Advances in diagnosis and management of herpetic uveitis

International Ophthalmology Clinics

Volumn 40, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 85-109

  Gaynor, Bruce D ^a   Margolis, Todd P ^a   Cunningham Jr , Emmett T ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACICLOVIR; ANTIVIRUS AGENT; CORTICOSTEROID; CYCLOPLEGIC AGENT; FAMCICLOVIR; GANCICLOVIR; TRIFLURIDINE; VALACICLOVIR;

CLINICAL FEATURE; HERPES; HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS; HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS 1; HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS 2; HERPES ZOSTER; HUMAN; IRIDOCYCLITIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RECURRENT DISEASE; REVIEW; UVEITIS; VARICELLA ZOSTER VIRUS; VIRUS CLASSIFICATION; VIRUS MORPHOLOGY;

EID: 0034011070     PISSN: 00208167     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00004397-200004000-00008     Document Type: Review

References (216)

1. Nahmias AJ, Lee FK, Beckman-Nahmias S. Sero-epidemiological and -sociological patterns of herpes simplex virus infection in the world. Scand J Infect Dis Suppl 1990;69:19-36
2. Siegel D, Golden E, Washington AE, et al. Prevalence and correlates of herpes simplex infections. The population-based AIDS in Multiethnic Neighborhoods Study. JAMA 1992;268:1702-1708
3. Weller TH: Varicella and herpes zoster: a perspective and overview. J Infect Dis 1992; 166(suppl 1):S1-S6
4. Preblud SR, Orenstein WA, Bart KJ. Varicella: clinical manifestations, epidemiology and health impact in children. Pediatr Infect Dis 1984;3:505-509
5. Wald A, Zeh J, Selke S, et al. Virologie characteristics of subclinical and symptomatic genital herpes infections. N Engl J Med 1995;333:770-775
6. Davison AJ, Scott JE. The complete DNA sequence of varicella-zoster virus. J Gen Virol 1986;67:1759-1816
7. McGeoch DJ, Dolan A, Donald S, Brauer DH. Complete DNA sequence of the short repeat region in the genome of herpes simplex virus type 1. Nucleic Acids Res 1986; 14:1727-1745
8. McGeoch DJ, Dalrymple MA, Davison AJ, et al. The complete DNA sequence of the long unique region in the genome of herpes simplex virus type 1. J Gen Virol 1988; 69:1531-1574
9. Pepose JS. Herpes simplex keratitis: role of viral infection versus immune response. Surv Ophthalmol 1991;35:345-352
10. Roizmann B, Desrosiers RC, Fleckenstein B, et al. The family Herpesviridae: an update. The Herpesvirus Study Group of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Arch Virol 1992;123:425-449
11. Moore PS, Chang Y. Detection of herpesvirus-like DNA sequences in Kaposi's sarcoma in patients with and without HIV infection. N Engl J Med 1995;332:1181-1185
12. Nesburn AB, Elliott JH, Leibowitz HM. Spontaneous reactivation of experimental herpes simplex keratitis in rabbits. Arch Ophthalmol 1967;78:523-529
13. Lieberman M, Schafer TW, Came PE. Chemotherapy of cutaneous herpesvirus infection of hairless mice. J Invest Dermatol 1973;60:203-206
14. Platt H. The local and generalised forms of experimental herpes simplex infection in guinea pigs. Br J Exp Path 1964;45:300-308
15. Corey L, Spear PG. Infections with herpes simplex viruses (parts 1 and 2). N Engl J Med 1986;314:686-691, 749-757
16. Nahmias AJ, Dowdle WR. Antigenic and biologic differences in herpesvirus hominis. Prog Med Virol 1968;10:110-159
17. Nahmias AJ, Roizman B. Infection with herpes-simplex viruses 1 and 2 (parts 1, 2 and 3). N Engl J Med 1973;289:667-674, 719-725, 781-789
18. Lafferty WE, Coombs RW, Benedetti J, et al. Recurrences after oral and genital herpes simplex virus infection. Influence of site of infection and viral type. N Engl J Med 1987;316:1444-1449
19. Whitley RJ. Herpes simplex viruses. In: Fields BN, Knipe DM, eds. Virology. New York: Raven Press, 1990
20. Johnson RE, Nahmias AJ, Magder LS, et al. A seroepidemiologic survey of the prevalence of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection in the United States. N Engl J Med 1989;321:7-12
21. Anderson SG, Hamilton J. The epidemiology of primary herpes simplex infection. Med J Aust 1949;1:308-311
22. Dawson CR, Togni B. Herpes simplex eye infections: clinical manifestations, pathogenesis and management. Surv Ophthalmol 1976;21:121-135
23. Whitcher JP, Dawson CR, Hoshiwara I, et al. Herpes simplex keratitis in a developing country. Natural history and treatment of epithelial ulcers in Tunisia. Arch Ophthalmol 1976;94:587-592
24. Liesegang TJ, Melton LJ, Daly PJ, Ilstrup DM. Epidemiology of ocular herpes simplex. Incidence in Rochester, Minn, 1950 through 1982. Arch Ophthalmol 1989;107:1155-1159
25. Mortensen KK, Sjolie AK. Keratitis dendritica. An epidemiological investigation. Acta Ophthalmol 1979;57:750-754
26. Ribaric V. The incidence of herpetic keratitis among population. Ophthalmologica 1976;173:19-22
27. Norn MS. Dendritic (herpetic) keratitis: I. Incidence - seasonal variations -recurrence rate - visual impairment - therapy. Acta Ophthalmol 1970;48:91-107
28. Darougar S, Wishart MS, Viswalingam ND. Epidemiological and clinical features of primary herpes simplex virus ocular infection. Br J Ophthalmol 1985;69:2-6
29. Kristensson K, Lycke E, Sjostrand J. Spread of herpes simplex virus in peripheral nerves. Acta Neuropathol 1971;17:44-53
30. Stevens JG, Cook ML. Latent herpes simplex virus in spinal ganglia of mice. Science 1971;173:843-845
31. Nesburn AB, Cook ML, Stevens JG. Latent herpes simplex virus. Isolation from rabbit trigeminal ganglia between episodes of recurrent ocular infection. Arch Ophthalmol 1972;88:412-417
32. Sabbaga EM, Pavan-Langston D, Bean KM, Dunkel EC. Detection of HSV nucleic: acid sequences in the cornea during acute and latent ocular disease. Exp Eye Res 1988; 47:545-553
33. Pavan-Langston D, Rong BL, Dunkel EC. Extraneuronal herpetic latency: animal and human corneal studies. Acta Ophthalmol Suppl 1989;192:135-141
34. Rong BL, Pavan-Langston D, Weng QP, et al. Detection of herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase and latency-associated transcript gene sequences in human herpetic corneas by polymerase chain reaction amplification. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1991; 32:1808-1815
35. Tullo AB, Easty DL, Shimeld C, et al. Isolation of herpes simplex virus from corneal discs of patients with chronic stromal keratitis. Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K 1985;104: 159-165
36. Shimeld C, Tullo AB, Easty DL, Thomsitt J. Isolation of herpes simplex virus from the cornea in chronic stromal keratitis. Br J Ophthalmol 1982;66:643-647
37. Dawson C, Togni B, Moore TEJ. Structural changes in chronic herpetic keratitis. Studied by light and electron microscopy. Arch Ophthalmol 1968;79:740-747
38. Holbach LM, Font RL, Naumann GO. Herpes simplex stromal and endothelial keratitis Granulomatous cell reactions at the level of Descemet's membrane, the stroma, and Bowman's layer. Ophthalmology 1990;97:722-728
39. Cantin E, Chen J, Willey DE, et al. Persistence of herpes simplex virus DNA in rabbit corneal cells. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1992;33:2470-2475
40. Kaye SB Lynas C, Patterson A, Risk JM, McCarthy K, Hart CA: Evidence for herpes simplex viral latency in the human cornea. Br J Ophthalmol 1991;75:195-200
41. Wagner EK, Bloom DC. Experimental investigation of herpes simplex virus latency. Clin Microbiol Rev 1997;10:419-443
42. Buchman TG, Roizman B, Nahmias AJ. Demonstration of exogenous genital reinfection with herpes simplex virus type 2 by restriction endonuclease fingerprinting of viral DNA. J Infect Dis 1979;140:295-304
43. Sawtell NM, Thompson RL. Rapid in vivo reactivation of herpes simplex virus in latently infected murine ganglionic neurons after transient hyperthermia. J Virol 1992;66:2150-2156
44. Laycock KA, Lee SF, Brady RH, Pepose JS. Characterization of a murine model of recurrent herpes simplex viral keratitis induced by ultraviolet B radiation. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1991;32:2741-2746
45. Spruance SL, Freeman DJ, Stewart JC, et al. The natural history of ultraviolet radiation-induced herpes simplex labialis and response to therapy with peroral and topical formulations of acyclovir. J Infect Dis 1991;163:728-734
46. Segal AL, Katcher AH, Brightman VJ, Miller MF. Recurrent herpes labialis, recurrent aphthous ulcers, and the menstrual cycle. J Dent Res 1974;53:797-803
47. Hill TJ, Blyth WA, Harbour DA. Trauma to the skin causes recurrence of herpes simplex in the mouse. J Gen Virol 1978;39:21-28
48. Haruta Y, Rootman DS, Xie LX, et al. Recurrent HSV-1 corneal lesions in rabbits induced by cyclophosphamide and dexamethasone. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1989; 30:371-376
49. Greenberg MS, Friedman H, Cohen SG, et al. A comparative study of herpes simplex infections in renal transplant and leukemic patients. J Infect Dis 1987;156:280-287
50. Pfister RR, Richards JS, Dohlman CH. Recurrence of herpetic keratitis in corneal grafts. Am J Ophthalmol 1972;73:192-196
51. Pazin GJ, Ho M, Jannetta PJ. Reactivation of herpes simplex virus after decompression of the trigeminal nerve root. J Infect Dis 1978;138:405-409
52. Thygeson P. Chronic herpetic keratouveitis. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 1967;65:211-226
53. Dhaliwal DK, Barnhorst DAJ, Romanowski E, et al. Efficient reactivation of latent herpes simplex virus type 1 infection by excimer laser keratectomy in the experimental rabbit ocular model. Am J Ophthalmol 1998;125:488-492
54. Beyer CF, Byrd TJ, Hill JM, Kaufman HE. Herpes simplex virus and persistent epithelial defects after penetrating keratoplasty. Am J Ophthalmol 1990;109:95-96
55. Beyer CF, Arens MQ, Hill GA, et al. Oral acyclovir reduces the incidence of recurrent herpes simplex keratitis in rabbits after penetrating keratoplasty. Arch Ophthalmol 1989;107:1200-1205
56. Brik D, Dunkel E, Pavan-Langston D. Herpetic keratitis: persistence of viral particles despite topical and systemic antiviral therapy. Report of two cases and review of the literature. Arch Ophthalmol 1993;111:522-527
57. Barney NP, Foster CS. A prospective randomized trial of oral acyclovir after penetrating keratoplasty for herpes simplex keratitis. Cornea 1994;13:232-236
58. Tei M, Nishida K, Kinoshita S. Polymerase chain reaction detection of herpes simplex virus in tear fluid from atypical herpetic epithelial keratitis after penetrating keratoplasty. Am J Ophthalmol 1996;122:732-735
59. McDonnell PJ, Moreira H, Clapham TN, et al. Photorefractive keratectomy for astigmatism. Initial clinical results. Arch Ophthalmol 1991;109:1370-1373
60. Pepose JS, Laycock KA, Miller JK, et al. Reactivation of latent herpes simplex virus by excimer laser photokeratectomy. Am J Ophthalmol 1992;114:45-50
61. Vrabec MP, Anderson JA, Rock ME, et al. Electron microscopic findings in a cornea with recurrence of herpes simplex keratitis after excimer laser phototherapeutic keratectomy. CLAO J 1994;20:41-44
62. Bell DM, Holman RC, Pavan-Langston D. Herpes simplex keratitis: epidemiologic aspects. Ann Ophthalmol 1982;14:421-424
63. Hodge WG, Margolis TP. Herpes simplex virus keratitis among patients who are positive or negative for human immunodeficiency virus: an epidemiologic study. Ophthalmology 1997;104:120-124
64. Herpetic Eye Disease Study Group. Acyclovir for the prevention of recurrent herpes simplex virus eye disease. N Engl J Med 1998;339:300-306
65. Herpetic Eye Disease Study Group. A controlled trial of oral acyclovir for the prevention of stromal keratitis or iritis in patients with herpes simplex virus epithelial keratitis. The Epithelial Keratitis trial. Arch Ophthalmol 1997;115:703-712
66. Wilhelmus KR, Coster DJ, Donovan HC, et al. Prognosis indicators of herpetic keratitis. Analysis of a five-year observation period after corneal ulceration. Arch Ophthalmol 1981;99:1578-1582
67. Liesegang TJ. Epidemiology of ocular herpes simplex. Natural history in Rochester, Minn, 1950 through 1982. Arch Ophthalmol 1989;107:1160-1165
68. Cesario TC, Poland JD, Wulff H, et al. Six years experience with herpes simplex virus in a children's home. Am J Epidemiol 1969;90:416-422
69. Wald A, Corey L, Cone R, et al. Frequent genital herpes simplex virus 2 shedding in immunocompetent women. Effect of acyclovir treatment. J Clin Invest 1997;99:1092-1097
70. Kaufman HE, Brown DC, Ellison EM. Recurrent herpes in the rabbit and man. Science 1967;156:1628-1629
71. Braley AE. Experimental herpes simplex. The Sanford R. Gifford lecture. Am J Ophthalmol 1952;35:1737-1747
72. Hogan MJ, Kimura SJ, Thygeson P. Pathology of herpes simplex kerato-iritis. Am J Ophthalmol 1964;57:551-564
73. Kimura SJ. Herpes simplex uveitis: a clinical and experimental study. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 1962;60:440-470
74. Liesegang TJ. Classification of herpes simplex virus keratitis and anterior uveitis. Cornea 1999;18:127-143
75. Gunderson T. Herpes corneae with special reference to its treatment with strong solution of iodine. Arch Ophthalmol 1936;15:225-249
76. Thygeson P. Marginal herpes simplex keratitis simulating catarrhal ulcer. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1971;10:1006
77. Holland EJ, Schwartz GS. Classification of herpes simplex virus keratitis. Cornea 1999; 18:144-154
78. Oh JO. Primary and secondary herpes simplex uveitis in rabbits. Surv Ophthalmol 1976;21:178-184
79. Martenet AC. Herpes simplex uveitis. An experimental study. Arch Ophthalmol 1966; 76:858-865
80. Kaufman HE, Kanai A, Ellison ED. Herpetic iritis: demonstration of virus in the anterior chamber by fluorescent antibody techniques and electron microscopy. Am J Ophthalmol 1971;71:465-469
81. Patterson A, Sommerville RG, Jones BR. Herpetic kerato-uveids with herpes virus antigen in the anterior chamber. Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K 1969;88:243-249
82. Yamamoto S, Pavan-Langston D, Kinoshita S, et al. Detecting herpesvirus DNA in uveitis using the polymerase chain reaction. Br J Ophthalmol 1996;80:465-468
83. Yamamoto S, Pavan-Langston D, Tada R, et al. Possible role of herpes simplex virus in the origin of Posner-Schlossman syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol 1995;119:796-798
84. de Boer JH, Verhagen C, Bruinenberg M, et al. Serologic and polymerase chain reaction analysis of intraocular fluids in the diagnosis of infectious uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol 1996;121:650-658
85. Dussaix E, Cerqueti PM, Pontet F, Bloch-Michel E. New approaches to the detection of locally produced antiviral antibodies in the aqueous of patients with endogenous uveitis. Ophthalmologica 1987;194:145-149
86. Thygeson P, Hogan MJ, Kimura SJ. Observations on uveitis associated with viral disease. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 1957;55:333-352
87. Chang TS, Brewer LV, Hooper PL. Primary herpes simplex iridocyclitis with iris atrophy (letter). Arch Ophthalmol 1993;111:25-26
88. O'Connor GR. Recurrent herpes simplex uveitis in humans. Surv Ophthalmol 1976; 21:165-170
89. Falcon MG, Williams HP. Herpes simplex kerato-uveitis and glaucoma. Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K 1978;98:101-104
90. Marsh RJ, Easty DL, Jones BR. Iritis and iris atrophy in herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Am J Ophthalmol 1974;78:255-261
91. Van der Lelij A, Ooijman FM, Kijlstra A, Rothova A. Anterior uveitis with atrophy in the absence of keratitis: a distinct clinical entity in herpetic eye disease. Presented at the meeting of the IUSG, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 1999
92. Sainz dIM, Hemady RK, Foster CS. Infectious scleritis: report of four cases. Doc Ophthalmol 1993;83:33-41
93. Foster CS, Sainz de la Maza M. The sciera. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1994:242
94. Cogan DF, Kuwubara T, Young GF, Knox DL. Herpes simplex retinopathy in an infant. Arch Ophthalmol 1964;72:641-645
95. Bloom JN, Katz JI, Kaufman HE. Herpes simplex retinitis and encephalitis in an adult. Arch Ophthalmol 1977;95:1798-1799
96. Johnson BL, Wisotzkey HM. Neuroretinitis associated with herpes simplex encephalitis in an adult. Am J Ophthalmol 1977;83:481-489
97. Sekizawa T, Hara S, Kiyosawa M, et al. Acute retinitis 2 years after recovery from herpes simplex encephalitis. Neurology 1991;41:456
98. Knox CM, Chandler D, Short GA, Margolis TP. Polymerase chain reaction-based assays of vitreous samples for the diagnosis of viral retinitis. Use in diagnostic dilemmas. Ophthalmology 1998;105:37-44
99. Pavesio CE, Conrad DK, McCluskey PJ, et al. Delayed acute retinal necrosis after herpetic encephalitis (letter). Br J Ophthalmol 1997;81:415-416
100. Grutzmacher RD, Henderson D, McDonald PJ, Coster DJ. Herpes simplex chorioretinitis in a healthy adult. Am J Ophthalmol 1983;96:788-796
101. Pavan-Langston D, Brockhurst RJ. Herpes simplex panuveitis. A clinical report. Arch Ophthalmol 1969;81:783-787
102. Cunningham ETJ, Short GA, Irvine AR, et al. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome - associated herpes simplex virus retinitis. Clinical description and use of a polymerase chain reaction-based assay as a diagnostic tool. Arch Ophthalmol 1996; 114:834-840
103. Urayama A, Yamada N, Sasaki T, et al. Unilateral acute uveitis with retinal periarteritis and detachment. Jpn J Clin Ophthalmol 1971;25:607-619
104. Fisher JP, Lewis ML, Blumenkranz M, et al. The acute retinal necrosis syndrome: part 1. Clinical manifestations. Ophthalmology 1982;89:1309-1316
105. Holland GN. Standard diagnostic criteria for the acute retinal necrosis syndrome. Executive Committee of the American Uveitis Society. Am J Ophthalmol 1994;117: 663-667
106. Culbertson WW, Blumenkranz MS, Haines H, et al. The acute retinal necrosis syndrome: part 2. Histopathology and etiology. Ophthalmology 1982;89:1317-1325
107. Duker JS, Nielsen JC, Eagle RCJ, et al. Rapidly progressive acute retinal necrosis secondary to herpes simplex virus, type 1. Ophthalmology 1990;97:1638-1643
108. Matsuo T, Nakayama T, Matsuo N, Koide N. Immunological studies of uveitis. 1. Immune complex containing herpes virus antigens in four patients with acute retinal necrosis syndrome. Jpn J Ophthalmol 1986;30:472-479
109. Margolis T, Irvine AR, Hoyt WF, Hyman R. Acute retinal necrosis syndrome presenting with papillitis and arcuate neuroretinitis. Ophthalmology 1988;95:937-940
110. Rahhal FM, Siegel LM, Russak V, et al. Clinicopathologic correlations in acute retinal necrosis caused by herpes simplex virus type 2. Arch Ophthalmol 1996;114:1416-1419
111. Ganatra JB, Chandler D, Santos C, et al. Viral causes of the acute retinal necrosis syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol 2000; in press
112. Engstrom REJ, Holland GN, Margolis TP, et al. The progressive outer retinal necrosis syndrome. A variant of necrotizing herpetic retinopathy in patients with AIDS. Ophthalmology 1994;101:1488-1502
113. Dawson CR. The Herpetic Eye Disease Study (editorial). Arch Ophthalmol 1990;108: 191-192
114. Dawson CR, Jones DB, Kaufman HE, et al. Design and organization of the herpetic eye disease study (HEDS). Curr Eye Res 1991;10(suppl):105-110
115. Langston DP, Dunkel EC. A rapid clinical diagnostic test for herpes simplex infectious keratitis. Am J Ophthalmol 1989;107:675-677
116. Kaufman HE. The diagnosis of corneal herpes simplex infection by fluorescent antibody staining. Arch Ophthalmol 1960;64:382-384
117. Corey L. Laboratory diagnosis of herpes simplex virus infections. Principles guiding the development of rapid diagnostic tests. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1986;4:111S-119S
118. Moseley RC, Corey L, Benjamin D, et al. Comparison of viral isolation, direct immunofluorescence, and indirect immunoperoxidase techniques for detection of genital herpes simplex virus infection. J Clin Microbiol 1981;13:913-918
119. Landry ML, Mayo DR, Hsiung GD. Comparison of guinea pig embryo cells, rabbit kidney cells, and human embryonic lung fibroblast cell strains for isolation of herpes simplex virus. J Clin Microbiol 1982;15:842-847
120. Lee SF, Storch GA, Reed CA, et al. Comparative laboratory diagnosis of experimental herpes simplex keratitis. Am J Ophthalmol 1990;109:8-12
121. Brooks SE, Kaza V, Nakamura T, Trousdale MD. Photoinactivation of herpes simplex virus by rose bengal and fluorescein. In vitro and in vivo studies. Cornea 1994;13:43-50
122. Roat MI, Romanowski E, Araullo-Cruz T, Gordon YJ. The antiviral effects of rose bengal and fluorescein. Arch Ophthalmol 1987;105:1415-1417
123. Solomon AR, Rasmussen JE, Varani J, Pierson CL. The Tzanck smear in the diagnosis of cutaneous herpes simplex. JAMA 1984;251:633-635
124. Solomon AR. New diagnostic tests for herpes simplex and varicella zoster infections. J Am Acad Dermatol 1988;18:218-221
125. Bader C, Crumpacker CS, Schnipper LE, et al. The natural history of recurrent facial-oral infection with herpes simplex virus. J Infect Dis 1978;138:897-905
126. Dawson C, Togni B, Moore TEJ, Coleman V. Herpesvirus infection of human mesodermal tissue (cornea) detected by electron microscopy. Nature 1968;217:460-462
127. Rummelt V, Folberg R, Rummelt C, et al. Bilateral herpes simplex virus type 2 keratitis: a clinicopathologic report with immunohistochemical and ultrastructural observations. Ger J Ophthalmol 1995;4:116-122
128. Witmer R, Iwamoto T. Electron microscope observation of herpes-like particles in the iris. Arch Ophthalmol 1968;79:331-337
129. Yamamoto S, Shimomura Y, Kinoshita S, et al. Detection of herpes simplex virus DNA in human tear film by the polymerase chain reaction. Am J Ophthalmol 1994;117: 160-163
130. Koizumi N, Nishida K, Adachi W, et al. Detection of herpes simplex virus DNA in atypical epithelial keratitis using polymerase chain reaction. Br J Ophthalmol 1999; 83:957-960
131. Alvarado JA, Underwood JL, Green WR, et al. Detection of herpes simplex viral DNA in the iridocorneal endothelial syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol 1994;112:1601-1609
132. Mietz H, Cassinotti P, Siegl G, et al. Detection of herpes simplex virus after penetrating keratoplasty by polymerase chain reaction: correlation of clinical and laboratory findings. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 1995;233:714-716
133. Luyendijk L, Horn GJ, Visser OH, et al. Detection of locally produced antibodies to herpes viruses in the aqueous of patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) or acute retinal necrosis syndrome (ARN). Curr Eye Res 1990;9(suppl):7-11
134. Fox GM, Grouse CA, Chuang EL, et al. Detection of herpesvirus DNA in vitreous and aqueous specimens by the polymerase chain reaction. Arch Ophthalmol 1991;109: 266-271
135. Ohashi Y, Yamamoto S, Nishida R, et al. Demonstration of herpes simplex virus DNA in idiopathic corneal endotheliopathy. Am J Ophthalmol 1991;112:419-423
136. Elkins BS, Holland GN, Opremcak EM, et al. Ocular toxoplasmosis misdiagnosed as cytomegalovirus retinopathy in immunocompromised patients. Ophthalmology 1994; 101:499-507
137. Mendelsohn AD, Jampol LM. Syphilitic retinitis. A cause of necrotizing retinitis. Retina 1984;4:221-224
138. Cubillan LD, Cubillan EA, Berger TG, et al. Syphilitic uveitis and dermatitis. Arch Ophthalmol 1998;116:696-697
139. Freeman WR, Thomas EL, Rao NA, et al. Demonstration of herpes group virus in acute retinal necrosis syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol 1986;102:701-709
140. Freeman WR, Stern WH, Gross JG, et al. Pathologic observations made by retinal biopsy. Retina 1990;10:195-204
141. Abe T, Tsuchida K, Tamai M. A comparative study of the polymerase chain reaction and local antibody production in acute retinal necrosis syndrome and cytomegalovirus retinitis. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 1996;234:419-424
142. Altamirano D, Rochat C, Claeys M, Herbort CP. Acute retinal necrosis: a result of immune dysfunction? Report of a case with subacute evolution and relapses in a patient with impaired cellular immunity. Ophthalmologica 1994;208:49-53
143. de Boer JH, Luyendijk L, Rothova A, et al. Detection of intraocular antibody production to herpesviruses in acute retinal necrosis syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol 1994;117: 201-210
144. Pepose JS, Flowers B, Stewart JA, et al. Herpesvirus antibody levels in the etiologic diagnosis of the acute retinal necrosis syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol 1992;113:248-256
145. Schlingemann RO, Bruinenberg M, Wertheim-van DP, Feron E. Twenty years' delay of fellow eye involvement in herpes simplex virus type 2-associated bilateral acute retinal necrosis syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol 1996;122:891-892
146. Nishi M, Hanashiro R, Mori S, et al. Polymerase chain reaction for the detection of the varicella-zoster genome in ocular samples from patients with acute retinal necrosis. Am J Ophthalmol 1992;114:603-609
147. Mitchell SM, Fox JD, Tedder RS, et al. Vitreous fluid sampling and viral genome detection for the diagnosis of viral retinitis in patients with AIDS. J Med Virol 1994; 43:336-340
148. Short GA, Margolis TP, Kuppermann BD, et al. A polymerase chain reaction-based assay for diagnosing varicella-zoster virus retinitis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol 1997;123:157-164
149. Thygeson P, Hogan MJ, Kimura SJ. The unfavorable effect of topical steroid therapy on herpetic keratitis. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 1960;58:245-262
150. Kimura SJ, Diaz-Bonnet V, Okumoto M, Hogan MJ. The effect of corticostcroid hormones on experimental herpes simplex keratitis. A clinical, histopathologic and histochemical study. Am J Ophthalmol 1961;51:73-76
151. Kibrick S, Takahashi GH, Leibowitz HM, Laibson PR. Local corticosteroid therapy and reactivation of herpetic keratitis. Arch Ophthalmol 1971;86:694-698
152. Schaeffer HJ, Beauchamp L, de Miranda P, et al. 9-(2-hydroxyethoxymethyl) guanine activity against viruses of the herpes group. Nature 1978;272:583-585
153. Jones BR, Coster DJ, Fison PN, et al. Efficacy of acycloguanosine (Wellcome 248U) against herpes-simplex corneal ulcers. Lancet 1979;1:243-244
154. Colin I, Hoh HB, Easty DL, et al. Ganciclovir ophthalmic gel (Virgan; 0.15%) in the treatment of herpes simplex keratitis. Cornea 1997;16:393-399
155. Hung SO, Patterson A, Rees PJ. Pharmacokinetics of oral acyclovir (Zovirax) in the eye. Br J Ophthalmol 1984;68:192-195
156. Collum LM, Akhtar J, McGettrick P. Oral acyclovir in herpetic keratitis. Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K 1985;104:629-632
157. Herpetic Eye Disease Study Group. A controlled trial of oral acyclovir for iridocyclitis caused by herpes simplex virus. Arch Ophthalmol 1996;114:1065-1072
158. Wilhelmus KR, Gee L, Hauck WW, et al. Herpetic Eye Disease Study. A controlled trial of topical corticosteroids for herpes simplex stromal keratitis. Ophthalmology 1994; 101:1883-1895
159. Wand M, Gilbert CM, Liesegang TJ. Latanoprost and herpes simplex keratitis. Am J Ophthalmol 1999;127:602-604
160. Straus SE, Ostrove JM, Inchauspe G, et al. NIH conference. Varicella-zoster virus infections. Biology, natural history, treatment, and prevention. Ann Intern Med 1988; 108:221-237
161. Donahue JG, Choo PW, Manson JE, Platt R. The incidence of herpes zoster. Arch Intern Med 1995;155:1605-1609
162. Guess HA, Broughton DD, Melton LJ, Kurland LT. Epidemiology of herpes zoster in children and adolescents: a population-based study. Pediatrics 1985;76:512-517
163. Ragozzino MW, Melton LJ, Kurland LT, et al. Population-based study of herpes zoster and its sequelae. Medicine 1982;61:310-316
164. Harding SP, Lipton JR, Wells JC. Natural history of herpes zoster ophthalmicus: predictors of postherpetic neuralgia and ocular involvement. Br J Ophthalmol 1987;71: 353-358
165. Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Prevention of varicella. Updated recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1999;48(No.RR-6):1-5
166. CDC. Varicella-related deaths among children - United States, 1997. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1998;47:365-368
167. Lambert SR, Taylor D, Kriss A, et al. Ocular manifestations of the congenital varicella syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol 1989;107:52-56
168. Womack LW, Liesegang TJ. Complications of herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Arch Ophthalmol 1983;101:42-45
169. Edgerton AE. Herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Report of cases and review of the literature. Arch Ophthalmol 1945;34:40-153
170. Thygeson P. The changing characteristics of herpes zoster keratonveitis. In: Transactions of the Annual Meeting of the Pacific Coast Otoophthalmology Society, Vol 55. 1974:129-136
171. Marsh RJ, Cooper M. Ophthalmic herpes zoster. Eye 1993;7:350-370
172. Liesegang TJ. Corneal complications from herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Ophthalmology 1985;92:316-324
173. Schwab IR. Herpes zoster sine herpete. A potential cause of iridoplegic granulomatous iridocyclitis. Ophthalmology 1997;104:1421-1425
174. Silverstein BE, Chandler D, Neger R, Margolis TP. Disciform keratitis: a case of herpes zoster sine herpete. Am J Ophthalmol 1997;123:254-255
175. Stavrou P, Mitchell SM, Fox JD, et al. Detection of varicella-zoster virus DNA in ocular samples from patients with uveitis but no cutaneous eruption. Eye 1994;8:684-687
176. Yamamoto S, Tada R, Shimomura Y, et al. Detecting varicella-zoster virus DNA in iridocyclitis using polymerase chain reaction: a case of zoster sine herpete (letter). Arch Ophthalmol 1995;113:1358-1359
177. Ross JVM. Herpes zoster ophthalmicus sine eruptione. Arch Ophthalmol 1949;42: 808-812
178. Hutchinson J. A clinical report on herpes zoster frontalis seu ophthalmicus (shingles affecting the forehead and nose). R Lond Ophthal Hosp Rep J Ophthalmol Med Surg 1866;5:191-215
179. Cobo LM, Foulks GN, Liesegang T, et al. Oral acyclovir in the treatment of acute herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Ophthalmology 1986;93:763-770
180. Cobo LM. Corneal complications of herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Prevention and treatment. Cornea 1988;7:50-56
181. Mondino BJ, Brown SI, Mondzelewski JP. Peripheral corneal ulcers with herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Am J Ophthalmol 1978;86:611-614
182. Liesegang TJ. Diagnosis and therapy of herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Ophthalmology 1991;98:1216-1229
183. Margolis TP, Milner MS, Shama A, et al. Herpes zoster ophthalmicus in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am J Ophthalmol 1998;125:285-291
184. Chern KC, Conrad D, Holland CN, et al. Chronic varicella-zoster virus epithelial keratitis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol 1998;116:1011-1017
185. Pavan-Langston D, McCulley JP. Herpes zoster dendritic keratitis. Arch Ophthalmol 1973;89:25-29
186. Marsh RJ, Fraunfelder FT, McGill JI. Herpetic corneal epithelial disease. Arch Ophthalmol 1976;94:1899-1902
187. Piebenga LW, Laibson PR. Dendritic lesions in herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Arch Ophthalmol 1973;90:268-270
188. Pavan-Langston D, Yamamoto S, Dunkel EC. Delayed herpes zoster pseudodendrites. Polymerase chain reaction detection of viral DNA and a role for antiviral therapy. Arch Ophthalmol 1995;113:1381-1385
189. Cobo M, Foulks GN, Liesegang T, et al. Observations on the natural history of herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Curr Eye Res 1987;6:195-199
190. Reijo A, Antti V, Jukka M. Endothelial cell loss in herpes zoster keratouveitis. Br J Ophthalmol 1983;67:751-754
191. Chatzistefanou K, Markomichelakis NN, Christen W, et al. Characteristics of uveitis presenting for the first time in the elderly. Ophthalmology 1998;105:347-352
192. Hedges TR, Albert DM. The progression of the ocular abnormalities of herpes zoster. Histopathologic observations of nine cases. Ophthalmology 1982;89:165-177
193. Burke BL, Steele RW, Beard OW, et al. Immune responses to varicella-zoster in the aged. Arch Intern Med 1982;142:291-293
194. Naumann G, Gass JD, Font RL. Histopathology of herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Am J Ophthalmol 1968;65:533-541
195. Watson PG, Hayreh SS. Scleritis and episcleritis. Br J Ophthalmol 1976;60:163-191
196. Hemady R, Sainz DLM, Raizman MB, Foster CS. Six cases of scleritis associated with systemic infection. Am J Ophthalmol 1992;114:55-62
197. Riono WP, Hidayat AA, Rao NA. Scleritis: a clinicopathologic study of 55 cases. Ophthalmology 1999;106:1328-1333
198. Livir-Rallatos C, El-Shabrawi Y, Zatirakis P, et al. Recurrent nodular scleritis associated with varicella zoster virus. Am J Ophthalmol 1998;126:594-597
199. Culbertson WW, Blumenkranz MS, Pepose JS, et al. Varicella zoster virus is a cause of the acute retinal necrosis syndrome. Ophthalmology 1986;93:559-569
200. Matsuo T, Koyama M, Matsuo N. Acute retinal necrosis as a novel complication of chickenpox in adults. Br J Ophthalmol 1990;74:443-444
201. Copenhaver RM. Chickenpox with retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1966;75:199-200
202. Browning DJ, Blumenkranz MS, Culbertson WW, et al. Association of varicella zoster dermatitis with acute retinal necrosis syndrome. Ophthalmology 1987;94:602-606
203. Yeo JH, Pepose JS, Stewart JA, et al. Acute retinal necrosis syndrome following herpes zoster dermatitis. Ophthalmology 1986;93:1418-1422
204. Forster DJ, Dugel PU, Frangieh GT, et al. Rapidly progressive outer retinal necrosis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol 1990;110:341-348
205. Margolis TP, Lowder CY, Holland GN, et al. Varicella-zoster virus retinitis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol 1991;112:119-131
206. Solomon AR, Rasmussen JE, Weiss JS. A comparison of the Tzanck smear and viral isolation in varicella and herpes zoster. Arch Dermatol 1986;122:282-285
207. Mietz H, Eis-Hubinger AM, Sundmacher R, Font RL. Detection of varicella-zoster virus DNA in keratectomy specimens by use of the polymerase chain reaction. Arch Ophthalmol 1997;115:590-594
208. Tyring S, Barbarash RA, Nahlik JE, et al. Famciclovir for the treatment of acute herpes zoster: effects on acute disease and postherpetic neuralgia. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Collaborative Famciclovir Herpes Zoster Study Group. Ann Intern Med 1995;123:89-96
209. Beutner KR, Friedman DJ, Forszpaniak C, et al. Valaciclovir compared with acyclovir for improved therapy for herpes zoster in immunocompetent adults. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995;39:1546-1553
210. Wood MJ, Ogan PH, McKendrick MW, et al. Efficacy of oral acyclovir treatment of acute herpes zoster. Am J Med 1988;85:79-83
211. Cobo LM, Foulks GN, Liesegang T, et al. Oral acyclovir in the therapy of acute herpes zoster ophthalmicus. An interim report. Ophthalmology 1985;92;1574-1583
212. Herbort CP, Buechi ER, Piguet B, et al. High-dose oral acyclovir in acute herpes zoster ophthalmicus: the end of the corticosteroid era. Curr Eye Res 1991;10(suppl):171-175
213. Hoang-Xuan T, Buchi ER, Herbort CP, et al. Oral acyclovir for herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Ophthalmology 1992;99:1062-1070
214. Harding SP. Oral acyclovir in herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Eye 1995;9:390-392
215. Wood MJ, Johnson RW, McKendrick MW, et al. A randomized trial of acyclovir for 7 days or 21 days with and without prednisolone for treatment of acute herpes zoster. N Engl J Med 1994;330:896-900
216. Lambiase A, Rama P, Aloe L, Bonini S. Management of neurotrophic keratopathy. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 1999;10:270-276