Citizenship education: Anti-political culture and political education in Britain

Political Studies

Volumn 48, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 88-103

  Frazer, Elizabeth ^a  

^a NEW COLLEGE   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0034146486     PISSN: 00323217     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1467-9248.00252     Document Type: Article

References (104)

1. I am very grateful to Carole Hahn, Emory University, to David Kerr, Senior Research Officer, National Foundation for Educational Research and professional officer to the Advisory Group on Citizenship and the Teaching of Democracy in Schools, to participants in the 'Visions of Citizenship' panel discussion at the Political Studies Association Conference, Nottingham (March 1999), and to participants in political theory seminars at the Universities of Sussex and Exeter in 1999 for helpful discussion of some of the issues covered in this paper; and to referees for suggestions about the first draft. Thanks also to my colleagues Gillian Peele and Nick Owen.
2. Citizenship Foundation, Colloquium on Education and Citizenship: Citizenship and Civic Education. London: Citizenship Foundation, 1997, pp. 17-20.
3. R. Pring, 'Political education: the relevance of the humanities', Oxford Review of Education, 25 (1999), 71-87, p. 81.
4. A. Gutmann, Democratic Education. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987; A. Gutmann 'Undemocratic Education' in N. Rosenblum (ed.), Liberalism and the Moral Life. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1989; J. Rawls, Political Liberalism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, pp. 199-200; E. Callan, Creating Citizens. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997; P. White, Civic Virtue and Public Schooling: Educating Citizens for a Democratic Society. New York: Teachers College Press, 1996; M. Levinson 'Liberalism, pluralism and political education: paradox or paradigm?'. Oxford Review of Education, 25 (1999), 39-58.
5. A. Gutmann, Democratic Education. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987; A. Gutmann 'Undemocratic Education' in N. Rosenblum (ed.), Liberalism and the Moral Life. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1989; J. Rawls, Political Liberalism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, pp. 199-200; E. Callan, Creating Citizens. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997; P. White, Civic Virtue and Public Schooling: Educating Citizens for a Democratic Society. New York: Teachers College Press, 1996; M. Levinson 'Liberalism, pluralism and political education: paradox or paradigm?'. Oxford Review of Education, 25 (1999), 39-58.
6. A. Gutmann, Democratic Education. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987; A. Gutmann 'Undemocratic Education' in N. Rosenblum (ed.), Liberalism and the Moral Life. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1989; J. Rawls, Political Liberalism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, pp. 199-200; E. Callan, Creating Citizens. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997; P. White, Civic Virtue and Public Schooling: Educating Citizens for a Democratic Society. New York: Teachers College Press, 1996; M. Levinson 'Liberalism, pluralism and political education: paradox or paradigm?'. Oxford Review of Education, 25 (1999), 39-58.
7. A. Gutmann, Democratic Education. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987; A. Gutmann 'Undemocratic Education' in N. Rosenblum (ed.), Liberalism and the Moral Life. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1989; J. Rawls, Political Liberalism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, pp. 199-200; E. Callan, Creating Citizens. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997; P. White, Civic Virtue and Public Schooling: Educating Citizens for a Democratic Society. New York: Teachers College Press, 1996; M. Levinson 'Liberalism, pluralism and political education: paradox or paradigm?'. Oxford Review of Education, 25 (1999), 39-58.
8. A. Gutmann, Democratic Education. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987; A. Gutmann 'Undemocratic Education' in N. Rosenblum (ed.), Liberalism and the Moral Life. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1989; J. Rawls, Political Liberalism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, pp. 199-200; E. Callan, Creating Citizens. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997; P. White, Civic Virtue and Public Schooling: Educating Citizens for a Democratic Society. New York: Teachers College Press, 1996; M. Levinson 'Liberalism, pluralism and political education: paradox or paradigm?'. Oxford Review of Education, 25 (1999), 39-58.
9. A. Gutmann, Democratic Education. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987; A. Gutmann 'Undemocratic Education' in N. Rosenblum (ed.), Liberalism and the Moral Life. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1989; J. Rawls, Political Liberalism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, pp. 199-200; E. Callan, Creating Citizens. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997; P. White, Civic Virtue and Public Schooling: Educating Citizens for a Democratic Society. New York: Teachers College Press, 1996; M. Levinson 'Liberalism, pluralism and political education: paradox or paradigm?'. Oxford Review of Education, 25 (1999), 39-58.
10. W. Galston 'Civic Education in the Liberal State' in Rosenblum, Liberalism and the Moral Life; Levinson, 'Liberalism, pluralism and political education', pp. 45-7.
11. H. Tam, Communitarianism: a New Agenda for Politics and Citizenship. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998, pp. 57-76; A. Etzioni, The Spirit of Community: Rights, Responsibilities and the Communitarian Agenda. London: Fontana, 1995, pp. 89-115.
12. H. Tam, Communitarianism: a New Agenda for Politics and Citizenship. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998, pp. 57-76; A. Etzioni, The Spirit of Community: Rights, Responsibilities and the Communitarian Agenda. London: Fontana, 1995, pp. 89-115.
13. W. Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship. Oxford: Clarendon, 1995, pp. 41-2, 59-60.
14. Secretary of State for Education and Employment, Excellence in Schools, Cm3681. London: HMSO, 1997.
15. Excellence in Schools, para. 6.42, p. 63
16. For example: British Youth Council, The Voice of Young People. London: BYC, 1986; Citizenship Foundation, Colloquium on Education and Citizenship: Citizenship and Civic Education. London: Citizenship Foundation, 1997; Commission on Citizenship, Encouraging Citizenship. London: HMSO, 1990; K. Fogelman (ed.), Citizenship in Schools. London: David Fulton, 1991; G. John, Education for Citizenship. London, Charter 88, 1991. (http://www.chaner88.org.uk/pubs/mampaps/gusjohn.html); G. Lansdown, Taking Part: Children's Participation in Decision Making. London: Institute of Public Policy Research, 1995; J. Lynch, Education for Citizenship in a Multicultural Society. London: Cassell, 1992; Review Group on the Youth Service in England, Experience and Participation. 'The Thompson Report'. London: HMSO, 1982; D. I. Smith, Taking Shape: Developments in Youth Service Provision. London: National Youth Bureau, 1989; J. Smith, M. Southworth and A. Wilson, A Course in Political Education for 14-18 Year Olds. London: Longman, 1985; H. Williamson, 'Youth Work and Citizenship', in J. Bynner, L. Chisholm and A. Furlong (eds), Youth, Citizenship and Social Change. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1997.
17. For example: British Youth Council, The Voice of Young People. London: BYC, 1986; Citizenship Foundation, Colloquium on Education and Citizenship: Citizenship and Civic Education. London: Citizenship Foundation, 1997; Commission on Citizenship, Encouraging Citizenship. London: HMSO, 1990; K. Fogelman (ed.), Citizenship in Schools. London: David Fulton, 1991; G. John, Education for Citizenship. London, Charter 88, 1991. (http://www.chaner88.org.uk/pubs/mampaps/gusjohn.html); G. Lansdown, Taking Part: Children's Participation in Decision Making. London: Institute of Public Policy Research, 1995; J. Lynch, Education for Citizenship in a Multicultural Society. London: Cassell, 1992; Review Group on the Youth Service in England, Experience and Participation. 'The Thompson Report'. London: HMSO, 1982; D. I. Smith, Taking Shape: Developments in Youth Service Provision. London: National Youth Bureau, 1989; J. Smith, M. Southworth and A. Wilson, A Course in Political Education for 14-18 Year Olds. London: Longman, 1985; H. Williamson, 'Youth Work and Citizenship', in J. Bynner, L. Chisholm and A. Furlong (eds), Youth, Citizenship and Social Change. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1997.
18. For example: British Youth Council, The Voice of Young People. London: BYC, 1986; Citizenship Foundation, Colloquium on Education and Citizenship: Citizenship and Civic Education. London: Citizenship Foundation, 1997; Commission on Citizenship, Encouraging Citizenship. London: HMSO, 1990; K. Fogelman (ed.), Citizenship in Schools. London: David Fulton, 1991; G. John, Education for Citizenship. London, Charter 88, 1991. (http://www.chaner88.org.uk/pubs/mampaps/gusjohn.html); G. Lansdown, Taking Part: Children's Participation in Decision Making. London: Institute of Public Policy Research, 1995; J. Lynch, Education for Citizenship in a Multicultural Society. London: Cassell, 1992; Review Group on the Youth Service in England, Experience and Participation. 'The Thompson Report'. London: HMSO, 1982; D. I. Smith, Taking Shape: Developments in Youth Service Provision. London: National Youth Bureau, 1989; J. Smith, M. Southworth and A. Wilson, A Course in Political Education for 14-18 Year Olds. London: Longman, 1985; H. Williamson, 'Youth Work and Citizenship', in J. Bynner, L. Chisholm and A. Furlong (eds), Youth, Citizenship and Social Change. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1997.
19. For example: British Youth Council, The Voice of Young People. London: BYC, 1986; Citizenship Foundation, Colloquium on Education and Citizenship: Citizenship and Civic Education. London: Citizenship Foundation, 1997; Commission on Citizenship, Encouraging Citizenship. London: HMSO, 1990; K. Fogelman (ed.), Citizenship in Schools. London: David Fulton, 1991; G. John, Education for Citizenship. London, Charter 88, 1991. (http://www.chaner88.org.uk/pubs/mampaps/gusjohn.html); G. Lansdown, Taking Part: Children's Participation in Decision Making. London: Institute of Public Policy Research, 1995; J. Lynch, Education for Citizenship in a Multicultural Society. London: Cassell, 1992; Review Group on the Youth Service in England, Experience and Participation. 'The Thompson Report'. London: HMSO, 1982; D. I. Smith, Taking Shape: Developments in Youth Service Provision. London: National Youth Bureau, 1989; J. Smith, M. Southworth and A. Wilson, A Course in Political Education for 14-18 Year Olds. London: Longman, 1985; H. Williamson, 'Youth Work and Citizenship', in J. Bynner, L. Chisholm and A. Furlong (eds), Youth, Citizenship and Social Change. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1997.
20. For example: British Youth Council, The Voice of Young People. London: BYC, 1986; Citizenship Foundation, Colloquium on Education and Citizenship: Citizenship and Civic Education. London: Citizenship Foundation, 1997; Commission on Citizenship, Encouraging Citizenship. London: HMSO, 1990; K. Fogelman (ed.), Citizenship in Schools. London: David Fulton, 1991; G. John, Education for Citizenship. London, Charter 88, 1991. (http://www.chaner88.org.uk/pubs/mampaps/gusjohn.html); G. Lansdown, Taking Part: Children's Participation in Decision Making. London: Institute of Public Policy Research, 1995; J. Lynch, Education for Citizenship in a Multicultural Society. London: Cassell, 1992; Review Group on the Youth Service in England, Experience and Participation. 'The Thompson Report'. London: HMSO, 1982; D. I. Smith, Taking Shape: Developments in Youth Service Provision. London: National Youth Bureau, 1989; J. Smith, M. Southworth and A. Wilson, A Course in Political Education for 14-18 Year Olds. London: Longman, 1985; H. Williamson, 'Youth Work and Citizenship', in J. Bynner, L. Chisholm and A. Furlong (eds), Youth, Citizenship and Social Change. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1997.
21. For example: British Youth Council, The Voice of Young People. London: BYC, 1986; Citizenship Foundation, Colloquium on Education and Citizenship: Citizenship and Civic Education. London: Citizenship Foundation, 1997; Commission on Citizenship, Encouraging Citizenship. London: HMSO, 1990; K. Fogelman (ed.), Citizenship in Schools. London: David Fulton, 1991; G. John, Education for Citizenship. London, Charter 88, 1991. (http://www.chaner88.org.uk/pubs/mampaps/gusjohn.html); G. Lansdown, Taking Part: Children's Participation in Decision Making. London: Institute of Public Policy Research, 1995; J. Lynch, Education for Citizenship in a Multicultural Society. London: Cassell, 1992; Review Group on the Youth Service in England, Experience and Participation. 'The Thompson Report'. London: HMSO, 1982; D. I. Smith, Taking Shape: Developments in Youth Service Provision. London: National Youth Bureau, 1989; J. Smith, M. Southworth and A. Wilson, A Course in Political Education for 14-18 Year Olds. London: Longman, 1985; H. Williamson, 'Youth Work and Citizenship', in J. Bynner, L. Chisholm and A. Furlong (eds), Youth, Citizenship and Social Change. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1997.
22. For example: British Youth Council, The Voice of Young People. London: BYC, 1986; Citizenship Foundation, Colloquium on Education and Citizenship: Citizenship and Civic Education. London: Citizenship Foundation, 1997; Commission on Citizenship, Encouraging Citizenship. London: HMSO, 1990; K. Fogelman (ed.), Citizenship in Schools. London: David Fulton, 1991; G. John, Education for Citizenship. London, Charter 88, 1991. (http://www.chaner88.org.uk/pubs/mampaps/gusjohn.html); G. Lansdown, Taking Part: Children's Participation in Decision Making. London: Institute of Public Policy Research, 1995; J. Lynch, Education for Citizenship in a Multicultural Society. London: Cassell, 1992; Review Group on the Youth Service in England, Experience and Participation. 'The Thompson Report'. London: HMSO, 1982; D. I. Smith, Taking Shape: Developments in Youth Service Provision. London: National Youth Bureau, 1989; J. Smith, M. Southworth and A. Wilson, A Course in Political Education for 14-18 Year Olds. London: Longman, 1985; H. Williamson, 'Youth Work and Citizenship', in J. Bynner, L. Chisholm and A. Furlong (eds), Youth, Citizenship and Social Change. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1997.
23. For example: British Youth Council, The Voice of Young People. London: BYC, 1986; Citizenship Foundation, Colloquium on Education and Citizenship: Citizenship and Civic Education. London: Citizenship Foundation, 1997; Commission on Citizenship, Encouraging Citizenship. London: HMSO, 1990; K. Fogelman (ed.), Citizenship in Schools. London: David Fulton, 1991; G. John, Education for Citizenship. London, Charter 88, 1991. (http://www.chaner88.org.uk/pubs/mampaps/gusjohn.html); G. Lansdown, Taking Part: Children's Participation in Decision Making. London: Institute of Public Policy Research, 1995; J. Lynch, Education for Citizenship in a Multicultural Society. London: Cassell, 1992; Review Group on the Youth Service in England, Experience and Participation. 'The Thompson Report'. London: HMSO, 1982; D. I. Smith, Taking Shape: Developments in Youth Service Provision. London: National Youth Bureau, 1989; J. Smith, M. Southworth and A. Wilson, A Course in Political Education for 14-18 Year Olds. London: Longman, 1985; H. Williamson, 'Youth Work and Citizenship', in J. Bynner, L. Chisholm and A. Furlong (eds), Youth, Citizenship and Social Change. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1997.
24. For example: British Youth Council, The Voice of Young People. London: BYC, 1986; Citizenship Foundation, Colloquium on Education and Citizenship: Citizenship and Civic Education. London: Citizenship Foundation, 1997; Commission on Citizenship, Encouraging Citizenship. London: HMSO, 1990; K. Fogelman (ed.), Citizenship in Schools. London: David Fulton, 1991; G. John, Education for Citizenship. London, Charter 88, 1991. (http://www.chaner88.org.uk/pubs/mampaps/gusjohn.html); G. Lansdown, Taking Part: Children's Participation in Decision Making. London: Institute of Public Policy Research, 1995; J. Lynch, Education for Citizenship in a Multicultural Society. London: Cassell, 1992; Review Group on the Youth Service in England, Experience and Participation. 'The Thompson Report'. London: HMSO, 1982; D. I. Smith, Taking Shape: Developments in Youth Service Provision. London: National Youth Bureau, 1989; J. Smith, M. Southworth and A. Wilson, A Course in Political Education for 14-18 Year Olds. London: Longman, 1985; H. Williamson, 'Youth Work and Citizenship', in J. Bynner, L. Chisholm and A. Furlong (eds), Youth, Citizenship and Social Change. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1997.
25. For example: British Youth Council, The Voice of Young People. London: BYC, 1986; Citizenship Foundation, Colloquium on Education and Citizenship: Citizenship and Civic Education. London: Citizenship Foundation, 1997; Commission on Citizenship, Encouraging Citizenship. London: HMSO, 1990; K. Fogelman (ed.), Citizenship in Schools. London: David Fulton, 1991; G. John, Education for Citizenship. London, Charter 88, 1991. (http://www.chaner88.org.uk/pubs/mampaps/gusjohn.html); G. Lansdown, Taking Part: Children's Participation in Decision Making. London: Institute of Public Policy Research, 1995; J. Lynch, Education for Citizenship in a Multicultural Society. London: Cassell, 1992; Review Group on the Youth Service in England, Experience and Participation. 'The Thompson Report'. London: HMSO, 1982; D. I. Smith, Taking Shape: Developments in Youth Service Provision. London: National Youth Bureau, 1989; J. Smith, M. Southworth and A. Wilson, A Course in Political Education for 14-18 Year Olds. London: Longman, 1985; H. Williamson, 'Youth Work and Citizenship', in J. Bynner, L. Chisholm and A. Furlong (eds), Youth, Citizenship and Social Change. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1997.
26. For example: British Youth Council, The Voice of Young People. London: BYC, 1986; Citizenship Foundation, Colloquium on Education and Citizenship: Citizenship and Civic Education. London: Citizenship Foundation, 1997; Commission on Citizenship, Encouraging Citizenship. London: HMSO, 1990; K. Fogelman (ed.), Citizenship in Schools. London: David Fulton, 1991; G. John, Education for Citizenship. London, Charter 88, 1991. (http://www.chaner88.org.uk/pubs/mampaps/gusjohn.html); G. Lansdown, Taking Part: Children's Participation in Decision Making. London: Institute of Public Policy Research, 1995; J. Lynch, Education for Citizenship in a Multicultural Society. London: Cassell, 1992; Review Group on the Youth Service in England, Experience and Participation. 'The Thompson Report'. London: HMSO, 1982; D. I. Smith, Taking Shape: Developments in Youth Service Provision. London: National Youth Bureau, 1989; J. Smith, M. Southworth and A. Wilson, A Course in Political Education for 14-18 Year Olds. London: Longman, 1985; H. Williamson, 'Youth Work and Citizenship', in J. Bynner, L. Chisholm and A. Furlong (eds), Youth, Citizenship and Social Change. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1997.
27. National Curriculum Council, Education for Citizenship, Curriculum Guidance 8. London: NCC, 1990.
28. I. Davies 'What has happened in the teaching of politics in schools in England in the last three decades, and why?', Oxford Review of Education, 25 (1999), 125-140, p. 130.
29. Fogelman, Citizenship in Schools; K. Fogelman, 'Citizenship Education' in Bynner et al., Youth Citizenship and Social Change.
30. Fogelman, Citizenship in Schools; K. Fogelman, 'Citizenship Education' in Bynner et al., Youth Citizenship and Social Change.
31. Schools Curriculum and Assessment Authority, Spiritual and Moral Development, Discussion Paper no. 3. London: SCAA, 1995; Education for Adult Life: the Spiritual and Moral Development of Young People, Discussion Paper no. 6. London: SCAA, 1996.
32. Schools Curriculum and Assessment Authority, Spiritual and Moral Development, Discussion Paper no. 3. London: SCAA, 1995; Education for Adult Life: the Spiritual and Moral Development of Young People, Discussion Paper no. 6. London: SCAA, 1996.
33. Excellence in Schools, para 6.42, p. 63.
34. Excellence in Schools, para 6.25, p. 62.
35. Advisory Group on Citizenship, Education for Citizenship and the Teaching of Democracy in Schools. London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 1998, p. 4.
36. B. Crick and A. Porter (eds), Political Education and Political Literacy. London: Longman, 1978.
37. Especially B. Crick, In Defence of Politics. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1993, 4th ed.
38. Since this article was accepted for publication the Department of Education and Employment has consulted about the inclusion of 'citizenship' in the curriculum and has issued curriculum content and guidance. From September 2002 citizenship education will be a statutory part of the curriculum for England. Department of Education and Employment, Review of the National Curriculum in England: the Sectary of State's Proposals and The Consultation Materials. London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, May-July 1999; Department of Education and Employment, and Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, Citizenship: the National Curriculum for England. London: HMSO.
39. Since this article was accepted for publication the Department of Education and Employment has consulted about the inclusion of 'citizenship' in the curriculum and has issued curriculum content and guidance. From September 2002 citizenship education will be a statutory part of the curriculum for England. Department of Education and Employment, Review of the National Curriculum in England: the Sectary of State's Proposals and The Consultation Materials. London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, May-July 1999; Department of Education and Employment, and Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, Citizenship: the National Curriculum for England. London: HMSO.
40. See S. Dunn, The Common School. Coleraine: University of Ulster, 1993.
41. Scottish Office, Taking a Closer Look at Promoting Social Competence. London: The Scottish Office, 1998, tables 3.1 and 5.1.
42. HM Inspectors of Schools, Standards and Quality in Scottish Schools (1995-1998). London: The Scottish Office, 1999, para 2.1.
43. Standards and Quality in Scottish Schools, para 2.5.
44. Secretary of State for Scotland, Targetting Excellence: Modernising Scotland's Schools, Cm4247. London: The Scottish Office, 1999, p. 14.
45. J. Harris, Private Lives, Public Spirit: Britain 1870-1914. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1993, p. 191; L. Goldman, 'Education as politics: university adult education since 1870', Oxford Review of Education, 25 (1999), pp. 89-101.
46. J. Harris, Private Lives, Public Spirit: Britain 1870-1914. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1993, p. 191; L. Goldman, 'Education as politics: university adult education since 1870', Oxford Review of Education, 25 (1999), pp. 89-101.
47. The Hansard Society project of the 1970s was prompted by worry about the lowering of the age of majority to 18 years (Representation of the People Act 1969): R. Stradling, A Programme for Political Education: the Political Awareness of the School Leaver. London: Hansard Society, 1977; on the significance of demobilization see P. Brindle and M. Arnot, ' "England Expects Every Man to do His Duty": the gendering of the citizenship textbook', Oxford Review of Education, 25 (1999), 103-123; generally see also G. Batho 'The history of the teaching of civics and citizenship in English schools', The Curriculum Journal, 1 (1990), 91-107.
48. The Hansard Society project of the 1970s was prompted by worry about the lowering of the age of majority to 18 years (Representation of the People Act 1969): R. Stradling, A Programme for Political Education: the Political Awareness of the School Leaver. London: Hansard Society, 1977; on the significance of demobilization see P. Brindle and M. Arnot, ' "England Expects Every Man to do His Duty": the gendering of the citizenship textbook', Oxford Review of Education, 25 (1999), 103-123; generally see also G. Batho 'The history of the teaching of civics and citizenship in English schools', The Curriculum Journal, 1 (1990), 91-107.
49. The Hansard Society project of the 1970s was prompted by worry about the lowering of the age of majority to 18 years (Representation of the People Act 1969): R. Stradling, A Programme for Political Education: the Political Awareness of the School Leaver. London: Hansard Society, 1977; on the significance of demobilization see P. Brindle and M. Arnot, ' "England Expects Every Man to do His Duty": the gendering of the citizenship textbook', Oxford Review of Education, 25 (1999), 103-123; generally see also G. Batho 'The history of the teaching of civics and citizenship in English schools', The Curriculum Journal, 1 (1990), 91-107.
50. I. Crewe 'Presentation of Research Findings', in Citizenship Foundation, Colloquium on Education and Citizenship, p. 4; P. J. Conover, I. Crewe and D. Searing, 'The nature of citizenship in the United States and Great Britain: empirical comments on theoretical themes', Journal of Politics, 53 (1991), 800-32.
51. I. Crewe 'Presentation of Research Findings', in Citizenship Foundation, Colloquium on Education and Citizenship, p. 4; P. J. Conover, I. Crewe and D. Searing, 'The nature of citizenship in the United States and Great Britain: empirical comments on theoretical themes', Journal of Politics, 53 (1991), 800-32.
52. See A Barnett, 'Britain needs a written constitution', Mail on Sunday (7 December 1997) http:www.charter88.org.uk/pubs/mail.html; Charter 88, Citizen Fact Sheet: Monarchy (http://www.charter88. org.uk/pubs/facts/enq_mon.html).
53. See A Barnett, 'Britain needs a written constitution', Mail on Sunday (7 December 1997) http:www.charter88.org.uk/pubs/mail.html; Charter 88, Citizen Fact Sheet: Monarchy (http://www.charter88. org.uk/pubs/facts/enq_mon.html).
54. D. Kerr, Citizenship Education Revisited, National Case Study: England, IEA Civic Education Project, Abbreviated Phase 1. Slough: National Foundation for Educational Research, 1997; also in J. Torney-Purta, J. Schiville and J. Amadeo (eds), Civic Education across Countries: Twenty Four National Case Studies from the IEA Civic Education Project. Delft: Eburon, 1999.
55. D. Kerr, Citizenship Education Revisited, National Case Study: England, IEA Civic Education Project, Abbreviated Phase 1. Slough: National Foundation for Educational Research, 1997; also in J. Torney-Purta, J. Schiville and J. Amadeo (eds), Civic Education across Countries: Twenty Four National Case Studies from the IEA Civic Education Project. Delft: Eburon, 1999.
56. Kerr, Citizenship Education Revisited, p. 6.
57. C. L. Hahn, 'Equality and justice for all? E pluribus unum? Civic education in the United States', IEA Civic Education Project, Phase I. Paper presented to the World Congress of Comparative Education Societies, Cape Town, July 1998; also in Torney-Purta et al., Civic Education across Countries.
58. C. L. Hahn, 'Equality and justice for all? E pluribus unum? Civic education in the United States', IEA Civic Education Project, Phase I. Paper presented to the World Congress of Comparative Education Societies, Cape Town, July 1998; also in Torney-Purta et al., Civic Education across Countries.
59. C. Hahn, Becoming Political: Comparative Perspectives on Citizenship Education. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998; C. Wilkins, 'Making good citizens: the social and political attitudes of PGCE students', Oxford Review of Education, 25 (1999), 217-30.
60. C. Hahn, Becoming Political: Comparative Perspectives on Citizenship Education. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998; C. Wilkins, 'Making good citizens: the social and political attitudes of PGCE students', Oxford Review of Education, 25 (1999), 217-30.
61. For analysis of the effect of formal civics education, based on analysis of the National Assessment of Educational Progress 1988 Civics Assessment see R. G. Niemi and J. Junn, Civic Education: What Makes Students Learn. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998; fieldwork for the latest assessment of civics was carried out in 1998.
62. Hahn, 'Equality and justice for all', p. 6.
63. Hahn, 'Equality and justice for all', p. 8.
64. Hahn, 'Equality and justice for all', p. 11.
65. Hahn, 'Equality and justice for all', pp. 10, 13.
66. Hahn, 'Equality and justice for all', p. 9.
67. Hahn, 'Equality and justice for all', p. 9.
68. Hahn, 'Equality and justice for all', p. 10.
69. G. Parry, G. Moyser and N. Day, Political Participation in Britain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, pp. 69-76, 93-4; N. Emler and E. Frazer, 'Politics: the education effect', Oxford Review of Education, 25 (1999), 251-73.
70. G. Parry, G. Moyser and N. Day, Political Participation in Britain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, pp. 69-76, 93-4; N. Emler and E. Frazer, 'Politics: the education effect', Oxford Review of Education, 25 (1999), 251-73.
71. A. Furnham and B. Gunter, 'Political knowledge and awareness in adolescents', Journal of Adolescence, 6 (1983), 373-85; K. P. Langton and M. K. Jennings, 'Political socialisation and the high school civics curriculum in the United States', American Political Science Review, 62 (1968), p. 857; I. Lister, 'Political socialisation and the schools: with special reference to the knowledge of political concepts of English sixth formers', Teaching Politics, 2 (1973), 2-9; G. Mercer, 'Political interest among adolescents: the influence of formal political education', Teaching Politics, 1 (1972), 8-13; R. Stradling, A Programme for Political Education: the Political Awareness of the School Leaver. London: Hansard Society, 1977, p. 36.
72. A. Furnham and B. Gunter, 'Political knowledge and awareness in adolescents', Journal of Adolescence, 6 (1983), 373-85; K. P. Langton and M. K. Jennings, 'Political socialisation and the high school civics curriculum in the United States', American Political Science Review, 62 (1968), p. 857; I. Lister, 'Political socialisation and the schools: with special reference to the knowledge of political concepts of English sixth formers', Teaching Politics, 2 (1973), 2-9; G. Mercer, 'Political interest among adolescents: the influence of formal political education', Teaching Politics, 1 (1972), 8-13; R. Stradling, A Programme for Political Education: the Political Awareness of the School Leaver. London: Hansard Society, 1977, p. 36.
73. A. Furnham and B. Gunter, 'Political knowledge and awareness in adolescents', Journal of Adolescence, 6 (1983), 373-85; K. P. Langton and M. K. Jennings, 'Political socialisation and the high school civics curriculum in the United States', American Political Science Review, 62 (1968), p. 857; I. Lister, 'Political socialisation and the schools: with special reference to the knowledge of political concepts of English sixth formers', Teaching Politics, 2 (1973), 2-9; G. Mercer, 'Political interest among adolescents: the influence of formal political education', Teaching Politics, 1 (1972), 8-13; R. Stradling, A Programme for Political Education: the Political Awareness of the School Leaver. London: Hansard Society, 1977, p. 36.
74. A. Furnham and B. Gunter, 'Political knowledge and awareness in adolescents', Journal of Adolescence, 6 (1983), 373-85; K. P. Langton and M. K. Jennings, 'Political socialisation and the high school civics curriculum in the United States', American Political Science Review, 62 (1968), p. 857; I. Lister, 'Political socialisation and the schools: with special reference to the knowledge of political concepts of English sixth formers', Teaching Politics, 2 (1973), 2-9; G. Mercer, 'Political interest among adolescents: the influence of formal political education', Teaching Politics, 1 (1972), 8-13; R. Stradling, A Programme for Political Education: the Political Awareness of the School Leaver. London: Hansard Society, 1977, p. 36.
75. A. Furnham and B. Gunter, 'Political knowledge and awareness in adolescents', Journal of Adolescence, 6 (1983), 373-85; K. P. Langton and M. K. Jennings, 'Political socialisation and the high school civics curriculum in the United States', American Political Science Review, 62 (1968), p. 857; I. Lister, 'Political socialisation and the schools: with special reference to the knowledge of political concepts of English sixth formers', Teaching Politics, 2 (1973), 2-9; G. Mercer, 'Political interest among adolescents: the influence of formal political education', Teaching Politics, 1 (1972), 8-13; R. Stradling, A Programme for Political Education: the Political Awareness of the School Leaver. London: Hansard Society, 1977, p. 36.
76. R. G. Niemi and J. Junn, Civic Education: What Makes Students Learn. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998, pp. 120-3, 142-3.
77. Langton and Jennings, 'Political socialisation and the high school civics curriculum'.
78. Niemi and Junn, Civic Education, pp. 144-5.
79. E. Frazer, 'Introduction: the idea of political education', Oxford Review of Education 25, (1999), 5-22, p. 10. (This paper was in press before I had sight of Niemi and Junn, Civic Education.)
80. Niemi and Junn, Civic Education, p. 146.
81. Hahn, Becoming Political, ch. 5; J.-C. Tedesco, 'What education for what citizenship?' and L. Albala-Bertrand, 'First lessons from the research phase', Educational Innovation and Information, no. 90. Geneva: International Bureau of Education, March 1997), p. 6; Gutmann, Democratic Education, pp. 89-91; J. Torney-Purta, 'The Development of Views About the Role of Social Institutions in Redressing Inequality and Promoting Human Rights' in R. Leahy (ed.), The Child's Construction of Social Inequality. New York: Academic, 1983, p. 302.
82. Hahn, Becoming Political, ch. 5; J.-C. Tedesco, 'What education for what citizenship?' and L. Albala-Bertrand, 'First lessons from the research phase', Educational Innovation and Information, no. 90. Geneva: International Bureau of Education, March 1997), p. 6; Gutmann, Democratic Education, pp. 89-91; J. Torney-Purta, 'The Development of Views About the Role of Social Institutions in Redressing Inequality and Promoting Human Rights' in R. Leahy (ed.), The Child's Construction of Social Inequality. New York: Academic, 1983, p. 302.
83. Hahn, Becoming Political, ch. 5; J.-C. Tedesco, 'What education for what citizenship?' and L. Albala-Bertrand, 'First lessons from the research phase', Educational Innovation and Information, no. 90. Geneva: International Bureau of Education, March 1997), p. 6; Gutmann, Democratic Education, pp. 89-91; J. Torney-Purta, 'The Development of Views About the Role of Social Institutions in Redressing Inequality and Promoting Human Rights' in R. Leahy (ed.), The Child's Construction of Social Inequality. New York: Academic, 1983, p. 302.
84. Hahn, Becoming Political, ch. 5; J.-C. Tedesco, 'What education for what citizenship?' and L. Albala-Bertrand, 'First lessons from the research phase', Educational Innovation and Information, no. 90. Geneva: International Bureau of Education, March 1997), p. 6; Gutmann, Democratic Education, pp. 89-91; J. Torney-Purta, 'The Development of Views About the Role of Social Institutions in Redressing Inequality and Promoting Human Rights' in R. Leahy (ed.), The Child's Construction of Social Inequality. New York: Academic, 1983, p. 302.
85. Hahn, Becoming Political, ch. 5; J.-C. Tedesco, 'What education for what citizenship?' and L. Albala-Bertrand, 'First lessons from the research phase', Educational Innovation and Information, no. 90. Geneva: International Bureau of Education, March 1997), p. 6; Gutmann, Democratic Education, pp. 89-91; J. Torney-Purta, 'The Development of Views About the Role of Social Institutions in Redressing Inequality and Promoting Human Rights' in R. Leahy (ed.), The Child's Construction of Social Inequality. New York: Academic, 1983, p. 302.
86. See F. Mount, 'The recovery of the constitution', Charter 88 Sovereignty Lecture (1992, http://www. charter88.org.uk/pubs/sovlecs/mount.html); N. Johnson, In Search of the Constitution: Reflections on State and Society in Britain. Oxford: Pergamon, 1977.
87. See F. Mount, 'The recovery of the constitution', Charter 88 Sovereignty Lecture (1992, http://www. charter88.org.uk/pubs/sovlecs/mount.html); N. Johnson, In Search of the Constitution: Reflections on State and Society in Britain. Oxford: Pergamon, 1977.
88. Wilkins, 'Making good citizens', p. 225.
89. Wilkins, 'Making good citizens', p. 226.
90. Wilkins, 'Making good citizens', p. 226-8.
91. Wilkins 'Making good citizens', p. 220.
92. Education Act 1996. London: HMSO, 1996, para. 406.
93. When Hahn reported to one teacher in England that her sixth formers had said they wished to know more about politics, the teacher was 'surprised' and 'admitted that the school does not do much with that in the sixth form education course "because it is difficult. If you have someone from one party then you have to have someone from the other parties too." Hahn, Becoming Political, p. 68.
94. Education Act 1986 no. 2, sections 44, 45.
95. M. Freeden, Ideologies and Political Theory: a Conceptual Approach. Oxford: Clarendon, 1996, pp. 438-42; A. Phillips, 'Citizenship and Feminist Theory' in Democracy and Difference. Oxford: Polity, 1993, p. 77.
96. M. Freeden, Ideologies and Political Theory: a Conceptual Approach. Oxford: Clarendon, 1996, pp. 438-42; A. Phillips, 'Citizenship and Feminist Theory' in Democracy and Difference. Oxford: Polity, 1993, p. 77.
97. Davies, 'What has happened in the teaching of politics ...', pp. 129-30.
98. Pring 'Political education', pp. 84-6.
99. Pring, 'Political education', p. 85.
100. Pring, 'Political education', pp. 74-5.
101. Galston, 'Civic Education in the Liberal State', p. 99.
102. For evidence that I think supports this interpretation see articles in Citizen: the Journal of the Citizenship Foundation (from Vol. 1, 1990).
103. In the National Curriculum for England 'citizenship' is to be a cross curricular theme rather than a specific subject; the curriculum specifies what pupils should know and understand and what skills they should have at different educational stages. It is left to schools to decide how citizenship education should be delivered, and how it should relate to pupils' 'spiritual, moral, social and cultural education'. The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority has the task of evaluating pupils' achievement and schools' performance in this area.
104. Advisory Group on Citizenship, Education for Citizenship, para 10.1.