Cerebral amyloid angiopathy: An overview

Neuropathology

Volumn 20, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 8-22

  Yamada, Masahito ^a  

^a KANAZAWA UNIVERSITY   (Japan)

Author keywords

Alzheimer's disease; Amyloid protein; Cerebral amyloid angiopathy; Cerebral hemorrhage; Cerebrovascular disorders; Cystatin C; Dementia

Indexed keywords

AMYLOID; AMYLOID BETA PROTEIN; CYSTATIN C; GELSOLIN; PREALBUMIN; PRION PROTEIN;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; BRAIN BLOOD VESSEL; BRAIN CORTEX; BRAIN HEMORRHAGE; BRAIN INFARCTION; CLASSIFICATION; LEPTOMENINX; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; VASCULAR AMYLOIDOSIS;

AGED; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; AMYLOID BETA-PROTEIN; CEREBRAL AMYLOID ANGIOPATHY; CEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE; HUMANS;

EID: 0034075450     PISSN: 09196544     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1046/j.1440-1789.2000.00268.x     Document Type: Review

References (129)

1. Tomonaga M. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy in the elderly. J Am Geriat Soc 1981; 29: 151-157.
2. Vinters HV, Gilbert JJ. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy: Incidence and complications in the aging brain. II. The distribution of amyloid vascular changes. Stroke 1983; 14: 924-928.
3. Yamada M, Tsukagoshi H, Otomo E, Hayakawa M. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy in the aged. J Neurol 1987; 234: 371-376.
4. Masuda J, Tanaka K, Ueda K, Omae T. Autopsy study of incidence and distribution of cerebral amyloid angiopathy in Hisayama Japan. Stroke 1988; 19: 205-210.
5. Ellis RJ, Olichney JM, Thal LJ et al. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy in the brains of patients with Alzhemier's disease. The CERAD Experience, Part XV. Neurology 1996; 46: 1592-1596.
6. Mandybur TI. The incidence of cerebral amyloid angiopathy in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1975; 25: 120-126.
7. Esiri M, Wilcock GK. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy in dementia and old age. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1986; 49: 1221-1226.
8. Yamaguchi H, Yamazaki T, Lemere CA, Frosch MP, Selkoe DJ. Beta amyloid is focally deposited within the outer basement membrane in the amyloid angiopathy of Alzheimer's disease. An immunoelectron microscopic study. Am J Pathol 1992; 141: 249-259.
9. Scholz W. Studien zur Pathologie der Hirgefässe. II. Die drusige Entartung der Hirnarterien und -capillaren (in German). Z Ges Neur Psychiat 1938; 162: 694-715.
10. Glenner GG, Wong CW. Alzheimer's disease: Initial report of the purification and characterization of a novel cerebrovascular amyloid protein. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1984; 120: 885-890.
11. Namba Y, Tomonaga M, Kawasaki H, Otomo E, Ikeda K. Apolipoprotein E immunoreactivity in cerebral amyloid deposits and neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer's disease and kuru plaque amyloid in Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Brain Res 1991; 541: 163-166.
12. Fujihara S, Shimode K, Nakamura M, Kobayashi S, Tsunematsu T. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy with the deposition of cystatin C (gamma-trace) and β-protein. Progr Clin Biol Res 1989; 317: 39-944.
13. Maruyama K, Ikeda S, Ishihara T, Allsop D, Yanagisawa N. Immunohistochemical characterization of cerebrovascular amyloid in 46 autopsied cases using antibodies to β protein and cystatin C. Stroke 1990; 21: 397-403.
14. Vinters HV, Nishimura GS, Secor DL, Pardridge WM. Immunoreactive A4 and gamma-trace peptide colocalization in amyloidotic arteriolar lesions in brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease. Am J Pathol 1990; 137: 233-240.
15. Maruyama K, Kametani F, Ikeda S, Ishihara T, Yanagisawa N. Characterization of amyloid fibril protein from a case of cerebral amyloid angiopathy showing immunohistochemical reactivity for both β protein and cystatin C. Neurosci Lett 1992; 144: 38-42.
16. Lippa CF, Hamos JE, Smith TW, Pulaski-Salo D, Drachman DA. Vascular amyloid deposition in Alzheimer's disease. Neither necessary nor sufficient for the local formation of plaques or tangles. Arch Neurol 1993; 50: 1088-1092.
17. Okazaki H, Reagan TJ, Campbell RJ. Clinicopathologic studies of primary cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Mayo Clin Proc 1979; 54: 22-31.
18. Mandybur TI. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy: The vascular pathology and complications. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1986; 45: 79-90.
19. Vonsattel JPG, Myers RH, Hedley-Whyte ET, Ropper AH, Bird ED, Richardson EP. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy without and with cerebral hemorrhages: A comparative histological study. Ann Neurol 1991; 30: 637-649.
20. Maeda A, Yamada M, Itoh Y et al. Computer-assisted three-dimensional image analysis of cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Stroke 1993; 24: 1857-1864.
21. Takahashi RH, Sawa H, Kuroda S et al. Pathologic process leading to cerebral hemorrhage in amyloid angiopathy. Neuropathology 1996; 16: 99-105.
22. Jellinger K. Cerebrovascular amyloidosis with cerebral hemorrhage. J Neurol 1977; 214: 195-206.
23. Gilbert JJ, Vinters HV. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy: Incidence and complications in the aging brain. I. Cerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 1983; 14: 915-923.
24. Ishii N, Nishihara Y, Horie A. Amyloid angiopathy and lobar cerebral haemorrhage. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1984; 47: 1203-1210.
25. Kalyan-Raman UP, Kalman-Raman K. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy causing intracranial hemorrhage. Ann Neurol 1984; 16: 321-329.
26. Gray F, Dubas F, Roullet E, Escourolle R. Leukoencephalopathy in diffuse hemorrhagic cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Ann Neurol 1985; 18: 54-59.
27. Itoh Y, Yamada M, Hayakawa M, Otomo E, Miyatake T. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy: A significant cause of cerebellar as well as lobar cerebral hemorrhage in the elderly. J Neural Sci 1993; 116: 135-141.
28. Yamada M, Itoh Y, Otomo E, Hayakawa M, Miyatake T. Subarachnoid haemorrhage in the elderly: A necropsy study of the association with cerebral amyloid angiopathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1993; 56: 543-547.
29. Iwamoto N, Ishihara T, Ito H, Uchino F. Morphological evaluation of amyloid-laden arteries in leptomeninges, cortices and subcortices in cerebral amyloid angiopathy with subcortical hemorrhage. Acta Neuropathol 1993; 86: 418-421.
30. Wijdicks EFM, Jack CR Jr. Intracerebral hemorrhage after fibrinolytic therapy for acute myocardial infarction. Stroke 1993; 24: 554-557.
31. Sloan MA, Price TR, Petito CK et al. Clinical features and pathogenesis of intracerebral hemorrhage after rt-PA and heparin therapy for acute myocardial infarction: The thrombolysis in myocardial infarction (TIMI). II. Pilot and randomized clinical trial combined experience. Neurology 1995; 45: 649-658.
32. Torack RM. Congophilic angiopathy complicated by surgery and massive hemorrhage. Am J Pathol 1975; 81: 349-366.
33. Yoshimura M, Yamanouchi H, Kuzuhara S et al. Dementia in cerebral amyloid angiopathy: A clinicopathological study. J Neurol 1992; 239: 441-50.
34. Greenberg SM, Vonsattel JPG, Stakes JW, Gruber M, Finklestein SP. The clinical spectrum of cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Neurology 1993; 43: 2073-2079.
35. Yamada M, Itoh Y, Suematsu N et al. Vascular variant of Alzheimer's disease characterized by severe plaque-like β protein angiopathy. Dementia Geriatr Cogn Disord 1997; 8: 163-168.
36. Smith DB, Hitchcock M, Philpott P. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy presenting as transient ischemic attacks. Case report. J Neurosurg 1985; 63: 963-964.
37. Friedland RP, Kalaria R, Berridge M et al. Neuroimaging of vessel amyloid in Alzheimer's disease. Ann NY Acad Sci 1997; 826: 242-247.
38. Greenberg SM, Finklestein SP, Schaefer PW. Petechial hemorrhages accompanying lobar hemorrhage: Detection by gradient-echo MRI. Neurology 1996; 46: 1751-1754.
39. Loes DJ, Biller J, Yuh WTC et al. Leukoencephalopathy in cerebral amyloid angiopathy: MR imaging in four cases. AJNR 1990; 11: 485-488.
40. Greenberg SM, Vonsattel J-PG. Diagnosis of cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Sensitivity and specificity of cortical biopsy. Stroke 1997; 28: 1418-1422.
41. Pirttila T, Mehta PD, Soininen H et al. Cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of soluble amyloid β protein and apolipoprotein E in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Arch Neurol 1996; 53: 189-193.
42. Joachim CL, Duffy LK, Morris JH, Selkoe DJ. Protein chemical and immunocytochemical studies of meningovascular β-amyloid protein in Alzheimer's disease and normal aging. Brain Res 1988; 474: 100-111.
43. Prelli F, Castano E, Glenner GG, Frangione B. Difference between vascular and plaque core amyloid in Alzheimer's disease. J Neurochem 1988; 51: 648-651.
44. Suzuki N, Iwatsubo T, Odaka A et al. High tissue content of soluble β1-40 is linked to cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Am J Pathol 1994; 145: 452-460.
45. Kanai M, Matsubara E, Isoe K et al. Longitudinal study of cerebrospinal fluid levels of tau, Aβ1-40, and Aβ1-42(43) in Alzheimer's disease: A study in Japan. Ann Neurol 1998; 44: 17-26.
46. Pitschke M, Prior R, Haupt M, Riesner D. Detection of single amyloid β-protein aggregates in the cerebrospinal fluid of Alzheimer's patients by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. Nature Med 1998; 4: 832-834.
47. Shimode K, Fujihara S, Nakamura M, Kobayashi S, Tsunematsu T. Diagnosis of cerebral amyloid angiopathy by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay of cystatin C in cerebrospinal fluid. Stroke 1991; 22: 860-866.
48. Greenberg SM, Rebeck GW, Vonsattel JPG et al. Apolipoprotein E ε4 and cerebral hemorrhage associated with amyloid angiopathy. Ann Neurol 1995; 38: 254-259.
49. Premkumar DRD, Cohen DL, Hedera P et al. Apolipoprotein E-ε4 in cerebral amyloid angiopathy and cerebrovascular pathology associated with Alzheimer's disease. Am J Pathol 1996; 148: 2083-2095.
50. Itoh Y, Yamada M, Suematsu N et al. Influence of apolipoprotein E genotype on cerebral amyloid angiopathy in the elderly. Stroke 1996; 27: 216-218.
51. Yamada M, Itoh Y, Otomo E, Suematsu N, Matsushita M. Lack of the association between apolipoprotein E and cerebral amyloid angiopathy in the elderly Japanese. Ann Neurol 1996; 39: 683.
52. Nicoll JAR, Burnett C, Love S et al. High frequency of apolipoprotein E ε2 allele in hemorrhage due to cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Ann Neurol 1997; 41: 716-721.
53. McCarron MO, Nicoll JAR. High frequency of apolipoprotein E ε2 allele is specific for patients with cerebral amyloid angiopathy-related haemorrhage. Neurosci Lett 1998; 247: 45-48.
54. Yamada M, Sodeyama N, Itoh Y et al. Association of presenilin-1 polymorphism with cerebral amyloid angiopathy in the elderly. Stroke 1997; 28: 2219-2221.
55. Yamada M, Sodeyama N, Itoh Y et al. Association of α1-antichymotrypsin polymorphism with cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Ann Neurol 1998; 44: 129-131.
56. Yamada M, Sodeyama N, Itoh Y et al. Butyrylcholinesterase K variant and cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Stroke 1998; 29: 2488-2490.
57. 2-macroglobulin gene and cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Stroke 1999; 30: 2277-2279.
58. Hayashi Y, Fukatsu R, Tsuzuki K et al. Evidence for presenilin-1 involvement in amyloid angiopathy in the Alzheimer's affected brain. Brain Res 1998; 789: 307-314.
59. Leblanc R, Preul M, Robitaille Y, Villemure JG, Pokrupa R. Surgical considerations in cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Neurosurgery 1991; 29: 712-718.
60. Matkovic Z, Davis S, Gonzales M, Kalnins R, Masters C. Surgical risk of hemorrhage in cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Stroke 1991; 22: 456-461.
61. Greene GM, Godersky JC, Biller J, Hart MN, Adams HP Jr. Surgical experience with cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Stroke 1990; 21: 1545-1549.
62. Izumihara A, Ishihara T, Iwamoto N, Yamashita K, Ito H. Postoperative outcome of 37 patients with lobar intracerebral hemorrhage related to cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Stroke 1999; 30: 29-33.
63. Wattendorff AR, Bots GThAM, Went LN, Endtz LJ. Familial cerebral amyloid angiopathy presenting as recurrent cerebral haemorrhage. J Neurol Sci 1982; 55: 121-135.
64. Haan J, Roos RAC, Algra PR, Lanser JBK, Bots GTAM, Vegter-Van Der Vlis M. Hereditary cerebral haemorrhage with amyloidosis-Dutch type. Magnetic resonance imaging findings in 7 cases. Brain 1990; 113: 1251-1267.
65. Rozemuller AJM, Roos RAC, Gots GTAM, Kamphorst W, Eikelenboom P, Van Nostrand WE. Distribution of b/A4 protein and amyloid precursor protein in hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis-Dutch type and Alzheimer's disease. Am J Pathol 1993; 142: 1449-1457.
66. Wattendorff AR, Frangione B, Luyendijk W, Bots GTAM. Hereditary cerebral haemorrhage with amyloidosis, Dutch type (HCHWA-D): Clinicopathological studies. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1995; 58: 699-705.
67. Bornebroek M, Westerndorp RGJ, Haan J et al. Mortality from hereditary cerebral haemorrhage with amyloidosis - Dutch type. The impact of sex, parental transmission and year of birth. Brain 1997; 120: 2243-2249.
68. Van Duinen SG, Castano EM, Prelli F, Bots GTAB, Luyendijk W, Frangione B. Hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis in patients of Dutch origin is related to Alzheimer disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1987; 84: 5991-5994.
69. Levy E, Carman MD, Fernandez-Madrid IJ et al. Mutation of the Alzheimer's disease amyloid gene in hereditary cerebral hemorrhage, Dutch type. Sdence 1990; 248: 1124-1126.
70. Bugiani O, Padovani A, Magoni M et al. An Italian type of HCHWA. Neurobiol Aging 1998; 19: S238.
71. Hendriks L, van Duijn CM, Cras P et al. Presenile dementia and cerebral haemorrhage linked to a mutation at codon 692 of the β-amyloid precursor protein gene. Nature Genet 1992; 1: 218-221.
72. Cras P, van Harskamp F, Hendriks L et al. Presenile Alzheimer dementia characterized by amyloid angiopathy and large amyloid core type senile plaques in the APP 692Ala→Gly mutation. Acta Neuropathol 1998; 96: 253-260.
73. Nochlin D, Bird TD, Nemens EJ, Ball MJ, Sumi SM. Amyloid angiopathy in a Volga German Family with Alzheimer's disease and a presenilin-2 mutation (N141I). Ann Neurol 1998; 43: 131-135.
74. Gudmundsson G, Hallgrimsson J, Jonasson TA, Bjarnason O. Hereditary cerebral haemorrhage with amyloidosis. Brain 1972; 95: 387-404.
75. Jensson O, Gudmundsson G, Arnason A et al. Hereditary cystatin C (γ-trace) amyloid angiopathy of the CNS causing cerebral hemorrhage. Acta Neurol Scand 1987; 76: 102-114.
76. Levy E, Lopez-Otin C, Ghiso J, Geltner D, Frangione B. Stroke in Icelandic patients with hereditary amyloid angiopathy is related to a mutation in the cystatin C gene, an inhibitor of cysteine proteases. J Exp Med 1989; 169: 1771-1778.
77. Grubb A, Jensson O, Gudmundsson G, Arnason A, Löfberg H, Malm J. Abnormal metabolism of γ-trace alkaline microprotein. N Engl J Med 1984; 311: 1547-1549.
78. Graffagnino C, Herbstreith MH, Schmechel DE, Levy E, Roses AD, Alberts MJ. Cystatin C mutation in an elderly man with sporadic amyloid angiopathy and intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 1995; 26: 2190-2193.
79. Ghetti B, Piccardo P, Spillantini MG et al. Vascular variant of prion protein cerebral amyloidosis with T-positive neurofibrillary tangles: The phenotype of the stop codon 145 mutation in PRNP. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996; 93: 744-748.
80. Worster-Drought C, Greenfield JG, McMenemey WH. A form of familial presenile dementia with spastic paralysis. Brain 1940; 63: 237-254.
81. Worster-Drought C, Greenfield JC, McMenemey WH. A form of familial presenile dementia with spastic paralysis. Brain 1944; 67: 38-43.
82. Griffiths RA, Mortimer TF, Oppenheimer DR, Spalding JMK. Congophilic angiopathy of the brain: a clinical and pathological report on two siblings. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1982; 45: 396-408.
83. Plant GT, Revesz T, Barnard RO, Harding AE, Gautier-Smith PC. Familial cerebral amyloid angiopathy with nonneuritic amyloid plaque formation. Brain 1990; 113: 721-747.
84. Vidal R, Frangione B, Rostagno A et al. A stop-codon mutation in the BRI gene associated with familial British dementia. Nature 1999; 399: 776-781.
85. Ushiyama M, Ikeda S, Yanagisawa N. Transthyretin type cerebral amyloid angiopathy in type I familial amyloid polyneuropathy. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1991; 81: 524-528.
86. Kametani F, Ikeda S, Yanagisawa N, Ishii T, Hanyu N. Characterization of a transthyretin-related amyloid fibril protein from cerebral amyloid angiopathy in type 1 familial amyloid polyneuropathy. J Neurol Sci 1992; 108: 178-183.
87. Goren H, Steinberg MC, Farboody GH. Familial oculoleptomeningeal amyloidosis. Brain 1980; 103: 473-495.
88. Okayama M, Goto I, Ogata J, Omae T, Yoshida I, Inomata H. Primary amyloidosis with familial vitreous opacities. An unusual case and family. Arch Intern Med 1978; 138: 105-111.
89. Ogata J, Okayama M, Goto I, Inomata H, Yoshida I, Omae T. Primary familial amyloidosis with vitreous opacities. Report of an autopsy case. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1978; 42: 67-70.
90. Uitti RJ, Donat JR, Rozdilsky B, Schneider RJ, Koeppen AH. Familial oculoleptomeningeal amyloidosis. Report of a new family with unusual features. Arch Neurol 1988; 45: 1118-1122.
91. Vidal R, Garzuly F, Budka H et al. Meningovascular amyloidosis associated with a novel transthyretin missense mutation at codon 18 (TTR D18G). Am J Pathol 1996; 148: 361-366.
92. Herrick MK, DeBruyne K, Horoupian DS, Skare J, Vanefsky MA, Ong T. Massive leptomeningeal amyloidosis associated with a Va130Met transthyretin gene. Neurology 1996; 47: 988-992.
93. Petersen RB, Goren H, Cohen M et al. Transthyretin amyloidosis: A new mutation associated with dementia. Ann Neurol 1997; 41: 307-313.
94. Brett M, Persey MR, Reilly MM et al. Transthyretin Leul2Pro is associated with systemic, neuropathic and leptomeningeal amyloidosis. Brain 1999; 122: 183-190.
95. Kiuru S, Salonen O, Haltia M. Gelsolin-related spinal and cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Ann Neurol 1999; 45: 305-311.
96. Fukuchi K, Ho L, Younkin SG et al. High levels of circulating β-amyloid peptide do not cause cerebral β-amyloidosis in transgenic mice. Am J Pathol 1996; 149: 219-227.
97. Shoji M, Hirai S, Harigaya Y, Kawarabayashi T, Yamaguchi H. The amyloid β-protein precursor is localized in smooth muscle cells of leptomeningeal vessels. Brain Res 1990; 530: 113-116.
98. Tagliavini F, Ghiso J, Timmers WF, Giaccone G, Bugiani O, Frangione B. Coexistence of Alzheimer's amyloid precursor protein and amyloid protein in cerebral vessel walls. Lab Invest 1990; 62: 761-767.
99. Kawai M, Kalaria RN, Cras P et al. Degeneration of vascular muscle cells in cerebral amyloid angiopathy of Alzheimer's disease. Brain Res 1993; 623: 142-146.
100. Wisniewski HM, Frackowiak J, Zóltowska A, Kim KS. Vascular β-amyloid in Alzheimer's disease angiopathy is produced by proliferating and degeneration smooth muscle cells. Amyloid: Int J Exp Clin Invest 1994; 1: 8-16.
101. Frackowiak J, Zoltowska A, Wisniewski HM. Non-fibrillar β-amyloid protein is associated with smooth muscle cells of vessel walls in Alzheimer disease. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1994; 53: 637-645.
102. Davis-Salinas J, Saporito-Irwin SM, Cotman CW, Van Nostrand WE. Amyloid β-protein induces its own production in cultured degenerating cerebrovascular smooth muscle cells. J Neurochem 1995; 65: 931-934.
103. Kalaria RN, Premkumar DRD, Pax AB, Cohen DL, Lieberburg I. Production and increased detection of amyloid β rotein and amyloidogenic fragments in brain microvessels, meningeal vessels and choroid plexus in Alzheimer's disease. Mol Brain Res 1996; 35: 58-68.
104. Takahashi RH, Sawa H, Takada A, Kitabatke A, Nagashima K. Expression of amyloid precursor protein mRNA in vascular smooth muscle cells of the human brain. Neuropathology 1997; 17: 11-14.
105. Itoh Y, Yamada M, Hayakawa M, Otomo E, Miyatake T. Subpial β/A4 peptide deposits are closely associated with amyloid angiopathy in the elderly. Neurosci Lett 1993; 155: 144-147.
106. Urmoneit B, Prikulis I, Wihl G et al. Cerebrovascular smooth muscle cells internalize Alzheimer amyloid beta protein via a lipoprotein pathway: Implications for cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Lab Invest 1997; 77: 157-166.
107. Weller R, Massey A, Newman TA, Hutchings M, Kuo Y-M, Roher AE. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Amyloid βaccumulates in putative intersitital fluid drainage pathways in Alzheimer's disease. Am J Pathol 1998; 153: 725-733.
108. Tamaoka A, Kalaria RN, Lieberburg I, Selkoe DJ. Identification of a stable fragment of the Alzheimer amyloid precursor containing the β-protein in brain microvessels. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1992; 89: 1345-1349.
109. Shinkai Y, Yoshimura M, Ito Y et al. Amyloid β proteins 1-40 and 1-42(43) in the soluble fraction of extra- and intracranial blood vessels. Ann Neurol 1995; 38: 421-428.
110. Alonzo NC, Hyman BT, Rebeck GW, Greenberg SM. Progression of cerebral amyloid angiopathy: Accumulation of amyloid-β40 in affected vessels. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1998; 57: 353-359.
111. Jarrett JT, Lansbury P. Seeding 'one-dimensional crystallization' of amyloid: A pathogenic mechanism in Alzheimer's disease and scrapie. Cell 1993; 73: 1055-1058.
112. Teplow DB. Structural and kinetic features of amyloid β-protein fibrillogenesis (review). Amyloid: Int J Exp Clin Invest 1998; 5: 121-142.
113. Wisniewski T, Castano EM, Golabek A, Vogel T, Fragione B. Acceleration of Alzheimer's fibril formation by apolipoprotein E in vitro. Am J Pathol 1994; 145: 1030-1035.
114. Ma J, Yee A, Brewer B Jr, Das S, Potter H. Amyloid-associated proteins α1-antichymotrypsin and apolipoprotein E promote assembly of Alzheimer β-protein into filaments. Nature 1994; 372: 92-94.
115. Naiki H, Gejyo F, Nakakuni K. Concentration-dependent inhibitory effects of apolipoprotein E on Alzheimer's β-amyloid fibril formation in vitro. Biochemistry 1997; 36: 6243-6250.
116. Soto C, Sigurdsson EM, Morelli L, Kumar A, Castano EM, Frangione B. β-sheet breaker peptides inhibit fibrillogenesis in a rat brain model of amyloidosis: Implications for Alzheimer's therapy. Nature Med 1998; 4: 822-826.
117. Snow AD, Mar H, Nochlin D et al. The presence of heparan sulfatate proteoglycans in the neuritic plaques and congophilic angiopathy in Alzheimer's disease. Am J Pathol 1988; 133: 456-463.
118. Hart MN, Merz P, Bennett-Gray J et al. β-amyloid protein of Alzheimer's disease is found in cerebral and spinal cord vascular malformations. Am J Pathol 1988; 132: 167-172.
119. Yamada M, Itoh Y, Shintaku M et al. Immune reactions associated with cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Stroke 1996; 27: 1155-1162.
120. Maat-Schieman MLC, Van Duinen SG, Rozemuller AJM, Haan J, Roos RAC. Association of vascular amyloid β and cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system in hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis (Dutch) and Alzheimer disease. J Neuropathol Exp Neuropathol 1997; 56: 273-284.
121. Shintaku M, Osawa K, Toki J, Maeda R, Nishiyama T. A case of granulomatous angiitis of the central nervous system associated with amyloid angiopathy. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1986; 70: 340-342.
122. Fountain NB, Eberhard DA. Primary angiitis of the central nervous system associated with cerebral amyloid angiopathy: Report of two cases and review of the literature. Neurology 1996; 46: 190-197.
123. Fountain NB, Lopes MBS. Control of primary angiitis of the CNS associated with cerebral amyloid angiopathy by cyclophosphamide alone. Neurology 1999; 52: 660-662.
124. Wyss-Coray T, Masliah E, Mallory M et al. Amyloidogenic role of cytokine TGF-β1 in transgenic mice and in Alzheimer's disease. Nature 1997; 389: 603-606.
125. Kammensheidt A, Boyce FM, Spanoyannis AF et al. Deposition of β/A4 immunoreactivity and neuronal pathology in transgenic mice expressing the carboxy-terminal fragment of the Alzheimer amyloid precursor in the brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1992; 89: 10857-10861.
126. Yamada M, Itoh Y, Maeda A et al. Pathogenesis of cerebral amyloid angiopathy-related hemorrhage in the elderly. In: Kisilevsky R, Benson MD, Frangione B (eds). Amyloid and Amyloidosis. New York: Parthenon Publishing, 1994; 362-364.
127. Thomas T, Thomas G, McLendon C, Sutton T, Mullan M. β-amyloid-mediated vasoactivity and vascular endothelial damage. Nature 1996; 380: 168-171.
128. Kingston IB, Castro MJM, Anderson S. In vitro stimulation of tissue-type plasminogen activator by Alzheimer amyloid β-peptide analogues. Nature Genet 1995; 1: 138-142.
129. McCarron MO, Nicoll JAR, Stewart J et al. The apolipoprotein E ε2 allele and the pathological features in cerebral amyloid angiopathy-related hemorrhage. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1999; 58: 711-718.