The role of endogenous sensitization in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia: Implications from recent brain imaging studies

Brain Research Reviews

Volumn 31, Issue 2-3, 2000, Pages 371-384

  Laruelle, Marc ^a  

^a Columbia Univ New York Stt P ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

D2 receptors; Dopamine; Psychostimulants; Schizophrenia; Sensitization; SPECT

Indexed keywords

AMPHETAMINE; BENZAMIDE DERIVATIVE; DOPAMINE; DOPAMINE 2 RECEPTOR; DOPAMINE 2 RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; DOPAMINE RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; IODINE 123; PROPYLNORAPOMORPHINE; PSYCHOSTIMULANT AGENT; RACLOPRIDE; TRACER;

BRAIN DEVELOPMENT; CONFERENCE PAPER; DOPAMINE RELEASE; DOPAMINERGIC SYSTEM; HUMAN; HYPOTHESIS; IMAGING; MESOLIMBIC DOPAMINERGIC SYSTEM; NONHUMAN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PREFRONTAL CORTEX; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOSIS; RODENT; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SENSITIZATION; SINGLE PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY;

ANIMALS; BRAIN; HUMANS; SCHIZOPHRENIA; TOMOGRAPHY, EMISSION-COMPUTED; TOMOGRAPHY, EMISSION-COMPUTED, SINGLE-PHOTON;

EID: 0034054794     PISSN: 01650173     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0165-0173(99)00054-5     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (164)

1. Abi-Dargham A., Gil R., Krystal J., Baldwin R., Seibyl J., Bowers M., van Dyck C., Charney D., Innis R., Laruelle M. Increased striatal dopamine transmission in schizophrenia: confirmation in a second cohort. Am. J. Psychiatry. 155:1998;761-767.
2. Akbarian S., Bunney W., Potkin S., Wigal S., Hagman J., Sandman C., Jones E. Altered distribution of nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate-diaphorase cells in frontal lobe of schizophrenics implies disturbances of cortical development. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 50:1993;169-177.
3. Akbarian S., Kim J.J., Potkin S.G., Hagman J.O., Tafazzoli A., Bunney W. Jr., Jones E.G. Gene expression for glutamic acid decarboxylase is reduced without loss of neurons in prefrontal cortex of schizophrenics. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 52:1995;258-266.
4. Akbarian S., Vinuela A., Kim J.J., Potkin S.G., Bunney W. Jr., Jones E.G. Distorted distribution of nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate-diaphorase neurons in temporal lobe of schizophrenics implies anomalous cortical development. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 50:1993;178-187.
5. Akil M., Lewis D.A. Cytoarchitecture of the entorhinal cortex in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry. 154:1997;1010-1012.
6. Akimoto K., Hamamura T., Kazahaya Y., Akiyama K., Otsuki S. Enhanced extracellular dopamine level may be the fundamental neuropharmacological basis of cross-behavioral sensitization between methamphetamine and cocaine - an in vivo dialysis study in freely moving rats. Brain Res. 507:1990;344-346.
7. Angrist B., Peselow E., Rubinstein M., Wolkin A., Rotrosen J. Amphetamine response and relapse risk after depot neuroleptic discontinuation. Psychopharmacology. 85:1985;277-283.
8. Angrist B., Rotrosen J., Gershon S. Response to apomorphine, amphetamine and neuroleptics in schizophrenic subjects. Psychopharmacology (Berlin). 67:1980;31-38.
9. Angrist B., Thompson H., Shopsin B., Gershon S. Clinical studies with dopamine-receptor stimulants. Psychopharmacologia (Berlin). 44:1975;273-280.
10. Angrist B.M., Gershon S. The phenomenology of experimentally induced amphetamine psychosis-Preliminary observation. Biol. Psychiatry. 2:1970;95-107.
11. Antelman S. Interchangeability of stress and amphetamine in sensitization. Science. 207:1980;329-331.
12. Arnold S.E., Hyman B.T., Van Hoesen G.W., Damasio A.R. Some cytoarchitectural abnormalities of the entorhinal cortex in schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 48:1991;625-632.
13. Ayuso-Gutierrez J.L., del Rio Vega J.M. Factors influencing relapse in the long-term course of schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 28:1997;199-206.
14. Badiani A., Anagnostaras S.G., Robinson T.E. The development of sensitization to the psychomotor stimulant effects of amphetamine is enhanced in a novel environment. Psychopharmacology. 117:1995;443-452.
15. Banks K.E., Gratton A. Possible involvement of medial prefrontal cortex in amphetamine-induced sensitization of mesolimbic dopamine function. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 282:1995;157-167.
16. Bell D.S. The experimental reproduction of amphetamine psychosis. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 29:1973;35-40.
17. Ben-Shahar O., Ettenberg A. Amphetamine infusions into the prefrontal cortex attenuate the sensitization to amphetamine. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry. 22:1998;763-773.
18. Benes F.M., McSparren J., Bird E.D., Vincent S.L., SanGiovani J.P. Deficits in small interneurons in schizophrenic cortex. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 48:1991;996-1001.
19. Benes F.M., Vincent S.L., Alsterberg G., Bird E.D., SanGiovanni J.P. Increased GABAa receptor binding in superficial layers of cingulate cortex in schizophrenics. J. Neurosci. 12:1992;924-929.
20. Booij J., Korn P., Linszen D.H., vanRoyen E.A. Assessment of endogenous dopamine release by methylphenidate challenge using iodine-123 iodobenzamide single-photon emission tomography. Eur. J. Nucl. Med. 24:1997;674-677.
21. Brady K., Lydiard R.B., Malcolm R., Ballenger J.C. Cocaine induced psychosis. J. Clin. Psychiatry. 52:1991;509-511.
22. Brake W.G., Boksa P., Gratton A. Effects of perinatal anoxia on the acute locomotor response to repeated amphetamine administration in adult rats. Psychopharmacology. 133:1997;389-395.
23. Brake W.G., Noel M.B., Boksa P., Gratton A. Influence of perinatal factors on the nucleus accumbens dopamine response to repeated stress during adulthood: an electrochemical study in the rat. Neuroscience. 77:1997;1067-1076.
24. Breier A., Adler C.M., Weisenfeld N., Su T.P., Elman I., Picken L., Malhotra A.K., Pickar D. Effects of NMDA antagonism on striatal dopamine release in healthy subjects: application of a novel PET approach. Synapse. 29:1998;142-147.
25. Breier A., Su T.P., Saunders R., Carson R.E., Kolachana B.S., deBartolomeis A., Weinberger D.R., Weisenfeld N., Malhotra A.K., Eckelman W.C., Pickar D. Schizophrenia is associated with elevated amphetamine-induced synaptic dopamine concentrations: Evidence from a novel positron emission tomography method. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 94:1997;2569-2574.
26. Bullmore E.T., Frangou S., Murray R.M. The dysplastic net hypothesis: an integration of developmental and dysconnectivity theories of schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 28:1997;143-156.
27. Cabib S., Puglisi-Allegra S., Oliverio A. A genetic analsis of stereotypy on the mouse: dopaminergic plasticity following chronic stress. Behav. Neurol. Biol. 44:1985;239-248.
28. Carlsson A. The current status of the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1:1988;179-186.
29. Carlsson A., Lindqvist M. Effect of chlorpromazine or haloperidol on formation of 3-methoxytyramine and normetanephrine in mouse brain. Acta Pharmacol. Toxicol. 20:1963;140-144.
30. Carpenter W.T. Jr., Buchanan R.W., Breier A., Kirkpatrick B., Thaker G., Tamminga C. Psychopathology and the question of neurodevelopmental or neurodegenerative disorder. Schizophr. Res. 5:1991;192-194.
31. Carson R.E., Breier A., deBartolomeis A., Saunders R.C., Su T.P., Schmall B., Der M.G., Pickar D., Eckelman W.C. Quantification of amphetamine-induced changes in [C-11]raclopride binding with continuous infusion. J. Cereb. Blood Flow. Metab. 17:1997;437-447.
32. P.H. Connell, Amphetamine psychosis, Chapman and Hill, London, 1958.
33. Coyle J.T. The glutamatergic dysfunction hypothesis for schizophrenia. Harv. Rev. Psychiatry. 3:1996;241-253.
34. Crow T.J. Molecular pathology of schizophrenia: more than one disease process? Br. Med. J. 280:1980;66-68.
35. Crow T.J. Temporal lobe asymmetries as the key to the etiology of schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 16:1990;433-443.
36. Crow T.J., MacMillan J.F., Johnson A.L., Johnstone E.C. A randomised controlled trial of prophylactic neuroleptic treatment. Br. J. Psychiatry. 148:1986;120-127.
37. Davies N., Russell A., Jones P., Murray R.M. Which characteristics of schizophrenia predate psychosis? J. Psychiatr. Res. 32:1998;121-131.
38. DeLisi L.E., Sakuma M., Tew W., Kushner M., Hoff A.L., Grimson R. Schizophrenia as a chronic active brain process: a study of progressive brain structural change subsequent to the onset of schizophrenia [see comments]. Psychiatry Res. 74:1997;129-140.
39. A. Deutch, W.A. Clark, R.H. Roth, Prefrontal cortical dopamine depletion enhances the responsiveness of the mesolimbic dopamine neurons to stress, Brain Res., 521 (1990).
40. Deutch A.Y. Prefrontal cortical dopamine systems and the elaboration of functional corticostriatal circuits: implications for schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease. J. Neural. Transm. 91:1993;197-221.
41. Dewey S.L., Logan J., Wolf A.P., Brodie J.D., Angrist B., Fowler J.S., Volkow N.D. Amphetamine induced decrease in [18F]-N-methylspiperidol binding in the baboon brain using positron emission tomography (PET). Synapse. 7:1991;324-327.
42. 11C-raclopride is altered by drugs that modify synaptic dopamine levels. Synapse. 13:1993;350-356.
43. Dewey S.L., Smith G.S., Logan J., Brodie J.D., Yu D.W., Ferrieri R.A., King P.T., MacGregor R.R., Martin T.P., Wolf A.P. GABAergic inhibition of endogenous dopamine release measured in vivo with 11C-raclopride and positron emission tomography. J. Neurosci. 12:1992;3773-3780.
44. Doering S., Muller E., Kopcke W., Pietzcker A., Gaebel W., Linden M., Muller P., Muller-Spahn F., Tegeler J., Schussler G. Predictors of relapse and rehospitalization in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Schizophr. Bull. 24:1998;87-98.
45. Down A., Eddy N. The effect of repeated doses of cocaine on the rat. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 46:1932;199-202.
46. Ellinwood E.H. Jr. Amphetamine psychosis: I. Description of the individuals and process. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 144:1967;273-283.
47. Ellinwood E.H., Sudilovsky A., Nelson L.M. Evolving behavior in the clinical and experimental amphetamine model psychosis. Am. J. Psychiatry. 130:1973;1088-1093.
48. Erlenmeyer-Kimling L., Rock D., Squires-Wheeler E., Roberts S., Yang J. Early life precursors of psychiatric outcomes in adulthood in subjects at risk for schizophrenia or affective disorders. Psychiatry Res. 39:1991;239-256.
49. Feinberg I. Schizophrenia: caused by a fault in programmed synaptic elimination during adolescence? J. Psychiatr. Res. 17:1982;319-334.
50. Fujiwara Y., Kazahaya Y., Nakashima M., Sato M., Otsuki S. Behavioral sensitization to methamphetamine in the rat: an ontogenic study. Psychopharmacology (Berl.). 91:1987;316-319.
51. Geijo-Barrientos E., Pastore C. The effects of dopamine on the subthreshold electrophysiological responses of rat prefrontal cortex neurons in vitro. Eur. J. Neurosci. 7:1995;358-366.
52. Ginovart N., Farde L., Halldin C., Swahn C.G. Effect of reserpine-induced depletion of synaptic dopamine on [C-11]raclopride binding to D-2-dopamine receptors in the monkey brain. Synapse. 25:1997;321-325.
53. Ginovart N., Farde L., Halldin C., Swahn C.G. Changes in striatal D2-receptor density following chronic treatment with amphetamine as assessed with PET in nonhuman primates [In Process Citation]. Synapse. 31:1999;154-162.
54. Glenthoj B.Y., Hemmingsen R. Dopaminergic sensitization: Implications for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Prog. Neuro. Psych. Biol. Psych. 21:1997;23-46.
55. GoldmanRakic P.S., Selemon L.D. Functional and anatomical aspects of prefrontal pathology in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 23:1997;437-458.
56. Grace A.A. The tonic/phasic model of dopamine system regulation: its relevance for understanding how stimulant abuse can alter basal ganglia function. Drug Alcohol Depend. 37:1995;11-129.
57. Grace A.A., Moore H., O'Donnell P. The modulation of corticoaccumbens transmission by limbic afferents and dopamine: a model for the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Adv. Pharmacol. 42:1998;721-724.
58. J.J. Griffith, J. Oates, J. Cavanaugh, Paranoid episodes induced by drugs, J. Am. Med. Assoc., Vol. 205 (1968) 39.
59. Grobin A.C., Deutch A.Y. Dopaminergic regulation of extracellular gamma-aminobutyric acid levels in the prefrontal cortex of the rat. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 285:1998;350-357.
60. Haney M., Castanon N., Cador M., Le Moal M., Le Moal P.M. Cocaine sensitization in Roman High and Low Avoidance rats is modulated by sex and gonadal hormone status. Brain Res. 695:1994;179-185.
61. Harrison P.J. On the neuropathology of schizophrenia and its dementia: neurodevelopmental, neurodegenerative, or both? Neurodegeneration. 4:1995;1-12.
62. Henry C., Guegant G., Cador M., Arnauld E., Arsaut J., Le Moal M., Demotes-Mainard J. Prenatal stress in rats facilitates amphetamine-induced sensitization and induces long-lasting changes in dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens. Brain Res. 685:1995;179-186.
63. Hooks M.S., Jones D.N.C., Holtzman S.G., Juncos J.L., Kalivas P.W., Justice J.B. Individual differences in behavior following amphetamine, GBR-12909, or apomorphine but not SKf-38393 or quinpirole. Psychopharmacology. 116:1994;217-225.
64. Huckle P.L., Palia S.S. Managing resistant schizophrenia. Br. J. Hosp. Med. 50:1993;467-471.
65. Illowsky B.P., Juliano D.M., Bigelow L.B., Weinberger D.R. Stability of CT scan findings in schizophrenia: results of an 8 year follow-up study. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry. 51:1988;209-213.
66. 123I]IBZM binding to the D2 receptor in non-human primates. Synapse. 10:1992;177-184.
67. Jakob H., Beckmann H. Prenatal developmental disturbances in the limbic allocortex in schizophrenics. J. Neural. Transm. 65:1986;303-326.
68. Janowsky D.S., Davis J.M. Methylphenidate, dextroamphetamine and levamphetamine. Effects on schizophrenic symptoms. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 33:1976;304-308.
69. Janowsky D.S., El-Yousef M.K., Davis J.M., Sekerke H.J. Provocation of schizophrenic symptoms by intravenous administration of methylphenidate. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 28:1973;185-191.
70. Jonsson S.A.T., Luts A., GuldbergKjaer N., Brun A. Hippocampal pyramidal cell disarray correlates negatively to cell number: Implications for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Eur. Arch. Psychiat. Clin. Neuros. 247:1997;120-127.
71. Kalivas P., Duffy P. The effect of acute and daily cocaine treatment on extracellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens. Synapse. 5:1990;48-58.
72. Kalivas P.W. Interactions between dopamine and excitatory amino acids in behavioral sensitization to psychostimulants. Drug Alcohol Depend. 37:1995;95-100.
73. Kalivas P.W., Sorg B.A., Hooks M.S. The pharmacology and neural circuitry of sensitization to psychostimulants. Behav. Pharmacol. 4:1993;315-334.
74. Kalivas P.W., Stewart J. Dopamine transmission in the initiation and expression of drug- and stress-induced sensitization of motor activity. Brain Res. Review. 16:1991;223-244.
75. Karler R., Bedingfield J.B., Thai D.K., Calder L.D. The role of the frontal cortex in the mouse in behavioral sensitization to amphetamine. Brain Res. 757:1997;228-235.
76. Karreman M., Moghaddam B. The prefrontal cortex regulates the basal release of dopamine in the limbic striatum: an effect mediated by ventral tegmental area. J. Neurochem. 66:1996;589-598.
77. Kay S.R., Fiszbein A., Opler L.A. The Positive and Negative Syndrome scale (PANSS) for schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 13:1987;261-276.
78. Kazahaya Y., Akimoto K., Saburo O. Subchronic methamphetamine treatment enhances methamphetamine- or cocaine induced dopamine efflux in vivo. Biol. Psychiatry. 25:1989;903-912.
79. Kegeles L., Zea-Ponce Y., Abi-Dargham A., Rodenhiser J., Wang T., Wess R., Van Heertum R., Mann J., Laruelle M. Stability of [123I]IBZM SPECT measurement of amphetamine-induced dopamine release in healthy humans. Synapse. 31:1999;302-308.
80. Keshavan M.S., Anderson S., Pettegrew J.W. Is schizophrenia due to excessive synaptic pruning in the prefrontal cortex? The Feinberg hypothesis revisited. J. Psychiatr. Res. 28:1994;239-265.
81. Kessler R.M., Votaw J.R., de Paulis T., Bingham D.R., Ansari M.S., Mason N.S., Holburn G., Schmidt D.E., Votaw D.B., Manning R.G. Evaluation of 5-[18F]fluoropropylepidepride as a potential PET radioligand for imaging dopamine D2 receptors. Synapse. 15:1993;169-176.
82. King D., Zigmond M.J., Finlay J.M. Effects of dopamine depletion in the medial prefrontal cortex on the stress-induced increase in extracellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens core and shell. Neuroscience. 77:1997;141-153.
83. Knoll J.L.t., Garver D.L., Ramberg J.E., Kingsbury S.J., Croissant D., McDermott B. Heterogeneity of the psychoses: is there a neurodegenerative psychosis? Schizophr. Bull. 24:1998;365-379.
84. Koepp M.J., Gunn R.N., Lawrence A.D., Cunningham V.J., Dagher A., Jones T., Brooks D.J., Bench C.J., Grasby P.M. Evidence for striatal dopamine release during a video game. Nature. 393:1998;266-268.
85. 3H]N-propylnorapomorphine in the mouse brain. Evidence for labelling of central dopamine receptors. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 72:1981;397-402.
86. Kolta M.G., Scalzo F.M., Ali S.F., Holson R.R. Ontogeny of the enhanced behavioral response to amphetamine in amphetamine-pretreated rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl.). 100:1990;377-382.
87. Kolta M.G., Shreve P., De Souza V., Uretsky N.J. Time course of the development of the enhanced behavioral and biochemical responses to amphetamine after pretreatment with amphetamine. Neuropharmacology. 24:1985;823-829.
88. Krimer L.S., Herman M.M., Saunders R.C., Boyd J.C., Hyde T.M., Carter J.M., Kleinman J.E., Weinberger D.R. A qualitative and quantitative analysis of the entorhinal cortex in schizophrenia. Cereb. Cortex. 7:1997;732-739.
89. Kuczenski R., Segal D. Concomitant characterization of behavioral and striatal neurotransmitter response to amphetamine using in vivo microdialysis. J. Neurosci. 9:1989;2051-2065.
90. M. Laruelle, A. Abi-Dargham, R. Gil, L. Kegeles, R. Innis, Increased dopamine transmission in schizophrenia: Relationship to illness phase, Biol. Psychiatry (1999) in press.
91. Laruelle M., Abi-Dargham A., van Dyck C.H., Gil R., De Souza C.D., Erdos J., Mc Cance E., Rosenblatt W., Fingado C., Zoghbi S.S., Baldwin R.M., Seibyl J.P., Krystal J.H., Charney D.S., Innis R.B. Single photon emission computerized tomography imaging of amphetamine-induced dopamine release in drug free schizophrenic subjects. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 93:1996;9235-9240.
92. Laruelle M., Abi-Dargham A., van Dyck C.H., Rosenblatt W., Zea-Ponce Y., Zoghbi S.S., Baldwin R.M., Charney D.S., Hoffer P.B., Kung H.F., Innis R.B. SPECT imaging of striatal dopamine release after amphetamine challenge. J. Nucl. Med. 36:1995;1182-1190.
93. Laruelle M., D'Souza C.D., Baldwin R.M., Abi-Dargham A., Kanes S.J., Fingado C.L., Seibyl J.P., Zoghbi S.S., Bowers M.B., Jatlow P., Charney D.S., Innis R.B. Imaging D-2 receptor occupancy by endogenous dopamine in humans. Neuropsychopharmacology. 17:1997;162-174.
94. Laruelle M., Iyer R.N., Al-Tikriti M.S., Zea-Ponce Y., Malison R., Zoghbi S.S., Baldwin R.M., Kung H.F., Charney D.S., Hoffer P.B., Innis R.B., Bradberry C.W. Microdialysis and SPECT measurements of amphetamine-induced dopamine release in nonhuman primates. Synapse. 25:1997;1-14.
95. Leith N., Kuczenski R. Two dissociable components of behavioral sensitization following repeated amphetamine administration. Psychopharmacology. 76:1982;310-315.
96. Li X.M., Perry K.W., Wong D.T., Bymaster F.P. Olanzapine increases in vivo dopamine and norepinephrine release in rat prefrontal cortex, nucleus accumbens and striatum. Psychopharmacology. 136:1998;153-161.
97. Li Y., Wolf M.E. Ibotenic acid lesions of prefrontal cortex do not prevent expression of behavioral sensitization to amphetamine. Behav. Brain. Res. 84:1997;285-289.
98. Lieberman J.A., Kane J.M., Alvir J. Provocative tests with psychostimulant drugs in schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology. 91:1987;415-433.
99. Lieberman J.A., Kane J.M., Gadaleta D., Brenner R., Lesser M.S., Kinon B. Methylphenidate challenge as a predictor of relapse in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry. 141:1984;633-638.
100. Lieberman J.A., Kane J.M., Sarantakos S., Gadaleta D., Woerner M., Alvir J., Ramos-Lorenzi J. Prediction of relapse in schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 44:1987;597-603.
101. Lieberman J.A., Kinon B.L., Loebel A.D. Dopaminergic mechanisms in idiopathic and drug-induced psychoses. Schizophr. Bull. 16:1990;97-110.
102. Lieberman J.A., Sheitman B.B., Kinon B.J. Neurochemical sensitization in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia: Deficits and dysfunction in neuronal regulation and plasticity. Neuropsychopharmacology. 17:1997;205-229.
103. Loebel A.D., Lieberman J.A., Alvir J.M., Mayerhoff D.I., Geisler S.H., Szymanski S.R. Duration of psychosis and outcome in first-episode schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry. 149:1992;1183-1188.
104. 18F]N-methylspiroperidol binding in the basal ganglia: comparison of simulations and experimental results from PET studies in baboons. Synapse. 9:1991;195-207.
105. Magos L. Persistence of the effect of amphetamine on stereotyped activity in rats. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 6:1969;200-201.
106. Margolis R.L., Chuang D.M., Post R.M. Programmed cell death: implications for neuropsychiatric disorders. Biol. Psychiatry. 35:1994;946-956.
107. Mitchell J.B., Gratton A. Partial dopamine depletion of the prefrontal cortex leads to enhanced mesolimbic dopamine release elicited by repeated exposure to naturally reinforcing stimuli. J. Neurosci. 12:1992;3609-3618.
108. Mukherjee J., Yang Z.Y., Lew R., Brown T., Kronmal S., Cooper M.D., Seiden L.S. Evaluation of d-amphetamine effects on the binding of dopamine D-2 receptor radioligand, F-18-fallypride in nonhuman primates using positron emission tomography. Synapse. 27:1997;1-13.
109. O'Donnell P., Grace A.A. Dysfunctions in multiple interrelated systems as the neurobiological bases of schizophrenic symptom clusters. Schizophr. Bull. 24:1998;267-283.
110. O'Donnell P., Grace A.A. Phencyclidine interferes with the hippocampal gating of nucleus accumbens neuronal activity in vivo. Neuroscience. 87:1998;823-830.
111. Okubo Y., Suhara T., Suzuki K., Kobayashi K., Inoue O., Terasaki O., Someya Y., Sassa T., Sudo Y., Matsushima E., Iyo M., Tateno Y., Toru M. Decreased prefrontal dopamine D1 receptors in schizophrenia revealed by PET. Nature. 385:1997;634-636.
112. Olney J.W., Farber N.B. Glutamate receptor dysfunction and schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 52:1995;998-1007.
113. Patrick S.L., Thompson T.L., Walker J.M., Patrik R.L. Concomitant sensitization of amphetamine-induced behavioral stimulation and in vivo dopamine release from rat caudate nucleus. Brain Res. 538:1991;343-346.
114. Paulson P.E., Robinson T.E. Amphetamine-induced time-dependent sensitization of dopamine neurotransmission in the dorsal and ventral striatum: a microdialysis study in behaving rats. Synapse. 19:1995;56-65.
115. Pehek E.A., Yamamoto B.K. Differential effects of locally administered clozapine and haloperidol on dopamine efflux in the rat prefrontal cortex and caudate-putamen. J. Neurochem. 63:1994;2118-2124.
116. Pettit H.O., Pan H.T., Parsons L.H., Justice J.B.J. Extracellular concentration of cocaine and dopamine are enhanced during chronic cocaine administration. J. Neurochem. 55:1990;798-804.
117. Pierce R.C., Kalivas P.W. A circuitry model of the expression of behavioral sensitization to amphetamine-like psychostimulants. Brain Res. Rev. 25:1997;192-216.
118. Pierce R.C., Reeder D.C., Hicks J., Morgan Z.R., Kalivas P.W. Ibotenic acid lesions of the dorsal prefrontal cortex disrupt the expression of behavioral sensitization to cocaine. Neuroscience. 82:1998;1103-1114.
119. R. Post, Intermittent versus continuous stimulation: effect of time interval on the development of sensitization or tolerance, (1980).
120. Post R., Rose H. Increasing effect of repetative cocaine administration in the rat. Nature. 260:1976;731-732.
121. Predy P.A., Kokkinnidis L. Sensitization to the effects of repeated amphetamine administration on intracranial self-stimulation: evidence for changes in reward. Behav. Brain Res. 13:1984;251-257.
122. Retaux S., Besson M.J., Penit-Soria J. Synergism between D1 and D2 dopamine receptors in the inhibition of the evoked release of [3H]GABA in the rat prefrontal cortex. Neuroscience. 43:1991;323-329.
123. Roberts G.W., Colter N., Lofthouse R., Bogerts B., Zech M., Crow T.J. Gliosis in schizophrenia: a survey. Biol. Psychiatry. 21:1986;1043-1050.
124. Robertson H., Mogenson G. Facilitation of self-stimulation of the prefrontal cortex in rats following chronic administration of spiperidol or amphetamine. Psychopharmacology. 65:1979;149-154.
125. Robinson P.H., Jurson P.A., Bennet J.A., Bentgen K.M. Persistent sensitization of dopamine neurotransmission in ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens) produced by prior experience with (+)-amphetamine: a microdialysis study in freely moving rats. Brain Res. 462:1988;211-222.
126. Robinson T.E., Becker J.B. Enduring changes in brain and behavior produced by chronic amphetamine administration: a review and evaluation of animal models of amphetamine psychosis. Brain Res. Rev. 11:1986;157-198.
127. Ross S.B. Synaptic concentration of dopamine in the mouse striatum in relationship to the kinetic properties of the dopamine receptors and uptake mechanism. J. Neurochem. 56:1991;22-29.
128. Ross S.B., Jackson D.M. Kinetic properties of the in vivo accumulation of the dopamine D-2 receptor antagonist raclopride in the mouse brain in vivo. Naunyn Schmiedeberg Arch. Pharmacol. 340:1989;6-12.
129. 3H](-)-N-n-propylnorapomorphine in the mouse brain. Naunyn Schmiedeberg Arch. Pharmacol. 340:1989;13-20.
130. Satel S.L., Edell W.S. Cocaine-induced paranoia and psychosis proneness. Am. J. Psychiatry. 148:1991;1708-1711.
131. Sato M., Chen C.C., Akiyama K., Otsuki S. Acute exacerbation of paranoid psychotic state after long-term abstinence in patients with previous methamphetamine psychosis. Biol. Psychiatry. 18:1983;429-440.
132. Sato M., Numachi Y., Hamamura T. Relapse of paranoid psychotic state in methamphetamine model of schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 18:1992;115-122.
133. Saunders R.C., Kolachana B.S., Bachevalier J., Weinberger D.R. Neonatal lesions of the medial temporal lobe disrupt prefrontal cortical regulation of striatal dopamine. Nature. 393:1998;169-171.
134. Schlaepfer T.E., Pearlson G.D., Wong D.F., Marenco S., Dannals R.F. PET study of competition between intravenous cocaine and [C-11]raclopride at dopamine receptors in human subjects. Am. J. Psychiatry. 154:1997;1209-1213.
135. Schmidt C.J., Fadayel G.M. The selective 5-HT2A receptor antagonist, MDL 100,907, increases dopamine efflux in the prefrontal cortex of the rat. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 273:1995;273-279.
136. 3H]raclopride: Implications for positron emission tomography of the human brain. Synapse. 3:1989;96-97.
137. Sesack S.R., Pickel V.M. Prefrontal cortical efferents in the rat synapse on unlabeled neuronal targets of catecholamine terminals in the nucleus accumbens septi and on dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area. J. Comp. Neurology. 320:1992;145-160.
138. Sharp T., Zetterstrom T., Ljungberg T., Ungerstedt U. A direct comparison of amphetamine-induced behaviours and regional brain dopamine release in the rat using intracerebral dialysis. Brain Res. 401:1987;322-330.
139. Sheitman B.B., Lieberman J.A. The natural history and pathophysiology of treatment resistant schizophrenia. J. Psychiatr. Res. 32:1998;143-150.
140. Shultzer L., Yu G., Bates A. Sensitization to cocaine stimulation in mice. Psychopharmacology. 52:1977;185-190.
141. Smith G.S., Schloesser R., Brodie J.D., Dewey S.L., Logan J., Vitkun S.A., Simkowitz P., Hurley A., Cooper T., Volkow N.D., Cancro R. Glutamate modulation of dopamine measured in vivo with positron emission tomography (PET) and 11C-raclopride in normal human subjects. Neuropsychopharmacology. 18:1998;18-25.
142. Snyder S.H. Amphetamine psychosis: a 'model' schizophrenia mediated by catecholamines. Am. J. Psychiatry. 130:1973;61-67.
143. Sorg B.A., Hooks M.S., Kalivas P.W. Neuroanatomy and neurochemical mechanisms of time-dependent sensitization. Toxicol. Ind. Health. 10:1994;369-386.
144. Stewart J., Badiani A. Tolerance and sensitization to the behavioral effects of the drugs. Behav. Pharmacol. 4:1993;289-312.
145. Strakowski S.M., Sax K.W., Setters M.J., Keck P.E. Jr. Enhanced response to repeated d-amphetamine challenge: evidence for behavioral sensitization in humans. Biol. Psychiatry. 40:1996;872-880.
146. Tong Z.Y., Overton P.G., Clark D. Chronic administration of (+)-amphetamine alters the reactivity of midbrain dopaminergic neurons to prefrontal cortex stimulation in the rat. Brain Res. 674:1995;63-74.
147. Tsai G., van Kammen D.P., Chen S., Kelley M.E., Grier A., Coyle J.T. Glutamatergic neurotransmission involves structural and clinical deficits of schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry. 44:1998;667-674.
148. Tsuchida K., Ujike H., Kanzaki A., Fujiwara Y., Akiyama K. Ontogeny of enhanced striatal dopamine release in rats with methamphetamine-induced behavioral sensitization. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 47:1994;161-169.
149. Van der Werf J.F., Sebens J.B., Vaalburg W., Korf J. In vivo binding of N-n-propylnorapomorphine in the rat brain: regional localization, quantification in striatum and lack of correlation with dopamine metabolism. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 87:1986;259-270.
150. van Kammen D.P., Bunney W.E. Jr., Docherty J.P., Marder S.R., Ebert M.H., Rosenblatt J.E., Rayner J.N. d-Amphetamine-induced heterogeneous changes in psychotic behavior in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry. 139:1982;991-997.
151. van Kammen D.P., Docherty J.P., Bunney W.E. Jr. Predicition of early relapse after pimozide discontinuation by response to d-amphetamine during pimozide treatment. Biol. Psychiatry. 17:1982;233-242.
152. Volkow N.D., Fowler J.S., Gatley S.J., Dewey S.L., Wang G.J., Logan J., Ding Y.S., Franceschi D., Gifford A., Morgan A., Pappas N., King P. Comparable changes in synaptic dopamine induced by methylphenidate and by cocaine in the baboon brain. Synapse. 31:1999;59-66.
153. 11C]raclopride in the human brain. Synapse. 16:1994;255-262.
154. Waddington J.L., Lane A., Scully P.J., Larkin C., O'Callaghan E. Neurodevelopmental and neuroprogressive processes in schizophrenia. Antithetical or complementary, over a lifetime trajectory of disease? Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 21:1998;123-149.
155. Walker E.F., Savoie T., Davis D. Neuromotor precursors of schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 20:1994;441-451.
156. Weinberger D.R. Implications of the normal brain development for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 44:1987;660-669.
157. Weinberger D.R. On the plausibility of 'the neurodevelopmental hypothesis' of schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology. 14:1996;1S-11S.
158. Wilkinson L.S. The nature of interactions involving prefrontal and striatal dopamine systems. J. Psychopharmacol. 11:1997;143-150.
159. Wolf M.E., Dahlin S.L., Hu X.T., Xue C.J., White K. Effects of lesions of prefrontal cortex, amygdala, or fornix on behavioral sensitization to amphetamine: comparison with N-methyl-D- aspartate antagonists. Neuroscience. 69:1995;417-439.
160. Woods B.T. Is schizophrenia a progressive neurodevelopmental disorder? Toward a unitary pathogenetic mechanism. Am. J. Psychiatry. 155:1998;1661-1670.
161. Wyatt R.J. Neuroleptics and the natural course of schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 17:1991;325-351.
162. 3H]raclopride binding in the rat brain. Synapse. 9:1991;188-194.
163. Youngren K.D., Moghaddam B., Bunney B.S., Roth R.H. Preferential activation of dopamine overflow in prefrontal cortex produced by chronic clozapine treatment. Neurosci. Lett. 165:1994;41-44.
164. Zhang X.F., Hu X.T., White F.J., Wolf M.E. Increased responsiveness of ventral tegmental area dopamine neurons to glutamate after repeated administration of cocaine or amphetamine is transient and selectively involves AMPA receptors. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 281:1997;699-706.