modern Feminism (New York, 1995).
83. There is a huge literature on this subject. See Jane Rendall (ed.), Equal or Difference: Women's Politics 1800-1914 (Oxford, 1987); Felice D. Gordon, After Winning (New Brunswick, NJ, 1986); Iris Marion Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton, NJ, 1990). Janet Zollinger Giele, Two Paths to Women's Equality: Temperance, Suffrage and the Origins of Modern Feminism (New York, 1995).
84. There is a huge literature on this subject. See Jane Rendall (ed.), Equal or Difference: Women's Politics 1800-1914 (Oxford, 1987); Felice D. Gordon, After Winning (New Brunswick, NJ, 1986); Iris Marion Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton, NJ, 1990). Janet Zollinger Giele, Two Paths to Women's Equality: Temperance, Suffrage and the Origins of Modern Feminism (New York, 1995).
85. Historians have used various nomenclatures. For a good discussion of the "plethora of names" contemporary feminists have coined to describe the two feminist streams, see Beatrice Faust, Foreword to Rene Denfeld, The New Victorians: A Young Woman's Challenge to the Old Feminist Order (St Leonards, NSW, 1995), pp. x-xi.
86. Megan Cook, "A History of the Campaign for the 1972 Equal Pay Act" (B.A. Hons., Otago University, 1994), pp. 3, 10, 24-38.
87. Anonymous, "New Zealand Woman's Life: What We Women Want - After the War", New Zealand Magazine (January-February 1945), pp. 49-51.
88. Helen Cook, "Images, Illusions of Harmony: The 1950's Wife and Mother", Women's Studies Journal, 1 (1985), pp. 86-92.
89. Helen May, Minding Children, Managing Men: Conflict and Compromise in the Lives of Postwar Pakeha Women (Wellington, NZ, 1992), pp. 2-3. Molloy, "Citizenship, Property and Bodies", pp. 293-304.
90. Helen May, Minding Children, Managing Men: Conflict and Compromise in the Lives of Postwar Pakeha Women (Wellington, NZ, 1992), pp. 2-3. Molloy, "Citizenship, Property and Bodies", pp. 293-304.
91. J.R.M. Thomson, "The Rehabilitation of Servicemen of World War II in New Zealand 1940-1954" (Ph.D. thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, 1983), p. 335.
92. Social Security Amendment Act, 1950, 49, s. 19.
93. New Zealand Census: 19,189 domestic servants in 1901; 18,795 in 1911; 17,955 in 1921; 23,396 in 1926; 29,262 in 1936; 9,169 in 1945; 8,731 in 1951.
94. New Zealand Census: 19,189 domestic servants in 1901; 18,795 in 1911; 17,955 in 1921; 23,396 in 1926; 29,262 in 1936; 9,169 in 1945; 8,731 in 1951.
95. New Zealand Census: 19,189 domestic servants in 1901; 18,795 in 1911; 17,955 in 1921; 23,396 in 1926; 29,262 in 1936; 9,169 in 1945; 8,731 in 1951.
96. New Zealand Census: 19,189 domestic servants in 1901; 18,795 in 1911; 17,955 in 1921; 23,396 in 1926; 29,262 in 1936; 9,169 in 1945; 8,731 in 1951.
97. New Zealand Census: 19,189 domestic servants in 1901; 18,795 in 1911; 17,955 in 1921; 23,396 in 1926; 29,262 in 1936; 9,169 in 1945; 8,731 in 1951.
98. New Zealand Census: 19,189 domestic servants in 1901; 18,795 in 1911; 17,955 in 1921; 23,396 in 1926; 29,262 in 1936; 9,169 in 1945; 8,731 in 1951.
99. New Zealand Census: 19,189 domestic servants in 1901; 18,795 in 1911; 17,955 in 1921; 23,396 in 1926; 29,262 in 1936; 9,169 in 1945; 8,731 in 1951.
100. New Zealand Census, vol. 3, 1936, 1945.
101. NZPD, vol. 270 (1945); Employment Bill, pp. 463-465 (A.H. Nordmeyer). Employment Act, 1945, 9, s. 5(3)(b).
102. NZPD, vol. 270 (1945); Employment Bill, pp. 463-465 (A.H. Nordmeyer). Employment Act, 1945, 9, s. 5(3)(b).
103. NZPD, vol. 270 (1945); Employment Bill, pp. 463-465 (A.H. Nordmeyer). Employment Act, 1945, 9, s. 5(3)(b).
104. Report of the Dominion Population Committee, AJHR, 1946, 1-17, pp. 126-130.
105. "Female Labour Shortage in New Zealand", The Dominion, 21 February 1946; 13 March 1946.
106. "Female Labour Shortage in New Zealand", The Dominion, 21 February 1946; 13 March 1946.
107. Jo Aitken, "Wives and Mothers First: The New Zealand Teachers' Marriage Bar and the Ideology of Domesticity, 1920-1940", Women's Studies Journal, 12 (1996), pp. 83-98.
108. "Public Service Action to Maintain Adequate Staffing", Report of the Public Service Commissioner, AJHR, 1960, H-14, pp. 9-14; Public Service Journal, September 1945, p. 52.
109. "Public Service Action to Maintain Adequate Staffing", Report of the Public Service Commissioner, AJHR, 1960, H-14, pp. 9-14; Public Service Journal, September 1945, p. 52.
110. For discussions of contradictory threads in state policy, see: Katherine Saville-Smith, "Women and the State", in Shelagh Cox (ed.), Public and Private Worlds: Women in Contemporary New Zealand (Wellington, NZ, 1987), p. 205; Nicholls, "The PSC and the equal pay campaign", p. 154; Cook, "Images, Illusions of Harmony", pp. 72-74; May, Minding Children, preface, pp. 3, 21, 43; Peter Brosnan, David Rea and Moira Wilson, "Labour Market Segmentation and the State: The New Zealand Experience", Cambridge Journal of Economics, 19 (1995), pp. 667-696.
111. For discussions of contradictory threads in state policy, see: Katherine Saville-Smith, "Women and the State", in Shelagh Cox (ed.), Public and Private Worlds: Women in Contemporary New Zealand (Wellington, NZ, 1987), p. 205; Nicholls, "The PSC and the equal pay campaign", p. 154; Cook, "Images, Illusions of Harmony", pp. 72-74; May, Minding Children, preface, pp. 3, 21, 43; Peter Brosnan, David Rea and Moira Wilson, "Labour Market Segmentation and the State: The New Zealand Experience", Cambridge Journal of Economics, 19 (1995), pp. 667-696.
112. For discussions of contradictory threads in state policy, see: Katherine Saville-Smith, "Women and the State", in Shelagh Cox (ed.), Public and Private Worlds: Women in Contemporary New Zealand (Wellington, NZ, 1987), p. 205; Nicholls, "The PSC and the equal pay campaign", p. 154; Cook, "Images, Illusions of Harmony", pp. 72-74; May, Minding Children, preface, pp. 3, 21, 43; Peter Brosnan, David Rea and Moira Wilson, "Labour Market Segmentation and the State: The New Zealand Experience", Cambridge Journal of Economics, 19 (1995), pp. 667-696.
113. For discussions of contradictory threads in state policy, see: Katherine Saville-Smith, "Women and the State", in Shelagh Cox (ed.), Public and Private Worlds: Women in Contemporary New Zealand (Wellington, NZ, 1987), p. 205; Nicholls, "The PSC and the equal pay campaign", p. 154; Cook, "Images, Illusions of Harmony", pp. 72-74; May, Minding Children, preface, pp. 3, 21, 43; Peter Brosnan, David Rea and Moira Wilson, "Labour Market Segmentation and the State: The New Zealand Experience", Cambridge Journal of Economics, 19 (1995), pp. 667-696.
114. For discussions of contradictory threads in state policy, see: Katherine Saville-Smith, "Women and the State", in Shelagh Cox (ed.), Public and Private Worlds: Women in Contemporary New Zealand (Wellington, NZ, 1987), p. 205; Nicholls, "The PSC and the equal pay campaign", p. 154; Cook, "Images, Illusions of Harmony", pp. 72-74; May, Minding Children, preface, pp. 3, 21, 43; Peter Brosnan, David Rea and Moira Wilson, "Labour Market Segmentation and the State: The New Zealand Experience", Cambridge Journal of Economics, 19 (1995), pp. 667-696.
115. J.R. Pole, The Pursuit of Equality in American History (Berkeley, CA, 1978), p. 358.
116. Joan Wallach Scott, Only Paradoxes to Offer: French Feminists and the Rights of Man (Cambridge, MA [etc.], 1996), pp. 1-18; Susan Magarey, "Why Didn't They Want to be Members of Parliament?: Suffragists in South Australia", in Caroline Daley and Melanie Nolan (eds), Suffrage and Beyond: International Feminist Perspectives (Auckland, NZ, 1994), p. 74.
117. Joan Wallach Scott, Only Paradoxes to Offer: French Feminists and the Rights of Man (Cambridge, MA [etc.], 1996), pp. 1-18; Susan Magarey, "Why Didn't They Want to be Members of Parliament?: Suffragists in South Australia", in Caroline Daley and Melanie Nolan (eds), Suffrage and Beyond: International Feminist Perspectives (Auckland, NZ, 1994), p. 74.
118. Bob Jessop, State Theory: Putting the Capitalist State in its Place (Cambridge, 1990) pp. 340, 341-367.
119. Idem, The Capitalist State: Marxist Theories and Methods (Oxford, 1982), pp. 2-24. See also Drude Dahlerup, "Confusing Concepts - Confusing Reality: A Theoretical discussion of the Patriarchal State", in Anne Showstack Sassoon (ed.), Women and the State: The Shifting Boundaries of Public and Private (London, 1987), pp. 108-111.
120. Idem, The Capitalist State: Marxist Theories and Methods (Oxford, 1982), pp. 2-24. See also Drude Dahlerup, "Confusing Concepts - Confusing Reality: A Theoretical discussion of the Patriarchal State", in Anne Showstack Sassoon (ed.), Women and the State: The Shifting Boundaries of Public and Private (London, 1987), pp. 108-111.
121. Claus Offe, "Some Contradictions of the Modern Welfare State", Praxis International, 1 (1981), p. 221.
122. Fred Block, "Beyond Relative Autonomy: State Managers as Historical Subjects" in Ralph Miliband and John Saville (eds), Socialist Register 1980 (London, 1980), pp. 117-141;
123. Eric A. Nordlinger, On the Autonomy of the Democratic State (Cambridge, 1981), pp. 1-38;
124. Michael Mann, "The Autonomous Power of the State: Its Origins, Mechanisms and Results", Archives Européennes de sociologie, 25 (1984), pp. 185-213.
125. Brosnan, Rea and Wilson, "Labour Market Segmentation and the State", p. 670.
126. Davies, Women's Labour Force Participation in New Zealand, pp. 25-62.
127. For an extended discussion of these issues, see Melanie Nolan, Breadwinning. New Zealand Women and the State (Christchurch, NZ, 2000) forthcoming.