Post-traumatic stress disorder: Hypotheses from clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology research

International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice

Volumn 4, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 3-18

  Emilien, G ^a,b,c   Penasse, C ^a   Charles, G ^c   Martin, D ^a   Lasseaux, L ^c   Waltregny, A ^a  

^a Centre Neurologique du Botanique   (Belgium)

^b UNIVERSITÉ CATHOLIQUE DE LOUVAIN   (Belgium)

^c NONE   (France)

Author keywords

Anxiety; Clinical neuropsychology; Cognition; Depression; Emotional Stroop test; Memory; Post traumatic stress disorder; PTSD

Indexed keywords

TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT;

AMNESIA; ANXIETY NEUROSIS; AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOR; COGNITION; DEPRESSION; HYPOTHESIS; LITERATURE; MEMORY; NEUROPSYCHOLOGY; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SLEEP DISORDER; STARTLE REFLEX;

EID: 0034074869     PISSN: 13651501     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13651500052048451     Document Type: Review

References (135)

1. American Psychiatric Committee on Nomenclature and Statistics (1994) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, (4th edn) American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC.
2. Terr LC (1991) Childhood traumas: An outline and overview. Am J Psychiatry 148: 10-20.
3. Van der Kolk BA, Fisler RE (1995) Dissociation and the fragmentary nature of traumatic memories: Overview and exploratory study. J Traumatic Stress 8: 505-25.
4. Breslau N, Davis GC, Andreski P, Peterson E (1991) Traumatic events and post traumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults. Arch Gen Psychiatry 48: 216-22.
5. Davidson JRT, Roth S, Newman E (1991) Treatment of post traumatic stress disorder with fluoxetine. J Traumatic Stress 4: 419-23.
6. Kessler RC, Sonnega A, Bromet E et al (1995) Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch Gen Psychiatry 52: 1048-60.
7. Blanchard EB, Hickling E, Taylor A, Loos WR (1995) Psychiatric morbidity associated with motor vehicle accident. J Nerv Ment Dis 183: 495-504.
8. Hales RE, Zatzick DF (1997) What is PTSD? Am J Psychiatry 154: 143-5.
9. Blank AS (1993) The longitudinal course of posttraumatic stress disorder. In Posttraumatic stress disorder: DSM-IV and beyond (eds JRT Davidson, EB Foa) American Psychiatric Association Press, Washington, DC.
10. Koren D, Arnon I, Klein E (1999) Acute stress response and posttraumatic stress disorder in traffic accident victims: A one-year prospective, follow-up study. Am J Psychiatry 156: 367-73.
11. Zeiss R, Dickman H (1989) PTSD 40 years later: Incidence and person-situation correlates in former POWs. J Clin Psychol 45: 80-7.
12. Kulka RA, Schlenger JA, Fairbank JA et al (1990) Trauma and the Vietnam war generation: Report of findings from the National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study. Brunner/Mazel, New York.
13. Breslau N, Davis GC, Andreski P et al (1997) Sex differences in posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 54: 1044-8.
14. Breslau N, Davis GC, Andreski P et al (1998) Epidemiologic findings on PTSD and comorbid disorders in the general population. In Adversity, stress, and psychopathology (ed B Dohrenwend) 319-30. Oxford University Press, New York.
15. McFall ME, Mackay PW, Donovan DM (1991) Combat-related PTSD and psychosocial adjustment problems among substance-abusing veterans. J Nerv Ment Dis 179: 33-8.
16. Davidson JRT, Kudler HS, Smith RD et al (1990) Treatment of post traumatic stress disorder with amitriptyline and placebo. Arch Gen Psychiatry 47: 259-66.
17. Escobar JI, Randolph ET, Puente G et al (1983) Posttraumatic stress disorder in Hispanic Vietnam veterans: clinical phenomenology and sociocultural characteristics. J Nerv Ment Dis 171: 585-96.
18. Chilcoat HD, Breslau N (1998) Posttraumatic stress disorder and drug disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 55: 913-7.
19. Horowitz MJ (1986) Stress response syndromes (2nd edn). Jason Aronson, New York.
20. Kolb LC (1987) A neuropsychological hypothesis explaining post-traumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 144: 989-95.
21. Fairbank JA, Brown TA (1987) Current behavioral approaches to the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behavior Therapist 3: 57-64.
22. Jones JC, Barlow DH (1990) The etiology of post-traumatic stress disorder. Clin Psychol Rev 10: 299-328.
23. Gilbertson MW, Gurvits TV, Lasko NB, Pitman RK (1997) Neuropsychological assessment of Vietnam combat veterans with and without PTSD. In: Psychobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder (eds R Yehuda, AC McFarlane) Ann NY Acad Sci 821: 476-9.
24. Keane TM, Wolfe J, Taylor KI (1987) Post-traumatic stress disorder: Evidence for diagnostic validity and methods of psychological assessment. J Clin Psychol 43: 32-43.
25. Horowitz MJ, Wilner N, Alvarez W (1979) Impact of Events Scale: A measure of subjective stress. Psychosom Med 41: 209-18.
26. Woolfolk RL, Grady DA (1988) Combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder: patterns of symptomatology in help-seeking Vietnam veterans. J Nerv Ment Dis 176: 107-11.
27. Schwarzwald J, Solomon Z, Weisenberg M, Mikulincer M (1987) Validation of the Impact of Event Scale for psychological sequelae of combat. J Consult Clin Psychol 55: 251-6.
28. Penk WE, Robinowitz R, Roberts WR et al (1981) Adjustment differences among male substance abusers varying in degree of combat experience in Vietnam. J Consult Clin Psychol 49: 426-37.
29. Foy DW, Sipprelle RC, Rueger DB, Carroll EM (1984) Etiology of posttraumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans: Analysis of preliminary, military, and combat exposure influences. J Consult Clin Psychol 52: 79-87.
30. Keane TM, Caddell JM, Taylor KL (1988) Mississippi Scale for Combat-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Three studies in reliability and validity. J Consult Clin Psychol 56: 85-90.
31. Gelpin E, Bonne O, Peri T et al (1996) Treatment of recent trauma survivors with benzodiazepines: a prospective study. J Clin Psychiatry 57: 390-4.
32. Stroop JR (1935) Studies of interference in serial verbal reaction. J Exper Psychol 18: 643-62.
33. McNally RJ, Shin LM (1995) Association of intelligence with severity of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in Vietnam combat veterans. Am J Psychiatry 152: 936-8.
34. McNally RJ, Kaspi SP, Riemann BC, Zeitlin SB (1990) Selective processing of threat cues in posttraumatic stress disorder. J Abnorm Psychol 99: 398-402.
35. Cassiday KL, McNally RJ, Zeitlin SB (1992) Cognitive processing of trauma cues in rape victims with post-traumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Ther Res 16: 283-95.
36. Thrasher SM, Dalgleish T, Yule W (1994) Information processing in post-traumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Res Ther 32: 247-54.
37. Kaspi SP, McNally RJ, Amir N (1995) Cognitive processing of emotional information in posttraumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Ther Res 19: 319-30.
38. Williams JMG, Matthews A, MacLeod C (1996) The emotional Stroop task and psychopathology. Psychol Bull 120: 3-24.
39. Beck AT, Emery G, Greenberg RL. (1985) Anxiety disorders and phobias: A cognitive perspective. Basic Books, New York.
40. Bower GH (1981) Mood and memory. Amer Psychologist 36: 129-48.
41. Dawkins K, Furnham A (1989) The colour naming of emotional words. Br J Psychol 80: 383-9.
42. Carter CS, Maddock RJ, Magliozzi J (1992) Patterns of abnormal processing of emotional information in panic disorder and major depression. Psychopathology 25: 65-70.
43. De Ruiter C, Brosschot JF (1994) The emotional Stroop interference effect in anxiety: attentional bias or cognitive avoidance? Behav Res Ther 32: 315-9.
44. Bremner JD, Scott TM, Delaney RC et al (1993) Deficits in short-term memory in posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 150: 1015-9.
45. McNally RJ, Litz BT, Prassas A et al (1994) Emotional priming of autobiographical memory in post-traumatic stress disorder. Cognition Emotion 8: 351-67.
46. Nezu AM, Carnevale GJ (1987) Interpersonal problem solving and coping reactions of Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Abnorm Psychol 96: 155-7.
47. Sbordone RJ (1992) Distinguishing traumatic brain injury from posttraumatic stress disorder. Neurolaw Letter 9: 3.
48. Layton BS, Wardi-Zonna K (1995) Posttraumatic stress disorder with neurogenic amnesia for the traumatic event. Clin Neuropsychologist 9: 2-10.
49. Freud S (1914) (Reprinted 1953-1974) On the history of the psychoanalytic movement. In: Complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (trans. and ed. J Strachey) 14: 16. Hogarth Press, London.
50. Spiegel DJ (1995) Memory, trauma and psychotherapy: a cognitive science view. J Psychother Pract Res 4: 93-122.
51. Pope HG, Hudson JI, Bodkin JA, Olivia P (1998) Questionable validity of 'dissociative amnesia' in trauma victims. Br J Psychiatry 172: 210-5.
52. Southwick SM, Krystal JH, Johnson DR, Charney DS (1992) Neurobiology of post traumatic stress disorder. In: Review of psychiatry (eds A Tasman, MG Riba) 11: 347-70. American Psychiatric Press, Washington DC.
53. Friedman MJ, Charney DS, Deutch AY (1995) Neurobiological and clinical consequences of stress: From normal adaptation to PTSD. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia.
54. Yehuda R, Boisoneau D, Lowy MT, Giller FL (1995) Dose response changes in plasma cortisol and lymphocyte gluco-corticoid receptors following dexamethasone administration in combat veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 52: 583-93.
55. Whalley LJ, Borthwick N, Copolov D et al (1986) Glucocorticoid receptors and depression. Br Med J 292: 859-61.
56. Carroll BJ, Feinberg M, Greden JF et al (1981) A specific laboratory test for the diagnosis of melancholia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 38: 15-22.
57. Bauer M, Priebe S, Graf KJ et al (1994) Psychological and endocrine abnormalities in refugees from East Germany: II. Serum levels of cortisol, prolactin, luteinizing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone and testosterone. Psychiatry Res 51: 75-85.
58. Goenjian AK, Yehuda R, Pynoos RS et al (1996) Basal cortisol and dexamethasone suppression of cortisol among adolescents after the 1988 earthquake in Armenia. Am J Psychiatry 153: 929-34.
59. Heim C, Ehlert U, Rexhausen J et al (1997) Psychoendocrinological observations in women with chronic pelvic pain. In: Psychobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder (eds R Yehuda, AC McFarlane) Ann NY Acad Sci 821: 456-8.
60. Stein MB, Yehuda R, Koverola C, Hanna C (1997) Enhanced dexamethasone suppression of plasma cortisol in adult women traumatized by childhood sexual abuse. Biol Psychiatry 42: 680-6.
61. Yehuda R, Levengood RA, Schmeidler J et al (1996) Increased pituitary activation following metyrapone administration in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinol 21: 1-16.
62. 2-adrenergic binding sites in posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 144: 1511-2.
63. Yehuda R, Southwick SM, Giller EL (1992) Urinary catecholamine excretion and severity of PTSD symptoms in Vietnam combat veterans. J Nerv Ment Dis 180: 321-5.
64. Lerer B, Ebstein RP, Shestatsky M et al (1987) Cyclic AMP signal transduction in post-traumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 144: 1324-7.
65. Lerer B, Bleich A, Bennett ER et al (1990) Platelet adenylatecyclase and phospholipase C activity in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 27: 735-44.
66. Jensen CF, Keller TW, Peskind ER et al (1997) Behavioral and neuroendocrine responses to sodium lactate infusion in subjects with posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 154: 266-8.
67. Southwick SM, Krystal JH, Morgan AC et al (1993) Abnormal noradrenergic function in posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 50: 266-74.
68. Southwick SM, Krystal JH, Bremner D et al (1997) Noradrenergic and serotonergic function in posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 54: 749-57.
69. Glover H (1992) Emotional numbing: a possible endorphin-mediated phenomenon associated with posttraumatic stress disorders and other allied psychopathologic states. J Traumatic Stress 5: 643-75.
70. Gurvits TV, Shenton ME, Hokama H et al (1996) Magnetic resonance imaging study of hippocampal volume in chronic, combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 40: 1091-9.
71. Sapolsky RM, Krey LC, McEwen BS (1984) Glucocorticoid-sensitive hippocampal neurons are involved in terminating the adrenocortical stress response. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 81: 617-77.
72. Shin LM, Kosslyn SM, McNally RJ et al (1994) A positron emission tomography study of combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder (abstract). 10th Annual Meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies; November 8, Chicago, IL.
73. Rauch SL, Van der Kolk BA, Fisler RE et al (1996) A symptom provocation study of posttraumatic stress disorder using positron emission tomography and script-driven imagery. Arch Gen Psychiatry 53: 380-7.
74. Bremner JD, Innis RB, Ng CK et al (1997) Positron emission tomography measurement of cerebral metabolic correlates of yohimbine administration in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 54: 246-54.
75. Shin LM, Kosslyn SM, McNally RJ et al (1997) Visual imagery and perception in posttraumatic stress disorder. A positron emission tomographic investigation. Arch Gen Psychiatry 54: 233-41.
76. Paige SR, Reid GM, Allen MG 1991 Psychophysiological correlates of posttraumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans. Biol Psychiatry 27: 419-30.
77. Tecce JJ, Cattanach L (1993) Contingent negative variation (CNV). In: Electroencephalography: Basic principles, clinical applications and related fields (3rd edn) (eds E. Nierdermeyer, F. Lopes da Silva) Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore.
78. McFarlane AC, Weber DL, Clark CR (1993) Abnormal stimulus processing in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 34: 311-20.
79. Charles G, Hansenne M, Ansseau M et al (1995) P300 in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 32: 72-4.
80. Boudarene M, Timsit-Berthier M (1997) Interest of events-related potentials in assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder. In: Psychobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder (eds R Yehuda, AC McFarlane) Ann NY Acad Sci 821: 494-7.
81. Marmar CR, Weiss DS, Pynoos RB (1995) Dynamic psychotherapy of post-traumatic stress disorder. In: Neurobiological and clinical consequences of stress: From normal adaptation to PTSD (eds MJ Friedman, DS Charney, AY Deutch) 495-506. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia.
82. Foa EB, Rothbaum BO, Molnar C (1995) Cognitive-behavioral therapy of PTSD. In: Neurobiological and clinical consequences of stress: from normal adaptation to PTSD (eds MJ Friedman, DS Charney, AY Deutch). 483-94. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia.
83. Friedman MJ, Southwick SM (1995) Towards pharmacotherapy for PTSD. In: Neurobiological and clinical consequences of stress: From normal adaptation to PTSD. (eds MJ Friedman, DS Charney, AY Deutch) 465-82. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia.
84. Kofoed L, Friedman MJ, Peck R (1993) Alcoholism and drug abuse in patients with PTSD. Psychiatr Q 64: 151-71.
85. Shalev AY, Bonne O, Eth S (1996) Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: A review. Psychosom Med 58: 165-82.
86. Friedman MJ (1988) Toward rational pharmacotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder. An interim report. Am J Psychiatry 143: 281-5.
87. Van der Kolk BA (1988) The trauma spectrum: The interaction of biological and social events in the genesis of the trauma response. J Traumatic Stress 1: 273-90.
88. Foa EB, Steketee G, Rothbaum BO (1989) Behavioural/cognitive conceptualisation of post-traumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Ther, 20: 155-76.
89. Vaughan K, Tarrier N (1992) The use of image habituation training with post-traumatic stress disorders. Br J Psychiatry 161: 658-64.
90. Salkovskis PM, Kirk J (1989) Obsessional disorders. In: Cognitive behaviour therapy for psychiatric problems (eds K Hawton, P Salkovskis, J Kirk et al). Oxford Medical, Oxford.
91. Ehlers A, Clark DM, Dunmore E et al (1998) Predicting response to exposure treatment in PTSD: the role of mental defeat and alienation. J Traumatic Stress 11: 457-71.
92. Rawlins R, Williams S, Beck C (1993) Anxiety. In: Mental health psychiatric nursing (ed M Chisholm) Mosby-Year Book, St Louis.
93. Spector J, Huthwaite M (1993) Eye-movement desensitization to overcome post-traumatic stress disorder. Br J Psychiatry 163: 106-8.
94. Wolpe J, Abrams J (1991) Post-traumatic stress disorder overcome by eye movement desensitization: A case report. J Behaviour Ther Exp Psychiatry 22: 39-43.
95. Shapiro F (1989) Efficacy of the eye movement desensitization procedure in the treatment of traumatic memories. J Traumatic Stress 2: 199-223.
96. Andrade J, Kavanagh D, Baddeley A (1997) Eye-movements and visual imagery: A working memory approach to the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Bri J Clin Psychol, 36: 209-23.
97. Herbert JD, Mueser KT (1992) Eye movement desensitization: A critique of the evidence. J Behaviour Ther Exp Psychiatry 23: 169-74.
98. Sargant WW, Slater E (1972) The use of drugs in psychotherapy. In: An introduction to physical methods of treatment in psychiatry (eds WW Sargant, E Slater) 142-62. Science House, New York.
99. Famularo R, Kinscherff R, Fenton T (1988) Propranolol treatment for childhood post traumatic stress disorder, acute type. Am J Dis Childhood 142: 1244-7.
100. Frank JB, Giller EL, Kosten TR et al (1988) A randomized clinical trial of phenelzine and imipramine for post traumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 145: 1289-91.
101. Davidson JRT, Kudler HS, Saunders WB, Smith RD (1990) Symptom and comorbidity patterns in World War II and Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Compr Psychiatry 31: 162-70.
102. Falcon S, Ryan C, Chamberlain K, Curtis G (1985) Tricyclics: Possible treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 46: 385-8.
103. Burstein A (1984) Treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder with imipramine. Psychosomatics 25: 681-7.
104. Casella JV, Davis M (1985) Fear enhanced acoustic startle is not attenuated by acute or chronic imipramine treatment in rats. Psychopharmacology 87: 268-82.
105. Nagy L, Morgan III CA, Southwick SM, Charney DS (1993) Open prospective trial of fluoxetine for posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 13: 107-13.
106. McDougle C, Southwick S, St James R et al (1990) An open trial of fluoxetine. PTSD Research Quarterly 7: Summer 1990.
107. Southwick SM, Yehuda R, Giller EL et al (1990) Antidepressant treatment of PTSD: a meta-analysis (New Research Abstract 479) American Psychiatric Association, 143rd Annual Meeting, New York, NY.
108. Davidson JRT, Hughes D, Blazer DG, George LK (1991) Post traumatic stress disorder in the community: an epidemiological study. Psychol Med, 21: 713-21.
109. Shay J (1992) Fluoxetine reduces explosiveness and elevates mood on vietnam combat vets with PTSD. J Traumatic Stress 5: 97-110.
110. Van der Kolk BA, Dreyfuss D, Michaels M et al (1994) Fluoxetine in post traumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 55: 517-22.
111. De Boer M, Op den Velde W, Falger PJR et al (1992) Fluvoxamine treatment for chronic PTSD: A pilot study. Psychother Psychosom 57: 158-63.
112. Kline NA, Dow BM, Brown SA, Matloff JL (1994) Sertraline efficacy in depressed combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 151: 621.
113. Lipper S, Davidson JRT, Grady TA et al (1986) Preliminary study of carbamazepine in post traumatic stress disorder. Psychosomatics 27: 849-54.
114. Wolf ME, Alavi A, Mosnaim AD (1988) Post-traumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans clinical and EEG findings; possible therapeutic effects of carbamazepine. Biol Psychiatry 23: 642-4.
115. Kolb LC, Burris BC, Griffiths S (1984) Propranolol and clonidine in treatment of the chronic post-traumatic stress disorders of war. In: Post-traumatic stress disorder: Psychological and biological sequelae (ed BA van der Kolk) 97-105 American Psychiatric Press, Washington DC.
116. Van der Kolk BA (1987) The drug treatment of post traumatic stress disorder. J Affec Dis 13: 203-13.
117. Kinzie JD (1986) Severe post-traumatic stress syndrome among Cambodian refugees: Symptoms, clinical course and treatment approaches. In: Disaster stress studies: New methods and findings (ed JH Shore) 123-40. American Psychiatric Press, Washington DC.
118. Kinzie JD, Leung P (1989) Clonidine in Cambodian patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis 177: 546-50.
119. Harmon RJ, Riggs PD (1996) Clonidine for posttraumatic stress disorder in preschool children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 35: 1247-49.
120. Horrigan JP, Barnhill LJ (1996) The suppression of nightmares with guanfacine. J Clin Psychiatry 57: 371.
121. LaPorta JD, Ware MR (1992) Buspirone and the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 12: 133-4.
122. Wells BG, Chu CC, Johnson R et al (1991) Buspirone in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Pharmacother 11: 340-3.
123. Hamner M, Ulmer H, Horne D (1997) Buspirone potentiation of antidepressants in the treatment of PTSD. Depression Anxiety 5: 137-9.
124. Cahil L, Prims B, Weber M, McGaugh S (1994) β-adrenergic activation and memory for emotional events. Nature 371: 702-4.
125. Glover H (1993) A preliminary trial of nalmefene for the treatment of emotional numbing in combat veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder, Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci 30: 255-63.
126. Blanchard EB, Hickling EJ, Taylor AE et al (1996) Who develops PTSD from motor vehicle accidents? Behav Res Ther 34: 1-10.
127. McFarlane AC (1989) The aetiology of post traumatic morbidity: predisposing, precipitating, and perpetuating factors. Br J Psychiatry 154: 221-8.
128. Solomon Z (1989) A three year prospective study of posttraumatic stress disorder in Israeli combat veterans. J Traumatic Stress 2: 59-73.
129. Green BL (1994) Psychosocial research in traumatic stress: an update. J Trauma Stress 7: 341-62.
130. Breslau N, Kessler RC, Chilcoat HD et al (1998) Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in the community. The 1996 Detroit Area Survey of Trauma. Arch Gen Psychiatry 55: 626-32.
131. Selley C, King E, Peveler R et al (1997) Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms and the Clapham rail accident. Br J Psychiatry 171: 478-82.
132. Di Gallo A, Barton J, Parry-Jones WL (1997) Road traffic accidents: early psychological consequences in children and adolescents. Bri J Psychiatry 170: 358-62.
133. Shalev AY, Freedman S, Peri T et al (1997) Predicting PTSD in trauma survivors: prospective evaluation of self-report and clinician-administered instruments. Br J Psychiatry 170: 558-64.
134. Najavits LM, Gastfriend DR, Barber JP et al (1998). Cocaine dependence with and without PTSD among subjects in the National Institute on Drug Abuse Collaborative Cocaine Treatment Study. Am J Psychiatry 155: 214-9.
135. Davidson JRT, Nemeroff CB (1989) Pharmacotherapy in post traumatic stress disorder: historical and clinical considerations and future directions. Psychopharmacol Bull 25: 422-5.