Evoked potential monitoring in anaesthesia and analgesia

Anaesthesia

Volumn 55, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 225-241

  Kumar, A ^a,c   Bhattacharya, A ^a   Makhija, N ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF MEDICAL SCIENCES   (India)

^b ALL INDIA INSTITUTE OF MEDICAL SCIENCES   (India)

^c NONE   (India)

Author keywords

Anaesthesia; Central nervous system; Complications; Evoked potentials; Monitoring

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ALFENTANIL; ANALGESIC AGENT; ANESTHETIC AGENT; BARBITURIC ACID DERIVATIVE; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; CLONIDINE; DESFLURANE; DIAZEPAM; DROPERIDOL; ENFLURANE; ETHER; ETOMIDATE; FENTANYL; HALOTHANE; ISOFLURANE; KETAMINE; METHYLPREDNISOLONE; MIDAZOLAM; MORPHINE; NARCOTIC AGENT; NITROUS OXIDE; OPIATE; PETHIDINE; PROPOFOL; REMIFENTANIL; THIOPENTAL;

ANALGESIA; ANESTHESIA; BRAIN DEATH; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; BRAIN SURGERY; CHRONIC PAIN; COMA; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG MECHANISM; ELECTROACUPUNCTURE; EVENT RELATED POTENTIAL; EVOKED BRAIN STEM AUDITORY RESPONSE; EVOKED MUSCLE RESPONSE; EVOKED RESPONSE; EVOKED SOMATOSENSORY RESPONSE; EVOKED VISUAL RESPONSE; HUMAN; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; LATENT PERIOD; LOW BACK PAIN; NERVE INJURY; NERVE SURGERY; PAIN; PATIENT MONITORING; POSTHERPETIC NEURALGIA; REVIEW; SCOLIOSIS; SPINAL CORD SURGERY;

ANALGESICS; ANESTHETICS; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; EVENT-RELATED POTENTIALS, P300; EVOKED POTENTIALS, AUDITORY; EVOKED POTENTIALS, AUDITORY, BRAIN STEM; EVOKED POTENTIALS, MOTOR; EVOKED POTENTIALS, SOMATOSENSORY; EVOKED POTENTIALS, VISUAL; HUMANS; MONITORING, INTRAOPERATIVE; TRAUMA, NERVOUS SYSTEM;

EID: 0034019131     PISSN: 00032409     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2044.2000.01120.x     Document Type: Review

References (150)

1. Nuwer MK. Intra-operative electroencephalography. Journal of Clinical Neurophysics 1993; 10: 437.
2. Fisher RS, Raudzens P, Nunemacher M. Efficacy of intra-operative neurophysiologic monitoring. Journal of Clinical Neurophysics 1995; 12: 97-109.
3. Moller AR. Neurophysiological monitoring in cranial nerve surgery. Neurosurgery Quarterly 1995; 5: 55-72.
4. Nuwer MR. Electroencephalograms and evoked potentials. Neurosurgery Clinics of North America 1994; 5: 647-59.
5. Grundy BL. Electrophysiologic monitoring: electroencephalography and evoked potentials. In: Newfield P, Cottrell JE, eds. Neuroanaesthesia: Handbook of Clinical and Physiologic Essentials. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co., 1991; 30-58.
6. Sloan TB. Evoked potential monitoring. In: Vender JS, ed. International Anaesthesiology Clinics. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co, 1996; 109-36.
7. Anonymous. Guideline eleven: guidelines for intraoperative monitoring of sensory evoked potential. American Electroencephalographic society. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology 1994; 11: 77-87.
8. Anonymous. Assessment: intraoperative neurophysiology. Report of Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 1990; 40: 1644-6.
9. Meyer PR, Cotter HB, Gireesan GT. Operative complications resulting from thoracic and lumbar spine internal fixation. Journal of Clinical Orthopedics 1988; 237: 125.
10. Epstein NE, Danto J, Nardi D. Evaluation of intraoperative somatosensory evoked-potential monitoring during 100 cervical operations. Spine 1993; 18: 737.
11. Dawson EG, Sherman JE, Kanim LE, Nuwer MR. Spinal cord monitoring. Results of the Scoliosis Research Society and European Spinal Deformity Society survey. Spine 1991; 16 (Suppl.): S361.
12. Nuwer MR, Dawson EG, Carlson LG, Kanim LE, Sherman JE. Somatosensory evoked potential spinal cord monitoring reduces neurologic deficits after scoliosis surgery: results of a large multicenter survey. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophsiology 1995; 96: 6-11.
13. Friedman WA. Somatosensory evoked potentials in neurosurgery. Clinical Neurosurgery 1988; 34: 187-238.
14. Owen JH. Intraoperative stimulation of the spinal cord for prevention of spinal cord injury. Advances in Neurology 1993; 63: 271.
15. Kumar A, Tandon OP, Bhattacharya A, Gupta RK, Dhar D. Somatosensory evoked potential changes following electro-acupuncture therapy in chronic pain patients. Anaesthesia 1995; 50: 411-14.
16. Gentili F, Lougheed WM, Yamashiro K, Corrado C. Monitoring of sensory evoked potentials during surgery of skull base tumours. Canadian Journal of Neurological Science 1985; 12: 336-40.
17. Yingling CD. Intraoperative monitoring of cranial nerves in skull base surgery. In: Jackler RK, Brackman DE, eds. Neurotology. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1994; 967-1002.
18. Grundy BL, Jannetta PJ, Procopio PT, et al. Intraoperative monitoring of brainstem auditory evoked potentials. Journal of Neurosurgery 1982; 57: 674-81.
19. Harper CM, Harner SG, Slavit DH, et al. Effect of BAER monitoring on hearing preservation during acoustic neuroma resection. Neurology 1992; 42: 1551-3.
20. Nadol JB Jr, Chiong CM, Ojemann RG, et al. Preservation of hearing and facial nerve function in resection of acoustic neuroma. Laryngoscope 1992; 102: 1153-8.
21. Fischer G, Fischer C, Remond J. Hearing preservation in acoustic neurinoma surgery. Journal of Neurosurgery 1992; 76: 910-17.
22. Kumar A, Tandon OP, Bhattacharya A, Bose S, Kundra P. Recovery from pre-operative sedation with clonidine -brain stem auditory evoked response. Anaesthesia 1994; 49: 533-7.
23. Kumar A, Tandon OP, Dam S, Bhattacharya A, Tyagi KK. Brainstem auditory evoked response changes following electro-acupuncture therapy in chronic pain patients. Anaesthesia 1994; 49: 387-90.
24. Handel N, Law J, Hoehn R, Kirsch W. Monitoring visual evoked response during craniofascial surgery. Annals of Plastic Surgery 1979; 2: 257-8.
25. Stechison MT. Neurophysiologic monitoring during cranial base surgery. Journal of Neuroncology 1994; 20: 313-25.
26. Pfefferbaum A, et al. Clinical applications of P3 component of event related potentials I. Normal ageing. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 1984; 59: 85-103.
27. Tandon OP, Kumar S. P3 event related cerebral potentials in chronic pain patients. Indian Journal of Physiological Pharmacology 1993; 37: 51-5.
28. Tandon OP, Kumar A, Dhar D, Bhattacharya A. Event-related evoked potential responses. (P300) following epidural methylprednisolone therapy in chronic low back pain patients. Anaesthesia 1997; 52: 1173-6.
29. Plourde G, Picton TW. Human auditory steady-state response during general anaesthesia. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1990; 71: 460-8.
30. Jasper HH. The Ten-Twenty electrode system of the international federation. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 1958; 10: 371-5.
31. Grundy BL. Monitoring of sensory evoked potentials during neurosurgical operation methods and applications. Neurosurgery 1982; 11: 556.
32. Chiappa KH, Ropper AH. Evoked potentials in clinical medicine. New England Journal of Medicine 1982; 306: 1140.
33. Bromm B, Treede RD. Laser-evoked cerebral potentials in the assessment of cutaneous pain sensitivity in normal subjects and patients. Revue Neurologique (Paris) 1991; 147: 625-43.
34. Gugino V, Chabot RJ. Somatosensory evoked potentials. International Anaesthesiology Clinics 1990; 28: 154-64.
35. Greenberg RP, Ducker TB. Evoked potentials in the clinical neurosciences. Journal of Neurosurgery 1982; 56: 1.
36. Burke D, Hicks R. Intraoperative monitoring of corticospinal function. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 1995; 94: 89-91.
37. Erwin CW, Erwin AC. Up and down the spinal cord: intraoperative monitoring of sensory and motor spinal cord pathways. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology 1993; 10: 425-36.
38. Friedman WA, Grundy BL. Monitoring of sensory evoked potentials is highly reliable and helpful in the operating room. Journal of Clinical Monitoring 1987; 3: 38-44.
39. Grundy BL. Intraoperative monitoring of senosry evoked potentials. In: Nodar RH, Barber C, eds. Evoked Potentials II. Boston, MA: Butterworth, 1984; 624.
40. Raudzens PA. Intraoperative monitoring of evoked potentials. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1982; 388: 308.
41. Hume AI, Cant BR, Shaw NA. Central somatosensory conduction time in comatose patient. Annals of Neurology 1979; 5: 379.
42. Symon L, Hargadine J, Zawirshi M, Branston N. Central conduction time as an index of ischaemia in subarachnoid ischaemia. Journal of Neurological Science 1979; 44: 95.
43. Ahmed I. Can somatosensory evoked potentials predict outcome from coma? Clinical Electroencephalography 1992; 23: 126-31.
44. Ruijs MBM, Keyser A, Gabreels FJM, et al. Somatosensory evoked potentials and cognitive sequelae in children with closed head-injury. Neuropediatrics 1993; 24: 307-12.
45. Nuwer MR. Electroencephalograms and evoked potentials: monitoring cerebral function in the neurosurgical intensive care unit. Neurosurgery Clinics of North America 1994; 5: 647-59.
46. Firsching R, Frowein RA. Multimodality evoked potentials and early prognosis in comatose patients. Neurosurgical Review 1990; 13: 141-6.
47. Mahajan V, Kumar A, Tandon OP, Bhattacharya A. Somatosenosry evoked potential responses following topical application of aspirin diethyl mixture in patients of acute herpetic and postherpetic neuralgia. MD Thesis, University of Delhi, India, 1996.
48. Bromm B, Treede RD. Pain related cerebral potentials: late and ultralate components. International Journal of Neuroscience 1987; 33: 15-23.
49. Bjerring P, Arendt-Nielsen L. Argon laser-induced single cortical responses: a new method to quantity pre-pain and pain perceptions. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1988; 51: 43-9.
50. Kaga K, Hink RF, Shinoda Y, Suzuki J. Evidence for a primary cortical origin of a middle latency auditory evoked potential in cats. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 1980; 50: 254-66.
51. Lovrich D, Novick B, Vaughan HG. Topographic analysis of auditory event-related potentials associated with acoustic and semantic processing. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 1988; 71: 40-54.
52. Raudzens PA, Shetter AG. Intraoperative monitoring of brainstem auditory evoked potentials. Journal of Neurosurgery 1982; 57: 341.
53. Auger RG, Piepgras DG, Laws ER. Hemifacial spasm: results of microvascualr decompression of the facial nerve in 54 patients. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 1986; 61: 640.
54. Muller AR, Janetta PJ. Monitoring auditory functions during cranial nerve microvascular decompression operations by direct recording from the eighth nerve. Journal of Neurosurgery 1983; 59: 493.
55. Garcia-Larrea L, Artru F, Bertrand O, et al. The combined monitoring of brain stem auditory evoked potentials and intracranial pressure in coma: a study of 57 patients. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1992; 55: 792-8.
56. Rumpl E, Prugger M, Gerstenbrand F, et al. Central somatosensory conduction time and acoustic brainstem transmission in post-traumatic coma. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology 1988; 5: 237-60.
57. Bailey AR, Jones JG. Patients memories of events. Anaesthesia 1997; 52: 460-76.
58. Schwender D, Kaiser A, Klasing S, et al. Mid-latency auditory evoked potentials and explicit and implicit memory in patients undergoing cardiac surgery. Anesthesiology 1994; 80: 493-501.
59. Roy R, Huang JW. Closed loop intravenous anesthetic administration. Anesthesiology 1997; 87: A641.
60. Mantzaridis H, Kenny GNC. Auditory evoked potential index: a quantitative measure of changes in auditory evoked potentials during general anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1997; 52: 1030-6.
61. Newton DEF, Thornton C, Konieczko KM, et al. Auditory evoked response and awareness: a study in volunteers at sub-MAC concentrations of isoflurane. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1992; 69: 122-9.
62. Umo-Etuk J, Sharpe RM, Brunner MD, Thornton C. The effect of a bolus dose of Midazolam on the auditory evoked response in man. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1997; 78: 464-5.
63. Nel MR, Fernandes R, Thornton C, Newton DEF. The auditory evoked response after co-induction of anaesthesia with midazolam and propofol. British Journal of Anaesthesia in press.
64. Galambos R, Makieg S, Talmachoff PJ. A 40 Hz auditory potential record from the human scalp. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA 1981; 78: 2643-7.
65. Plourde G, Stapells DR, Picton TW. The human auditory steady-state evoked response. Acta Otolaryngologica 1991; 491 (Suppl.): 427-40.
66. Jeffreys JGR, Traub RD, Whittington MA. Neuronal networks for induced '40 Hz' rhythms. Trends in Neuroscience 1996; 19: 202-8.
67. Plourde G, Boylan JF. The auditory steady-state response during sufentanil anaesthesia. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1991; 66: 683-91.
68. Munglani R, Andrade J, Sapsford DJ, et al. A measure of consciousness and memory during isoflurane administration: the coherent frequency. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1993; 71: 633-41.
69. Jeevaratnam RD, Andrade J, Sapsford DJ, et al. The coherent frequency - a measure of cognitive function during sedation. In: Bonke B, Bovill JG, Moerman N, eds. Memory and Awareness in Anaesthesia III. Assen: Van Gorcum, 1996; 197-201.
70. Goodin Douglas S. Event related (endogenous) potentials. In: Aminoff, MJ, ed. Electrodiagnosis in Clinical Neurology, 2nd edn. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1986; 586-95.
71. Tandon OP. P3 event related evoked potential in young adults. Indian Journal of Physiological Pharmacology 1990; 34: 191-4.
72. Gibson SJ, Gorman MM, Helme RD. Assessment of pain in the elderly using event-related cerebral potentials. In: Bond MR, Charlton JE, Woolf CJ, eds. Proceedings of the VI World Congress on Pain. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers, 1990; 523-9.
73. Thornton C, Konieczko KM, Knight AB, et al. Effect of propofol on the auditory evoked response and oesophageal contractility. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1989; 63: 411-17.
74. Jessop J, Griffiths DE, Furness P, et al. Changes in amplitude and latency of the auditory evoked potential with sedative and anaesthetic concentrations of nitrous oxide. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1991; 67: 524-31.
75. Plourde G, Picton TW. Long latency auditory evoked potentials during general anaesthesia. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1989; 72: 342-50.
76. Zaaroor M, Pratt H, Femsod M, et al. Real time monitoring of visual evoked potentials. Israeli Journal of Medical Sciences 1993; 29: 17-22.
77. Cedzich C, Schramm J. Monitoring of flash visual evoked potentials during neurosurgical operations. International Anaesthesiology Clinics 1990; 28: 165-9.
78. Peterson DO, Drummond JC, Todd MM. Effects of halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and nitrous oxide on somatosensory evoked potentials in humans. Anesthesiology 1986; 65: 35.
79. Pathak KS, Amaddio BS, Scoles PV, et al. Effects of halothane, enflurance, and isoflurane in nitrous oxide on multilevel somatosensory evoked potentials. Anesthesiology 1989; 70: 207.
80. Schwender D, Conzen P, Klasing S, et al. The effect of anaesthesia with increasing end expiratory concentration of sevoflurance on midlatency auditory evoked potentials. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1995; 81: 817-22.
81. Schwender D, Klasing S, Conzen P, et al. Mid latency auditory evoked potentials during anaesthesia with increasing end-expiratory concentration of desflurane. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1996; 40: 171-6.
82. Thornton C, Newton DEF. The auditory evoked response: a measure of depth of anaesthesia. Bailliéres Clincial Anaesthesiology 1989; 3: 559-85.
83. Thornton C, Creagh-Barry P, Jordan C, et al. Somatosensory and auditory evoked responses recorded simultaneously: differential effects of nitrous oxide and isoflurane. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1992; 68: 508-14.
84. Schwender D, Rimkus T, Haesler R, et al. Effects of increasing doses of alfentanil, fentanyl and morphine on mid-latency auditory evoked potentials. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1993; 71: 622-8.
85. Schwender D, Klasing S, Madler C, et al. Effects of benzodiazepines on mid-latency auditory evoked potentials. Canadian Journal of Anaesthesia 1993; 40: 1148-54.
86. Koht A, Schiötz W, Schmidt G, et al. Effects of etomidate, midazolam, and thiopental on median nerve somatosensory evoked potentials and the additive effects of fentanyl and nitrous oxide. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1988; 67: 435-41.
87. Schwender D, Klasing S, Madler C, et al. Mid-latency auditory evoked potentials and purposeful movements after thiopentone bolus injection. Anaesthesia 1994; 49: 99-104.
88. Davies FW, Mantzaridis H, Kenny GNC, et al. Middle latency auditory evoked potentials during repeated transitions from consciousness to unconsciousness. Anaesthesia 1996; 51: 107-13.
89. Schwender D, Madler C, Klasing S, et al. Mid-latency auditory evoked potentials and wakefulness during caesarian section. European Journal of Anaesthesiology 1995; 12: 171-9.
90. Schwender D, Daunderer M, Schnatmann N, et al. Midlatency auditory evoked potentials and motor signs of wakefulness during anaesthesia with midazolam. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1997; 79: 53-8.
91. Erwin CW, Linnoila M, Hartwell J, et al. Effect of buspirone and diazepam, alone and in combination with alcohol, on skilled performance and evoked potentials. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 1986; 6: 199-209.
92. Mempel E, Tarnecki R, Ligezinska B, et al. Effect of diazepam on somatosensory evoked potentials. Neurology and Neurochirpology 1986; 20: 571-6.
93. Pathak KS, Brown RH, Cascorbi HF, et al. Effects of cortical-evoked potentials. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1984; 68: 833.
94. Schubert A, Peterson DO, Drummond JC, et al. The effects of high-dose fentanyl on human median nerve somatosensory evoked responses. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1986; 65: S136.
95. Langeron O, Lille F, Zerhouni O, et al. Comparison of the effects of ketamine-midazolam with those of fentanyl-midazolam on cortical somatosensory evoked potentials during major spine surgery. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1997; 78: 701-6.
96. Lee VC. Spinal and cortical evoked potential studies in the ketamine anaesthetized rabbit: fentanyl exerts component specific, naloxone-reversible changes dependent on stimulus intensity. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1994; 78: 280-6.
97. Navaramarajah M, Thornton C, Heneghan CPH, et al. Effect of etomidate on the auditory evoked response in man. Proceedings of the Anaesthetic Research Society 1983; 55: 1157.
98. Thornton C, Konieczko KM, Knight AB, et al. The effect of propofol on the auditory evoked response and on oesophageal contractility. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1989; 63: 411-17.
99. Samra SK, Lilly DJ, Rush NL, et al. Fentanyl anaesthesia and human brain-stem auditory evoked potentials. Anesthesiology 1984; 61: 261.
100. Grundy BL, Brown RH. Meperidine enhances somatosensory cortical evoked potentials. Electrencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 1980; 50: 177.
101. McGregor RR, Allan LG, Sharpe RM, Thornton C, Newton DEF. Effect of remifentanil on the auditory evoked response and haemodynamic changes after intubation and surgical incision. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1998; 81: 785-6.
102. Crabb I, Thornton C, Konieczko KM, et al. Remifentanil reduces auditory and somatosensory evoked responses during isoflurane anaesthesia in a dose-dependent manner. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1996; 76: 795-801.
103. Brunner MD, Crabb JI, Millett SV, Thornton C, Newton DEF. Alfentanil obtunds the increase in the Pa amplitude associated with intubation in a dose-dependent fashion. Anesthesiology 1995; 83: A301.
104. Drummond JC, Todd MM, Sang H. The effect of high-dose sodium thiopental on brain stem auditory and median nerve somatosensory evoked responses in humans. Anesthesiology 1985; 63: 249.
105. Sloan TB, Ronai AK, Toleikis JR. Improvement of intraoperative somatosensory evoked potentials by etomidate. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1988; 67: 582.
106. Reader JC. Basis of anaesthesia - what do we know after 150 years. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1996; 40: 1068-72.
107. Tooley MA, Greenslade GL, Prys-Roberts C. Concentration-related effects of propofol on the auditory evoked response. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1996; 77: 720-6.
108. Doi M, Garaj RJ, Mantzaris H, Kenny GNC. Relationship between calculated blood concentration of propofol and electrophysiological variables during emergence from anaesthesia: comparison of bispectral index, spectral edge frequency, median frequency and auditory evoked potential index. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1997; 78: 180-4.
109. Petersen-Felix S, Arendt-Nielsen L, Bak P, et al. Psychophysical and electrophysiological responses to experimental pain may be influenced by sedation: comparison of a hypnotic (propofol) and an analgesic (alfentanil). British Journal of Anaesthesia 1996; 77: 165-71.
110. McPherson RW, Mahla M, Johnson R, et al. Effects of enflurane, isoflurane, and nitrous oxide on somatosensory evoked potentials during fentanyl anaesthesia. Anesthesiology 1985; 62: 626.
111. Sebel PS, Ingram DA, Flynn PJ. Evoked potentials during isoflurane anaesthesia. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1986; 58: 580.
112. Samra SK, Vanderzant CW, Domer PA, et al. Differential effects of isoflurane on human median nerve somatosensory evoked potentials. Anesthesiology 1987; 66: 29.
113. Thornton C, Heneghan CPH, James MFM, et al. Effects of halothane or enflurane with controlled ventilation on auditory evoked potentials. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1984; 56: 315-22.
114. Heneghan CPH, Thornton C, Navaratnarajah M, et al. Effect of isoflurane on the auditory evoked response in man. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1987; 59: 277-82.
115. Thornton C, Heneghan CPH, Navratnarajah M, et al. Effect of etomidate on the auditory evoked response in man. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1985; 57: 554-61.
116. Sharpe RM, Nathwani D, Pal SK, et al. Auditory evoked response median frequency and 95% spectral edge during anaesthesia with desflurane and nitrous oxide. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1997; 78: 282-5.
117. Sebel PS, Flynn PJ, Ingrain DA. Effect of nitrous oxide on visual, auditory and somatosensory evoked potentials. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1984; 56: 1403.
118. Svensson P, Arendt-Nielsen L, Bjerring P, Kaaber S. Oral mucosal analgesia quantitatively assessed by argon laser induced thresholds and single evoked vertex potentials. Anesthesia and Pain Control in Dentistry 1993; 2: 154-61.
119. Shen E, Ma WH, Lan C. Involvement of descending inhibition in the effect of acupuncture on the splanchnically evoked potential in the orbital cortex of the cat. Scientia Sinica 1978; 21: 677-85.
120. Eng DY, Dong WK, Bledsoe SW, et al. Electrical and pathological correlates of brain hypoxia during hypotension. Anesthesiology 1980; 53: S92.
121. Kobrine AI, De Evans, Rizzoli HV, et al. Relative vulnerability of brain and spinal cord to ischaemia. Journal of Neurological Science 1980; 45: 65.
122. Grundy BL, Nash CL, Brown RH. Arterial pressure manipulation alters spinal cord function during correction of scoliosis. Anesthesiology 1981; 54: 249.
123. Russ W, Kling D, Loesevitz A, et al. Effect of hypothermia on visual evoked potential (VEP) in humans. Anesthesiology 1984; 61: 207.
124. Stockard JJ, Sharbrough FW, Tinker JA. Effects of hypothermia on the human brainstem auditory response. Annals of Neurology 1978; 3: 368.
125. Hett DA, Smith DC, Pilkington SN, Abbott TR. Effect of temperature and cardiopulmonary bypass on the auditory evoked response. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1995; 75: 293-6.
126. Dubois M, Loppola R, Buchsbaum MS, et al. Somatosensory evoked potentials during whole body hyperthermia in humans. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 1981; 52: 157.
127. Bridger MWM, Graham JM. The influence of raised body temperature on auditory evoked brainstem responses. Clinical Otolaryngology 1985; 10: 195-9.
128. Nakagawa Y, Ohtsuka T, Tsura M, et al. Effects of mild hypercapnia on somatosensory evoked potentials in experimental cerebral ischaemia. Stroke 1984; 25: 275.
129. Grundy BL, Heros RC, Tung AS, et al. Intraoperative hypoxia detected by evoked potential monitoring. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1981; 60: 437.
130. Nagao S, Roccaforte P, Moody RA. The effects of isovolemic haemodilution and reinfusion of packed erythrocytes on somatosensory and visual evoked potentials. Journal of Surgical Research 1978; 25: S30.
131. Phillips LHII, Blanco JS, Sussman MD. Direct spinal stimulation for intraoperative monitoring during scoliosis surgery. Muscle and Nerve 1995; 18: 319-25.
132. Levy WJ, McCaffrey M, York DH, et al. Motor evoked potentials from transcranial stimulation of the motor cortex in humans. Neurosurgery 1984; 15: 214.
133. Levy WJ Jr. Clinical experience with motor and cerebellar evoked potential monitoring. Neurosurgery 1987; 20: 169.
134. Day BL, Dressler D, Maertens DNA, et al. Electrical and magnetic stimulation of the human motor cortex: surface EMG and single motor unit responses. Journal of Physiology 1989; 412: 449.
135. Day BL, Thompson PD, Dick JP, et al. Different sites of action of electrical and magnetic stimulation of the human brain. Neuroscience Letters 1987; 75: 101.
136. Rothell JC, Thompson PD, Day BL, et al. Motor cortex stimulation in intact man. Brain 1987; 110: 1173.
137. Edmonds H Jr, Paloheimo MPJ, Backman MH, et al. Transcranial magnetic motor evoked potentials (to MMEP) for functional monitoring of motor pathways during scoliosis surgery. Spine 1989; 14: 683.
138. Sheilds CB, Paloheimo MPJ, Backman MH, et al. Intraoperative use of transcranial magnetic motor evoked potentials. In: Chokroverty S, ed. Magnetic Stimulation in Clinical Neurophysiology. London: Butterworths, 1990; 173-84.
139. Herdmann J, Lumenta CB, Huse K. Magnetic stimulation for monitoring of motor pathways in spinal procedures. Spine 1993; 18: 551-9.
140. Yang LH, Lin SM, Lee W, et al. Intraoperative transcranial electrical motor evoked potential monitoring during spinal surgery under intravenous ketamine or etomidate anaesthesia. Acta Neurochirurgica 1994; 127: 191-8.
141. Deletis V. Intraoperative monitoring of the functional integrity of the motor pathways. Advances in Neurology 1993; 63: 201-14.
142. Sood S, Mahapatra AK, Bhatia R. Somatosesoary and brainstem auditory evoked potential in congnited craniovertebral anomaly: effect of surgical management. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1992; 55: 609-12.
143. Cheek JC. Posterior fossa intraoperative monitoring. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology 1993; 10: 412-24.
144. Apel DM, Marrero G, King J, et al. Avoiding paraplegia during anterior spinal surgery. The role of somatosensory evoked potential monitoring with temporary occlusion of segmental spinal arteries. Spine 1991; 16 (Suppl.): S365.
145. National Institute of Health (NIH). Consensus development conference (held December 11-13 1991). Consensus Statement 1991; 9.
146. Anon. Synopsis of a panel held at the annual meeting of the American Otological Society, indications for cranial nerve monitoring during otologic and neurotologic surgery. American Journal of Otology 1994; 15: 611-13.
147. Taniguchi M, Cedzich C, Schramm J. Modification of cortical stimulation for motor evoked potentials under general anaesthesia: technical description. Neurosurgery 1993; 32: 219-26.
148. Madl C, Grimm G, Krammer L, et al. Early prediction of individual outcome after cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Lancet 1993; 341: 855-8.
149. Bassetti C, Mathis J, Hess CW. Multimodal electrophysiological studies including motor evoked potentials in patients with locked-in syndrome: report of six patients. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1994; 57: 1403-6.
150. McPherson RW, Sell B, Traystman RJ. Effects of thiopental, fentanyl, and etomidate on upper extremity somatosensory evoked potentials in humans. Anaesthesiology 1986; 65: 584-9.