Africans in the diaspora: The diaspora and Africa

African Affairs

Volumn 99, Issue 395, 2000, Pages 183-215

  Akyeampong, Emmanuel ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DIASPORA; POPULATION MIGRATION;

AFRICA;

EID: 0033924009     PISSN: 00019909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/afraf/99.395.183     Document Type: Article

References (202)

1. Joseph E. Harris, 'The dynamics of the global African diaspora', in Alusine Jalloh and Stephen E. Maizlish (eds), The African Diaspora (Texas A & M University Press, Arlington, TX, 1996), p. 7.
2. Joseph E. Harris (ed.), Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora (Howard University Press, Washington, DC, 1982).
3. William Safran, 'Diasporas in modern societies: myths of homeland and return', Diaspora, 1, 1 (1991), pp. 83-99.
4. Safran, 'Diasporas in modern societies', pp. 83-4.
5. James Clifford, 'Diasporas', Cultural Anthropology, 9, 3 (1994), pp. 305-6.
6. David Scott highlights how, in the interwar period, Afro-Americans reclaimed in various inflections - Garveyism, Pan-Africanism, the Harlem Renaissance - 'a past called Africa', and placed it 'in the foreground of their assertions of cultural identity and community'. David Scott, 'That event, this memory: notes on the anthropology of African diasporas in the New World', Diaspora, 1, 3 (1991), p. 273.
7. Clifford, 'Diasporas', p. 308.
8. Clifford, 'Diasporas', p. 311.
9. Connexions, 3, 1 (1991), pp. 2-3 (newsletter of the African Diaspora Research Project).
10. See, especially, Gerrie ter Haar, Halfway to Paradise: African Christians in Europe (Cardiff Academic Press, Cardiff, 1998).
11. C. A. Akrofi, Twi Mmebusεm: Twi proverbs with English translations and comments (Waterville Publishing House, Accra, n.d.), p. 60.
12. The celebration of 'triumphant' returns in Mande culture, or the myth of the homeland, is critically examined in Manthia Diawara, In Search of Africa (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1998).
13. Joseph Harris, 'Introduction', in Harris (ed.), Global Dimensions, pp. 8-9.
14. Here I endorse the distinction Clifford draws between 'diaspora' and 'travel'. Travel does not necessarily imply dwelling and maintaining communities away from home. But diaspora is serviced by travel: in its origination, in its continuing reinforcement by new arrivals, and in the maintenance of links between the diaspora and the homeland. Clifford, 'Diasporas'; and James Clifford, Routes: Travel and translation in the late twentieth century (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1997).
15. Philip Curtin, The Atlantic Slave Trade: A census (University of Wisconsin Press, Madison WI, 1969). The exact figure given by Curtin in 9.566 million people. Joseph Inikori (ed), Forced Migration: The impact of the export slave trade on African societies (Hutchinson, London, 1981) revises Curtin's estimates and argues for a higher figure of 15.4 million. Harris endorses Inikori's figures. Harris, 'Dynamics of the global African diaspora', p. 11.
16. Philip Curtin, The Atlantic Slave Trade: A census (University of Wisconsin Press, Madison WI, 1969). The exact figure given by Curtin in 9.566 million people. Joseph Inikori (ed), Forced Migration: The impact of the export slave trade on African societies (Hutchinson, London, 1981) revises Curtin's estimates and argues for a higher figure of 15.4 million. Harris endorses Inikori's figures. Harris, 'Dynamics of the global African diaspora', p. 11.
17. Philip Curtin, The Atlantic Slave Trade: A census (University of Wisconsin Press, Madison WI, 1969). The exact figure given by Curtin in 9.566 million people. Joseph Inikori (ed), Forced Migration: The impact of the export slave trade on African societies (Hutchinson, London, 1981) revises Curtin's estimates and argues for a higher figure of 15.4 million. Harris endorses Inikori's figures. Harris, 'Dynamics of the global African diaspora', p. 11.
18. Readers can consult the vast literature on the Atlantic slave trade and slavery in the New World. David Northrup, The Atlantic Slave Trade (D. C. Heath, Lexington, 1994) provides a useful compendium of excerpts from influential works on the Atlantic slave trade. Good studies of slavery in the Americas include Herbert Klein, African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1986); Stuart B. Schwartz, Slaves, Peasants, and Rebels: Reconsidering Brazilian slavery (University of Illinois Press, Urbana, IL, and Chicago, 1992); Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The rise of the planter class in English West Indies, 1624-1713 (W. W. Norton, New York, 1972); Robert William Fogel, Without Consent or Contract: The rise and fall of American slavery (Norton, New York, 1989); and David Eltis, The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000).
19. Readers can consult the vast literature on the Atlantic slave trade and slavery in the New World. David Northrup, The Atlantic Slave Trade (D. C. Heath, Lexington, 1994) provides a useful compendium of excerpts from influential works on the Atlantic slave trade. Good studies of slavery in the Americas include Herbert Klein, African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1986); Stuart B. Schwartz, Slaves, Peasants, and Rebels: Reconsidering Brazilian slavery (University of Illinois Press, Urbana, IL, and Chicago, 1992); Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The rise of the planter class in English West Indies, 1624-1713 (W. W. Norton, New York, 1972); Robert William Fogel, Without Consent or Contract: The rise and fall of American slavery (Norton, New York, 1989); and David Eltis, The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000).
20. Readers can consult the vast literature on the Atlantic slave trade and slavery in the New World. David Northrup, The Atlantic Slave Trade (D. C. Heath, Lexington, 1994) provides a useful compendium of excerpts from influential works on the Atlantic slave trade. Good studies of slavery in the Americas include Herbert Klein, African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1986); Stuart B. Schwartz, Slaves, Peasants, and Rebels: Reconsidering Brazilian slavery (University of Illinois Press, Urbana, IL, and Chicago, 1992); Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The rise of the planter class in English West Indies, 1624-1713 (W. W. Norton, New York, 1972); Robert William Fogel, Without Consent or Contract: The rise and fall of American slavery (Norton, New York, 1989); and David Eltis, The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000).
21. Readers can consult the vast literature on the Atlantic slave trade and slavery in the New World. David Northrup, The Atlantic Slave Trade (D. C. Heath, Lexington, 1994) provides a useful compendium of excerpts from influential works on the Atlantic slave trade. Good studies of slavery in the Americas include Herbert Klein, African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1986); Stuart B. Schwartz, Slaves, Peasants, and Rebels: Reconsidering Brazilian slavery (University of Illinois Press, Urbana, IL, and Chicago, 1992); Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The rise of the planter class in English West Indies, 1624-1713 (W. W. Norton, New York, 1972); Robert William Fogel, Without Consent or Contract: The rise and fall of American slavery (Norton, New York, 1989); and David Eltis, The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000).
22. Readers can consult the vast literature on the Atlantic slave trade and slavery in the New World. David Northrup, The Atlantic Slave Trade (D. C. Heath, Lexington, 1994) provides a useful compendium of excerpts from influential works on the Atlantic slave trade. Good studies of slavery in the Americas include Herbert Klein, African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1986); Stuart B. Schwartz, Slaves, Peasants, and Rebels: Reconsidering Brazilian slavery (University of Illinois Press, Urbana, IL, and Chicago, 1992); Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The rise of the planter class in English West Indies, 1624-1713 (W. W. Norton, New York, 1972); Robert William Fogel, Without Consent or Contract: The rise and fall of American slavery (Norton, New York, 1989); and David Eltis, The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000).
23. Readers can consult the vast literature on the Atlantic slave trade and slavery in the New World. David Northrup, The Atlantic Slave Trade (D. C. Heath, Lexington, 1994) provides a useful compendium of excerpts from influential works on the Atlantic slave trade. Good studies of slavery in the Americas include Herbert Klein, African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1986); Stuart B. Schwartz, Slaves, Peasants, and Rebels: Reconsidering Brazilian slavery (University of Illinois Press, Urbana, IL, and Chicago, 1992); Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The rise of the planter class in English West Indies, 1624-1713 (W. W. Norton, New York, 1972); Robert William Fogel, Without Consent or Contract: The rise and fall of American slavery (Norton, New York, 1989); and David Eltis, The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000).
24. Philip D. Curtin, The Rise and Fall of the Plantation Complex (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990) and Sidney W. Mintz, Sweetness and Power: The place of sugar in modern history (Penguin Books, New York, 1985).
25. Philip D. Curtin, The Rise and Fall of the Plantation Complex (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990) and Sidney W. Mintz, Sweetness and Power: The place of sugar in modern history (Penguin Books, New York, 1985).
26. Hans W. Debrunner, Presence and Prestige: Africans in Europe (Basler Afrika Bibliographien, Basel, 1979), pp. 17-32.
27. Folarin Shyllon, 'Blacks in Britain: a historical and analytical overview', in Harris (ed.), Global Dimensions, p. 171.
28. Shyllon, 'Blacks in Britain', p. 171.
29. Shyllon, 'Blacks in Britain', pp. 172-7. On the early history of Africans in Britain, see also Peter Fryer, Staying Power: The history of black people in Britain (Pluto, London, 1984) and David Killingray, 'Africans in the United Kingdom: an introduction', in David Killingray (ed.), Africans in Britain (Frank Cass, Ilford, 1994), pp. 2-4.
30. Shyllon, 'Blacks in Britain', pp. 172-7. On the early history of Africans in Britain, see also Peter Fryer, Staying Power: The history of black people in Britain (Pluto, London, 1984) and David Killingray, 'Africans in the United Kingdom: an introduction', in David Killingray (ed.), Africans in Britain (Frank Cass, Ilford, 1994), pp. 2-4.
31. Shyllon, 'Blacks in Britain', pp. 172-7. On the early history of Africans in Britain, see also Peter Fryer, Staying Power: The history of black people in Britain (Pluto, London, 1984) and David Killingray, 'Africans in the United Kingdom: an introduction', in David Killingray (ed.), Africans in Britain (Frank Cass, Ilford, 1994), pp. 2-4.
32. Harris, 'Dynamics of the global African diaspora', p. 10.
33. See, for example, Daniel Pipes, Slave Soldiers and Islam: The genesis of a military system (Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, 1981).
34. Ralph Austen, African Economic History (James Currey, London, 1987), ch. 2.
35. Joseph E. Harris, The African Presence in Asia: Consequences of the East African slave trade (Northwestern University Press, Evanston, IL, 1971); Edward Alpers, 'The African diaspora in the Northwest Indian Ocean: reconsideration of an old problem, new directions for research', Comparative Studies in South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 17, 2 (1997), pp. 61-80 and 'Recollecting Africa: diasporic memory in the Indian Ocean world', African Studies Review, forthcoming.
36. Joseph E. Harris, The African Presence in Asia: Consequences of the East African slave trade (Northwestern University Press, Evanston, IL, 1971); Edward Alpers, 'The African diaspora in the Northwest Indian Ocean: reconsideration of an old problem, new directions for research', Comparative Studies in South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 17, 2 (1997), pp. 61-80 and 'Recollecting Africa: diasporic memory in the Indian Ocean world', African Studies Review, forthcoming.
37. Joseph E. Harris, The African Presence in Asia: Consequences of the East African slave trade (Northwestern University Press, Evanston, IL, 1971); Edward Alpers, 'The African diaspora in the Northwest Indian Ocean: reconsideration of an old problem, new directions for research', Comparative Studies in South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 17, 2 (1997), pp. 61-80 and 'Recollecting Africa: diasporic memory in the Indian Ocean world', African Studies Review, forthcoming.
38. Alpers, 'Recollecting Africa'.
39. Alpers, 'African diaspora in the Northwest Indian Ocean'.
40. Ralph Austen, 'The 19th century Islamic slave trade from East Africa (Swahili and Red Sea Coasts): a tentative census', in William Gervase Clarence-Smith (ed.), The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century (Frank Cass, London, 1989), pp. 21-44.
41. Harris, African Presence in Asia, pp. 34-5.
42. Harris, African Presence in Asia, ch.6.
43. Pashington Obeng, 'The wood belongs to us too: Afro-Indians of Karnataka,' Renewal (August 1998), pp. 3-5.
44. See, for example, George Brooks, The Kru Mariner in the Nineteenth Century: An historical compendium (University of Delaware Press, Newark, 1972); Robert Smith, 'The canoe in West African history', Journal of African History, 11, 4 (1970), pp. 513-33; Robin Law, The Slave Coast of West Africa 1550-1750: The impact of the Atlantic slave trade on African society (Clarendon, Oxford, 1991); and C. W. Gutkind, 'Trade and labour in early precolonial African history: the canoemen of southern Ghana', in Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch and Paul Lovejoy (eds), The Workers of African Trade (Sage, Beverley Hills, CA, 1985), pp. 25-49.
45. See, for example, George Brooks, The Kru Mariner in the Nineteenth Century: An historical compendium (University of Delaware Press, Newark, 1972); Robert Smith, 'The canoe in West African history', Journal of African History, 11, 4 (1970), pp. 513-33; Robin Law, The Slave Coast of West Africa 1550-1750: The impact of the Atlantic slave trade on African society (Clarendon, Oxford, 1991); and C. W. Gutkind, 'Trade and labour in early precolonial African history: the canoemen of southern Ghana', in Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch and Paul Lovejoy (eds), The Workers of African Trade (Sage, Beverley Hills, CA, 1985), pp. 25-49.
46. See, for example, George Brooks, The Kru Mariner in the Nineteenth Century: An historical compendium (University of Delaware Press, Newark, 1972); Robert Smith, 'The canoe in West African history', Journal of African History, 11, 4 (1970), pp. 513-33; Robin Law, The Slave Coast of West Africa 1550-1750: The impact of the Atlantic slave trade on African society (Clarendon, Oxford, 1991); and C. W. Gutkind, 'Trade and labour in early precolonial African history: the canoemen of southern Ghana', in Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch and Paul Lovejoy (eds), The Workers of African Trade (Sage, Beverley Hills, CA, 1985), pp. 25-49.
47. See, for example, George Brooks, The Kru Mariner in the Nineteenth Century: An historical compendium (University of Delaware Press, Newark, 1972); Robert Smith, 'The canoe in West African history', Journal of African History, 11, 4 (1970), pp. 513-33; Robin Law, The Slave Coast of West Africa 1550-1750: The impact of the Atlantic slave trade on African society (Clarendon, Oxford, 1991); and C. W. Gutkind, 'Trade and labour in early precolonial African history: the canoemen of southern Ghana', in Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch and Paul Lovejoy (eds), The Workers of African Trade (Sage, Beverley Hills, CA, 1985), pp. 25-49.
48. Good studies on Euro-African commerce and society along the West African coast include Margaret Priestley, West African Trade and Coastal Society (Oxford University Press, London, 1969) and George Brooks, 'The Signares of Saint-Louis and Gorée: women entrepreneurs in eighteenth century Senegal', in Nancy J. Hafkin and Edna Bay (eds), Women in Africa: Studies in social and economic change (Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA, 1976).
49. Good studies on Euro-African commerce and society along the West African coast include Margaret Priestley, West African Trade and Coastal Society (Oxford University Press, London, 1969) and George Brooks, 'The Signares of Saint-Louis and Gorée: women entrepreneurs in eighteenth century Senegal', in Nancy J. Hafkin and Edna Bay (eds), Women in Africa: Studies in social and economic change (Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA, 1976).
50. Shyllon, 'Blacks in Britain', pp. 171-72.
51. Law, Slave Coast of West Africa, p. 124.
52. Ray A. Kea 'Modernity, African narratives, and social identity in the eighteenth century Atlantic world' (Paper presented at the African Studies Association Annual Conference, Chicago, 1998), p. 13.
53. Kea, 'Modernity, African narratives and social identity', pp. 12-13.
54. Kea, 'Modernity, African narratives and social identity'; Marilyn Sephocle, 'Anton Wilhelm Amo,' Journal of Black Studies, 23, 2 (1992), pp. 182-7; and Magnus Sampson, Makers of Modern Ghana, vol. 1 (Anowuo Educational Publications, Accra, 1969), pp. 37-43.
55. Kea, 'Modernity, African narratives and social identity'; Marilyn Sephocle, 'Anton Wilhelm Amo,' Journal of Black Studies, 23, 2 (1992), pp. 182-7; and Magnus Sampson, Makers of Modern Ghana, vol. 1 (Anowuo Educational Publications, Accra, 1969), pp. 37-43.
56. Kea, 'Modernity, African narratives and social identity'; Marilyn Sephocle, 'Anton Wilhelm Amo,' Journal of Black Studies, 23, 2 (1992), pp. 182-7; and Magnus Sampson, Makers of Modern Ghana, vol. 1 (Anowuo Educational Publications, Accra, 1969), pp. 37-43.
57. Claude Meillassoux, The Anthropology of Slavery: The womb of iron and gold (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1991), p. 145.
58. Meillassoux, Anthropology of Slavery, pp. 146-7.
59. See Ivor Wilks, 'Wangara, Akan, and the Portuguese in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries', in Ivor Wilks, Forests of Gold (Ohio University Press, Athens, OH, 1993), pp. 1-39; Paul Lovejoy, 'The role of the Wangarawa in Central Sudan', Journal of African History, 19, 2 (1978), pp. 173-93; and François Manchuelle, Willing Migrants: Soninke labour diasporas, 1848-1960 (James Currey, Oxford, 1997).
60. See Ivor Wilks, 'Wangara, Akan, and the Portuguese in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries', in Ivor Wilks, Forests of Gold (Ohio University Press, Athens, OH, 1993), pp. 1-39; Paul Lovejoy, 'The role of the Wangarawa in Central Sudan', Journal of African History, 19, 2 (1978), pp. 173-93; and François Manchuelle, Willing Migrants: Soninke labour diasporas, 1848-1960 (James Currey, Oxford, 1997).
61. See Ivor Wilks, 'Wangara, Akan, and the Portuguese in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries', in Ivor Wilks, Forests of Gold (Ohio University Press, Athens, OH, 1993), pp. 1-39; Paul Lovejoy, 'The role of the Wangarawa in Central Sudan', Journal of African History, 19, 2 (1978), pp. 173-93; and François Manchuelle, Willing Migrants: Soninke labour diasporas, 1848-1960 (James Currey, Oxford, 1997).
62. Paul Lovejoy, Caravans of Kola: The Hausa kola trade 1700-1900 (Ahmadu Bello University Press, Zaria, 1980) and Alusine Jalloh, 'The Fula trading diaspora in colonial Sierra Leone', in Jalloh and Maizlish, African Diaspora, pp. 22-38.
63. Paul Lovejoy, Caravans of Kola: The Hausa kola trade 1700-1900 (Ahmadu Bello University Press, Zaria, 1980) and Alusine Jalloh, 'The Fula trading diaspora in colonial Sierra Leone', in Jalloh and Maizlish, African Diaspora, pp. 22-38.
64. See, especially, Manchuelle, Willing Migrants.
65. Early works include E. Franklin Frazier, 'The Negro in Bahia, Brazil', American Sociological Review, 7 (1942), pp. 465-78; Lorenzo Turner, 'Some contacts of Brazilian ex-slaves with Nigeria, West Africa', Journal of Negro History, 27 (1942), pp. 55-67; and Melville Herskovits, The Myth of the Negro Past (Beacon Press, Boston, MA, 1941). For a review of this literature, see Tiffany Ruby Patterson and Robin D. G. Kelley, 'Unfinished migrations: reflections on the African diaspora and the making of the modern world', African Studies Review, forthcoming.
66. Early works include E. Franklin Frazier, 'The Negro in Bahia, Brazil', American Sociological Review, 7 (1942), pp. 465-78; Lorenzo Turner, 'Some contacts of Brazilian ex-slaves with Nigeria, West Africa', Journal of Negro History, 27 (1942), pp. 55-67; and Melville Herskovits, The Myth of the Negro Past (Beacon Press, Boston, MA, 1941). For a review of this literature, see Tiffany Ruby Patterson and Robin D. G. Kelley, 'Unfinished migrations: reflections on the African diaspora and the making of the modern world', African Studies Review, forthcoming.
67. Early works include E. Franklin Frazier, 'The Negro in Bahia, Brazil', American Sociological Review, 7 (1942), pp. 465-78; Lorenzo Turner, 'Some contacts of Brazilian ex-slaves with Nigeria, West Africa', Journal of Negro History, 27 (1942), pp. 55-67; and Melville Herskovits, The Myth of the Negro Past (Beacon Press, Boston, MA, 1941). For a review of this literature, see Tiffany Ruby Patterson and Robin D. G. Kelley, 'Unfinished migrations: reflections on the African diaspora and the making of the modern world', African Studies Review, forthcoming.
68. Early works include E. Franklin Frazier, 'The Negro in Bahia, Brazil', American Sociological Review, 7 (1942), pp. 465-78; Lorenzo Turner, 'Some contacts of Brazilian ex-slaves with Nigeria, West Africa', Journal of Negro History, 27 (1942), pp. 55-67; and Melville Herskovits, The Myth of the Negro Past (Beacon Press, Boston, MA, 1941). For a review of this literature, see Tiffany Ruby Patterson and Robin D. G. Kelley, 'Unfinished migrations: reflections on the African diaspora and the making of the modern world', African Studies Review, forthcoming.
69. See, for example, João J. Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim uprising of 1835 in Bahia (Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD, 1993); Schwartz, Slaves, Peasants, and Rebels; Dale T. Graden, ' "This city has too many slaves joined together": the abolitionists crisis in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil, 1848-1856', in Jalloh and Maizlish (eds), African Diaspora, pp. 134-52; and John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World 1400-1680 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992), Part II.
70. See, for example, João J. Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim uprising of 1835 in Bahia (Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD, 1993); Schwartz, Slaves, Peasants, and Rebels; Dale T. Graden, ' "This city has too many slaves joined together": the abolitionists crisis in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil, 1848-1856', in Jalloh and Maizlish (eds), African Diaspora, pp. 134-52; and John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World 1400-1680 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992), Part II.
71. See, for example, João J. Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim uprising of 1835 in Bahia (Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD, 1993); Schwartz, Slaves, Peasants, and Rebels; Dale T. Graden, ' "This city has too many slaves joined together": the abolitionists crisis in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil, 1848-1856', in Jalloh and Maizlish (eds), African Diaspora, pp. 134-52; and John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World 1400-1680 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992), Part II.
72. See, for example, João J. Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim uprising of 1835 in Bahia (Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD, 1993); Schwartz, Slaves, Peasants, and Rebels; Dale T. Graden, ' "This city has too many slaves joined together": the abolitionists crisis in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil, 1848-1856', in Jalloh and Maizlish (eds), African Diaspora, pp. 134-52; and John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World 1400-1680 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992), Part II.
73. See, for example, Robert Farris Thompson, Flash of the Spirit: African and Afro-American art and philosophy (Random House, New York, 1983); George Brandon, Santeria from Africa to the New World (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1993) and Sandra T. Barnes (ed.), Africa's Ogun: Old world and new (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1997).
74. See, for example, Robert Farris Thompson, Flash of the Spirit: African and Afro-American art and philosophy (Random House, New York, 1983); George Brandon, Santeria from Africa to the New World (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1993) and Sandra T. Barnes (ed.), Africa's Ogun: Old world and new (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1997).
75. See, for example, Robert Farris Thompson, Flash of the Spirit: African and Afro-American art and philosophy (Random House, New York, 1983); George Brandon, Santeria from Africa to the New World (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1993) and Sandra T. Barnes (ed.), Africa's Ogun: Old world and new (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1997).
76. See, for example, Peter H. Wood, ' "It was a negro taught them": a look at African labour in early South Carolina', Journal of Asian and African Studies, 9, 3-4 (1974), pp. 160-79; Lawrence W. Levine, 'African culture and U.S. slavery,' in Harris (ed.), Global Dimensions, pp. 127-35; Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The development of Afro-Creole culture in the eighteenth century (Louisiana State University press, Baton Rouge, LA, 1992); and Jeffrey Bolster, Black Jacks: African American seamen in the age of sail (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1997).
77. See, for example, Peter H. Wood, ' "It was a negro taught them": a look at African labour in early South Carolina', Journal of Asian and African Studies, 9, 3-4 (1974), pp. 160-79; Lawrence W. Levine, 'African culture and U.S. slavery,' in Harris (ed.), Global Dimensions, pp. 127-35; Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The development of Afro-Creole culture in the eighteenth century (Louisiana State University press, Baton Rouge, LA, 1992); and Jeffrey Bolster, Black Jacks: African American seamen in the age of sail (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1997).
78. See, for example, Peter H. Wood, ' "It was a negro taught them": a look at African labour in early South Carolina', Journal of Asian and African Studies, 9, 3-4 (1974), pp. 160-79; Lawrence W. Levine, 'African culture and U.S. slavery,' in Harris (ed.), Global Dimensions, pp. 127-35; Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The development of Afro-Creole culture in the eighteenth century (Louisiana State University press, Baton Rouge, LA, 1992); and Jeffrey Bolster, Black Jacks: African American seamen in the age of sail (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1997).
79. See, for example, Peter H. Wood, ' "It was a negro taught them": a look at African labour in early South Carolina', Journal of Asian and African Studies, 9, 3-4 (1974), pp. 160-79; Lawrence W. Levine, 'African culture and U.S. slavery,' in Harris (ed.), Global Dimensions, pp. 127-35; Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The development of Afro-Creole culture in the eighteenth century (Louisiana State University press, Baton Rouge, LA, 1992); and Jeffrey Bolster, Black Jacks: African American seamen in the age of sail (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1997).
80. See, for example, Levine, 'African culture and U.S. slavery'; and John W. Blassingame, The Slave Community: Plantation life in the antebellum South (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1979).
81. Michael A. Gomez, Exchanging our Country Marks: The transformation of African identities in the colonial and antebellum South (University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC, 1998).
82. Alpers, 'African Diaspora in the Northwest Indian Ocean'.
83. Alpers, 'Recollecting Africa'.
84. Alpers, 'African Diaspora in the Northwest Indian Ocean'.
85. Harris, African Presence in Asia, p. 112.
86. Statesman (New Delhi), 28 January 1953. As cited in Harris, African Presence in Asia, p. 112.
87. Obeng, 'Afro-Indians of Karnataka'.
88. Alpers, 'Recollecting Africa'.
89. Philip Curtin, 'Ayuba Suleiman of Bondu', in Philip Curtin (ed.), Africa Remembered (University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI, 1967). Another liberated slave in the second half of the eighteenth century, Olaudah Equiano, became an active abolitionist in England. On his life, see Olaudah Equiano, Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano (Heinemann, Portsmouth, NH, 1996).
90. Philip Curtin, 'Ayuba Suleiman of Bondu', in Philip Curtin (ed.), Africa Remembered (University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI, 1967). Another liberated slave in the second half of the eighteenth century, Olaudah Equiano, became an active abolitionist in England. On his life, see Olaudah Equiano, Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano (Heinemann, Portsmouth, NH, 1996).
91. For a fascinating study of some of the dynamics of this reconnected link between the diaspora and Africa in the nineteenth century, see J. Lorand Matory, 'The English professors of Brazil: on the diasporic roots of the Yoruba nation,' Comparative Studies in Society and History, 41 1 (1999), pp. 72-103.
92. Robin W. Winks, The Blacks in Canada: A history (McGill-Queen's University Press, Montreal and Kingston, 1997), chs. 2-3.
93. Christopher Fyfe, A History of Sierra Leone (Oxford University Press, London, 1962); E. Frances White, Sierra Leone's Settler Women Traders: Women on the Afro-European frontier (University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI, 1987).
94. Christopher Fyfe, A History of Sierra Leone (Oxford University Press, London, 1962); E. Frances White, Sierra Leone's Settler Women Traders: Women on the Afro-European frontier (University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI, 1987).
95. Harris, African Presence in Asia, pp. 66-76.
96. A. J. Temu, 'The role of the Bombay Africans (liberated Africans) on the Mombasa Coast 1874-1904', Hadith, 3 (1971), pp. 52-81; and Harris, 'Comparative Approach', in Harris (ed.), Global Dimensions, pp. 117-22.
97. A. J. Temu, 'The role of the Bombay Africans (liberated Africans) on the Mombasa Coast 1874-1904', Hadith, 3 (1971), pp. 52-81; and Harris, 'Comparative Approach', in Harris (ed.), Global Dimensions, pp. 117-22.
98. Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil; Graden, 'Abolitionist crisis in Salvador'; and S. Y. Boadi-Siaw, 'Brazilian returnees of West Africa', in Harris (ed.), Global Dimensions, pp. 291-308.
99. Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil; Graden, 'Abolitionist crisis in Salvador'; and S. Y. Boadi-Siaw, 'Brazilian returnees of West Africa', in Harris (ed.), Global Dimensions, pp. 291-308.
100. Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil; Graden, 'Abolitionist crisis in Salvador'; and S. Y. Boadi-Siaw, 'Brazilian returnees of West Africa', in Harris (ed.), Global Dimensions, pp. 291-308.
101. Boadi-Siaw, 'Brazilian returnees of West Africa'.
102. The presence of European colonies in Africa predated the partition of the late nineteenth century. The Spaniards and the Portuguese had colonized the Atlantic islands of the Canaries, Madeira, Cape Verde, São Tomé, and Fernando Po in the fifteenth century and coastal Angola became a Portuguese colony in the sixteenth century. The Cape (South Africa) was annexed by the Dutch in 1652. The British declared Sierra Leone and Lagos as colonies in 1807 and 1861 respectively.
103. Hakim Adi, 'West African students in Britain, 1900-60: the politics of exile', in Killingray (ed.), Africans in Britain, pp. 107-8.
104. Diane Frost, 'Ethnic identity, transience and settlement: the Kru in Liverpool since the late nineteenth century', in Killingray (ed.), Africans in Britain, pp. 88-106.
105. D. Killingray, 'Introduction', in Killingray (ed.) Africans in Britain, p. 2.
106. Manchuelle, Willing Migrants.
107. Manchuelle, Willing Migrants.
108. On the colonial military, see Myron Echenberg, Colonial Conscripts: The Tirailleurs Sénégalais in French West Africa, 1857-1960 (Heinemann, Portsmouth, NH, 1991); Timothy H. Parsons, The African Rank-and-File: Social implications of colonial military service in the King's African Rifles, 1902-1964 (Heinemann, Portsmouth, NH, 1999).
109. On the colonial military, see Myron Echenberg, Colonial Conscripts: The Tirailleurs Sénégalais in French West Africa, 1857-1960 (Heinemann, Portsmouth, NH, 1991); Timothy H. Parsons, The African Rank-and-File: Social implications of colonial military service in the King's African Rifles, 1902-1964 (Heinemann, Portsmouth, NH, 1999).
110. See the special issue on the First World War in the Journal of African History, 19, 1 (1978).
111. Andrew Roberts, The Colonial Moment in Africa (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990), p. 16.
112. Basil Davidson, Modern Africa: A social and political history (Longman, London, 1989), p. 63.
113. David Killingray and Richard Rathbone, 'Introduction', in David Killingray and Richard Rathbone (eds), Africa and the Second World War (Macmillan, London, 1986), pp. 1-19.
114. Roger Lambo, 'Achtung! The Black Prince: West Africans in the Royal Air Force, 1939-1946', in Killingray (ed.), Africans in Britain, pp. 145-63. African-American soldiers were among the US troops stationed at US military bases in Germany after the Second World War. Germany's brief colonial contacts with Africa brought a few Africans to Germany. This population was enlarged through the presence of black soldiers in occupied Germany. Some soldiers married German women or had children with German women. On Afro- Germans, see Reinhold Grimm and Jost Hermand (eds), Blacks and German Culture (University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI, 1986); Carolyn Hodges, 'The private plural selves of Afro-German women and the search for a public voice', Journal of Black Studies, 23, 2 (1992), pp. 219-34. For an earlier black presence in Germany see Peter Martin, Schwarze Teufel, edle Mohren (Junius, Hamburg, 1993).
115. Roger Lambo, 'Achtung! The Black Prince: West Africans in the Royal Air Force, 1939-1946', in Killingray (ed.), Africans in Britain, pp. 145-63. African-American soldiers were among the US troops stationed at US military bases in Germany after the Second World War. Germany's brief colonial contacts with Africa brought a few Africans to Germany. This population was enlarged through the presence of black soldiers in occupied Germany. Some soldiers married German women or had children with German women. On Afro-Germans, see Reinhold Grimm and Jost Hermand (eds), Blacks and German Culture (University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI, 1986); Carolyn Hodges, 'The private plural selves of Afro-German women and the search for a public voice', Journal of Black Studies, 23, 2 (1992), pp. 219-34. For an earlier black presence in Germany see Peter Martin, Schwarze Teufel, edle Mohren (Junius, Hamburg, 1993).
116. Roger Lambo, 'Achtung! The Black Prince: West Africans in the Royal Air Force, 1939-1946', in Killingray (ed.), Africans in Britain, pp. 145-63. African-American soldiers were among the US troops stationed at US military bases in Germany after the Second World War. Germany's brief colonial contacts with Africa brought a few Africans to Germany. This population was enlarged through the presence of black soldiers in occupied Germany. Some soldiers married German women or had children with German women. On Afro- Germans, see Reinhold Grimm and Jost Hermand (eds), Blacks and German Culture (University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI, 1986); Carolyn Hodges, 'The private plural selves of Afro-German women and the search for a public voice', Journal of Black Studies, 23, 2 (1992), pp. 219-34. For an earlier black presence in Germany see Peter Martin, Schwarze Teufel, edle Mohren (Junius, Hamburg, 1993).
117. Roger Lambo, 'Achtung! The Black Prince: West Africans in the Royal Air Force, 1939-1946', in Killingray (ed.), Africans in Britain, pp. 145-63. African-American soldiers were among the US troops stationed at US military bases in Germany after the Second World War. Germany's brief colonial contacts with Africa brought a few Africans to Germany. This population was enlarged through the presence of black soldiers in occupied Germany. Some soldiers married German women or had children with German women. On Afro- Germans, see Reinhold Grimm and Jost Hermand (eds), Blacks and German Culture (University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI, 1986); Carolyn Hodges, 'The private plural selves of Afro-German women and the search for a public voice', Journal of Black Studies, 23, 2 (1992), pp. 219-34. For an earlier black presence in Germany see Peter Martin, Schwarze Teufel, edle Mohren (Junius, Hamburg, 1993).
118. Manchuelle, Willing Migrants, pp. 212-13; Gerne ter Haar, 'Strangers in the promised land, African Christians in Europe', Exchange, 24, 1 (1995), p. 3.
119. Manchuelle, Willing Migrants, pp. 212-13; Gerne ter Haar, 'Strangers in the promised land, African Christians in Europe', Exchange, 24, 1 (1995), p. 3.
120. Neil O. Leighton, 'The political economy of a stranger population: the Lebanese of Sierra Leone', in William A. Shack and Elliott P. Skinner (eds), Strangers in African Societies (University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1979), p. 86; White, Sierra Leone's Settler Women Traders, p. 63. On the Lebanese in Sierra Leone, see also H. Laurens van der Laan, The Lebanese Traders in Sierra Leone (Mouton Publishers, The Hague, 1975).
121. Neil O. Leighton, 'The political economy of a stranger population: the Lebanese of Sierra Leone', in William A. Shack and Elliott P. Skinner (eds), Strangers in African Societies (University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1979), p. 86; White, Sierra Leone's Settler Women Traders, p. 63. On the Lebanese in Sierra Leone, see also H. Laurens van der Laan, The Lebanese Traders in Sierra Leone (Mouton Publishers, The Hague, 1975).
122. Neil O. Leighton, 'The political economy of a stranger population: the Lebanese of Sierra Leone', in William A. Shack and Elliott P. Skinner (eds), Strangers in African Societies (University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1979), p. 86; White, Sierra Leone's Settler Women Traders, p. 63. On the Lebanese in Sierra Leone, see also H. Laurens van der Laan, The Lebanese Traders in Sierra Leone (Mouton Publishers, The Hague, 1975).
123. Toyin Falola, 'Lebanese traders in Southern Nigeria, 1900-1960', African Affairs, 89, 357 (1990), pp. 523-53; Chris Bierwirth, 'The Lebanese communities of Côte d'Ivoire', African Affairs, 98, 390 (1999), pp. 79-99. The Abdallah and Kriam families settled in Lomé and Keta (Gold Coast) in the early twentieth century. By the Second World War, Joseph Abdallah had emerged as a leading merchant and contractor in Keta. Interview with Joseph Kingsley Abdallah, Keta, 16 October 1996.
124. Toyin Falola, 'Lebanese traders in Southern Nigeria, 1900-1960', African Affairs, 89, 357 (1990), pp. 523-53; Chris Bierwirth, 'The Lebanese communities of Côte d'Ivoire', African Affairs, 98, 390 (1999), pp. 79-99. The Abdallah and Kriam families settled in Lomé and Keta (Gold Coast) in the early twentieth century. By the Second World War, Joseph Abdallah had emerged as a leading merchant and contractor in Keta. Interview with Joseph Kingsley Abdallah, Keta, 16 October 1996.
125. Toyin Falola, 'Lebanese traders in Southern Nigeria, 1900-1960', African Affairs, 89, 357 (1990), pp. 523-53; Chris Bierwirth, 'The Lebanese communities of Côte d'Ivoire', African Affairs, 98, 390 (1999), pp. 79-99. The Abdallah and Kriam families settled in Lomé and Keta (Gold Coast) in the early twentieth century. By the Second World War, Joseph Abdallah had emerged as a leading merchant and contractor in Keta. Interview with Joseph Kingsley Abdallah, Keta, 16 October 1996.
126. Falola, 'Lebanese traders', 529.
127. This common picture emerges from the available studies on the Lebanese in West Africa. See, for example, Leighton, 'Political economy of a stranger population'; White, Sierra Leone's Settler Women Traders; Falola, 'Lebanese traders'; Bierwirth, 'Lebanese communities'; and Said Boumedouha, 'Adjustment to West African realities: the Lebanese in Senegal', Africa, 60, 4 (1990), pp. 538-49.
128. This common picture emerges from the available studies on the Lebanese in West Africa. See, for example, Leighton, 'Political economy of a stranger population'; White, Sierra Leone's Settler Women Traders; Falola, 'Lebanese traders'; Bierwirth, 'Lebanese communities'; and Said Boumedouha, 'Adjustment to West African realities: the Lebanese in Senegal', Africa, 60, 4 (1990), pp. 538-49.
129. This common picture emerges from the available studies on the Lebanese in West Africa. See, for example, Leighton, 'Political economy of a stranger population'; White, Sierra Leone's Settler Women Traders; Falola, 'Lebanese traders'; Bierwirth, 'Lebanese communities'; and Said Boumedouha, 'Adjustment to West African realities: the Lebanese in Senegal', Africa, 60, 4 (1990), pp. 538-49.
130. This common picture emerges from the available studies on the Lebanese in West Africa. See, for example, Leighton, 'Political economy of a stranger population'; White, Sierra Leone's Settler Women Traders; Falola, 'Lebanese traders'; Bierwirth, 'Lebanese communities'; and Said Boumedouha, 'Adjustment to West African realities: the Lebanese in Senegal', Africa, 60, 4 (1990), pp. 538-49.
131. Falola, 'Lebanese traders', pp. 540-4.
132. Public Record Office, Kew, (PRO) CO 96/692/657. Evidence of Nana Prempeh, Kumasehene, Report of the 1930 Commission on Alcohol.
133. Leighton, 'Political economy of a stranger population', pp. 88-90; White, Sierra Leone's Settler Women Traders, pp. 69-70.
134. Leighton, 'Political economy of a stranger population', pp. 88-90; White, Sierra Leone's Settler Women Traders, pp. 69-70.
135. Ali Mazrui, 'Casualties of an underdeveloped class structure: the expulsion of Luo workers and Asian bourgeoisie from Uganda', in Shack and Skinner (eds), Strangers in African Societies, p. 261.
136. Bierwirth, 'Lebanese communities', pp. 91-2.
137. Leighton, 'Political economy of a stranger population', pp. 91-95; Jalloh, 'Fula trading diaspora', pp. 31-32.
138. Leighton, 'Political economy of a stranger population', pp. 91-95; Jalloh, 'Fula trading diaspora', pp. 31-32.
139. Boumedouha, 'Lebanese in Senegal', p. 540.
140. Bierwirth, 'Lebanese communities', p. 93.
141. Bierwirth, 'Lebanese communities'; Falola, 'Lebanese traders'; Boumedouha, 'Lebanese in Senegal'.
142. Bierwirth, 'Lebanese communities'; Falola, 'Lebanese traders'; Boumedouha, 'Lebanese in Senegal'.
143. Bierwirth, 'Lebanese communities'; Falola, 'Lebanese traders'; Boumedouha, 'Lebanese in Senegal'.
144. See M. Twaddle (ed.), The Expulsion of a Minority: Essays on the Ugandan Asians (Athlone Press, London, 1975); and Jessica Kuper, ' "Goan" and "Asian" in Uganda: an analysis of racial identity and cultural categories', in Shack and Skinner (eds), Strangers in African Societies, pp. 243-59.
145. See M. Twaddle (ed.), The Expulsion of a Minority: Essays on the Ugandan Asians (Athlone Press, London, 1975); and Jessica Kuper, ' "Goan" and "Asian" in Uganda: an analysis of racial identity and cultural categories', in Shack and Skinner (eds), Strangers in African Societies, pp. 243-59.
146. Roswith Gerloff, 'The significance of the African Christian diaspora in Europe: a report on four meetings in 1997/8', Journal of Religion in Africa, 29, 1 (1999), p. 118.
147. European states adopted the Schengen Accord in 1985, harmonizing their immigration procedures.
148. Ter Haar, Halfway to Paradise, ch. 6.
149. R. Jenkins, 'Gold Coasters overseas, 1880-1919', Immigrants and Minorities, 4, 3 (1985), pp. 5-52.
150. Rijk A. van Dijk, 'From camp to encompassment: discourses of transubjectivity in the Ghanaian Pentecostal diaspora', Journal of Religion in Africa, 27, 2 (1997), p. 138.
151. Ter Haar, Halfway to Paradise, p. i.
152. As cited in Ter Haar, 'African Christians in Europe', p. 4. These observations are confirmed in Margaret Peil, 'Ghanaians abroad', African Affairs, 94, 376 (1995), pp. 345-67.
153. As cited in Ter Haar, 'African Christians in Europe', p. 4. These observations are confirmed in Margaret Peil, 'Ghanaians abroad', African Affairs, 94, 376 (1995), pp. 345-67.
154. Tony Killick, 'Manufacturing and construction', in Walter Birmingham, I. Neustadt, and E. N. Omaboe (eds), A Study of Contemporary Ghana, vol. 1 (Northwestern University Press, Evanston, IL, 1966), p. 274. Nkrumah's industrialization policy was embarked upon despite the recommendation of William Arthur Lewis, the West Indian economist, in 1952 to give priority to agriculture over manufacturing at that stage of Ghana's economic development.
155. I have provided a very brief overview of the political economy of Ghana as the context for the contemporary Ghanaian diaspora. For some detailed studies on Ghana's political economy since independence, see A. Adu Boahen, The Ghanaian Sphinx: Reflections on the contemporary history of Ghana, 1972-1987 (Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences, Accra, 1989); Douglas Rimmer, Staying Poor: Ghana's political economy, 1950-1990 (Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1992); and Jonathan H. Frimpong-Ansah, The Vampire State in Africa: The political economy of decline in Ghana (James Currey, London and Africa World Press, Trenton, NJ, 1992).
156. I have provided a very brief overview of the political economy of Ghana as the context for the contemporary Ghanaian diaspora. For some detailed studies on Ghana's political economy since independence, see A. Adu Boahen, The Ghanaian Sphinx: Reflections on the contemporary history of Ghana, 1972-1987 (Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences, Accra, 1989); Douglas Rimmer, Staying Poor: Ghana's political economy, 1950-1990 (Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1992); and Jonathan H. Frimpong-Ansah, The Vampire State in Africa: The political economy of decline in Ghana (James Currey, London and Africa World Press, Trenton, NJ, 1992).
157. I have provided a very brief overview of the political economy of Ghana as the context for the contemporary Ghanaian diaspora. For some detailed studies on Ghana's political economy since independence, see A. Adu Boahen, The Ghanaian Sphinx: Reflections on the contemporary history of Ghana, 1972-1987 (Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences, Accra, 1989); Douglas Rimmer, Staying Poor: Ghana's political economy, 1950-1990 (Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1992); and Jonathan H. Frimpong-Ansah, The Vampire State in Africa: The political economy of decline in Ghana (James Currey, London and Africa World Press, Trenton, NJ, 1992).
158. Manchuelle, Willing Migrants, p. 223.
159. Lynne Brydon, 'Ghanaian responses to the Nigerian expulsions of 1983', African Affairs, 84, 337 (1985), p. 570. The oil boom in Nigeria in the 1970s underpinned extensive socio-economic development projects and Ghanaians took advantage of the demand for skilled and unskilled labour in Nigeria.
160. Emil Rado, 'Notes towards a political economy of Ghana today', African Affairs, 85, 341 (1986), p. 563.
161. As a recent highlife song from 'The Three Stars' puts it, 'Péwo deé' ('seek your own fortune'). Afriko Music Ghana Limited.
162. See, for example, Akosua Adomako Ampofo, 'Nice guys, condoms, and other forms of STD protection: sex workers and AIDS protection in West Africa' (Paper presented at the African Studies Association Annual Meeting, Columbus, OH, November 1997); and Akosua Adomako Ampofo, 'Women and AIDS in Ghana: "I control my body (or do I)?" Ghanaian sex workers and susceptibility to STDs, especially AIDS', in P. Makwina-Adebusoye and A. Jensen (eds), Women's Position and Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa (Ordina Editions, Liège, 1995), pp. 233-51. On the links between migration in search of wealth and AIDS, see Brad Weiss ' "Buying her grave": money, movement and AIDS in northwest Tanzania', Africa, 63, 1 (1993), pp. 19-35.
163. See, for example, Akosua Adomako Ampofo, 'Nice guys, condoms, and other forms of STD protection: sex workers and AIDS protection in West Africa' (Paper presented at the African Studies Association Annual Meeting, Columbus, OH, November 1997); and Akosua Adomako Ampofo, 'Women and AIDS in Ghana: "I control my body (or do I)?" Ghanaian sex workers and susceptibility to STDs, especially AIDS', in P. Makwina-Adebusoye and A. Jensen (eds), Women's Position and Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa (Ordina Editions, Liège, 1995), pp. 233-51. On the links between migration in search of wealth and AIDS, see Brad Weiss ' "Buying her grave": money, movement and AIDS in northwest Tanzania', Africa, 63, 1 (1993), pp. 19-35.
164. See, for example, Akosua Adomako Ampofo, 'Nice guys, condoms, and other forms of STD protection: sex workers and AIDS protection in West Africa' (Paper presented at the African Studies Association Annual Meeting, Columbus, OH, November 1997); and Akosua Adomako Ampofo, 'Women and AIDS in Ghana: "I control my body (or do I)?" Ghanaian sex workers and susceptibility to STDs, especially AIDS', in P. Makwina-Adebusoye and A. Jensen (eds), Women's Position and Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa (Ordina Editions, Liège, 1995), pp. 233-51. On the links between migration in search of
165. See, for example, Yaw Brenya, 99 Days in Agege (Privately printed, Accra, n.d.). Increasingly, popular fiction on life's adventures included a stint in a neighbouring country. See, for example, Victor Amartefio, Bediako (The Adventurer) (Privately printed, Accra, n.d.).
166. See, for example, Yaw Brenya, 99 Days in Agege (Privately printed, Accra, n.d.). Increasingly, popular fiction on life's adventures included a stint in a neighbouring country. See, for example, Victor Amartefio, Bediako (The Adventurer) (Privately printed, Accra, n.d.).
167. This is central to migrant traditions and is not unique to Ghanaians. See Diawara, In Search of Africa; Manchuelle, Willing Migrants. From the mid-1980s travelling abroad became an important theme in Ghanaian highlife songs. A whole genre of 'burger highlife' emerged as a number of Ghanaian musicians settled in Germany. The hardships of staying overseas and the fear of returning home with nothing feature on several tracks of Amakye Dede's hit album 'Iron Boy' (Mega CD 004), which came out in 1997-8 and was recorded in Germany.
168. This is central to migrant traditions and is not unique to Ghanaians. See Diawara, In Search of Africa; Manchuelle, Willing Migrants. From the mid-1980s travelling abroad became an important theme in Ghanaian highlife songs. A whole genre of 'burger highlife' emerged as a number of Ghanaian musicians settled in Germany. The hardships of staying overseas and the fear of returning home with nothing feature on several tracks of Amakye Dede's hit album 'Iron Boy' (Mega CD 004), which came out in 1997-8 and was recorded in Germany.
169. Brydon, 'Ghanaian responses', pp. 572-5.
170. Peil, 'Ghanaians abroad', pp. 349 and 354.
171. Van Dijk, 'Camp to encompassment', p. 138.
172. This is highlighted in Akosua Darkwah, 'Opiate, panacea or coping mechanism: the role of faith gospel theology in Ghana's economic development' (Paper presented at the African Studies Association Annual Meeting, Philadelphia, November 1999).
173. Birgit Meyer, Translating the Devil: Religion and modernity among the Ewe in Ghana (International African Institute, London, 1999); Birgit Meyer, ' "Make a complete break with the past": memory and post-colonial modernity in Ghanaian Pentecostalist discourse', Journal of Religion in Africa, 28, 3 (1998), pp. 316-49; Birgit Meyer, 'Commodities and the power of prayer: Pentecostalist attitudes towards consumption in contemporary Ghana', Development and Change, 29, 4 (1998), pp. 751-76; and van Dijk, 'Camp to encompassment'. For the broader African context, see Paul Gifford, African Christianity: Its public role (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1998).
174. Birgit Meyer, Translating the Devil: Religion and modernity among the Ewe in Ghana (International African Institute, London, 1999); Birgit Meyer, ' "Make a complete break with the past": memory and post-colonial modernity in Ghanaian Pentecostalist discourse', Journal of Religion in Africa, 28, 3 (1998), pp. 316-49; Birgit Meyer, 'Commodities and the power of prayer: Pentecostalist attitudes towards consumption in contemporary Ghana', Development and Change, 29, 4 (1998), pp. 751-76; and van Dijk, 'Camp to encompassment'. For the broader African context, see Paul Gifford, African Christianity: Its public role (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1998).
175. Birgit Meyer, Translating the Devil: Religion and modernity among the Ewe in Ghana (International African Institute, London, 1999); Birgit Meyer, ' "Make a complete break with the past": memory and post-colonial modernity in Ghanaian Pentecostalist discourse', Journal of Religion in Africa, 28, 3 (1998), pp. 316-49; Birgit Meyer, 'Commodities and the power of prayer: Pentecostalist attitudes towards consumption in contemporary Ghana', Development and Change, 29, 4 (1998), pp. 751-76; and van Dijk, 'Camp to encompassment'. For the broader African context, see Paul Gifford, African Christianity: Its public role (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1998).
176. Birgit Meyer, Translating the Devil: Religion and modernity among the Ewe in Ghana (International African Institute, London, 1999); Birgit Meyer, ' "Make a complete break with the past": memory and post-colonial modernity in Ghanaian Pentecostalist discourse', Journal of Religion in Africa, 28, 3 (1998), pp. 316-49; Birgit Meyer, 'Commodities and the power of prayer: Pentecostalist attitudes towards consumption in contemporary Ghana', Development and Change, 29, 4 (1998), pp. 751-76; and van Dijk, 'Camp to encompassment'. For the broader African context, see Paul Gifford, African Christianity: Its public role (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1998).
177. Birgit Meyer, Translating the Devil: Religion and modernity among the Ewe in Ghana (International African Institute, London, 1999); Birgit Meyer, ' "Make a complete break with the past": memory and post-colonial modernity in Ghanaian Pentecostalist discourse', Journal of Religion in Africa, 28, 3 (1998), pp. 316-49; Birgit Meyer, 'Commodities and the power of prayer: Pentecostalist attitudes towards consumption in contemporary Ghana', Development and Change, 29, 4 (1998), pp. 751-76; and van Dijk, 'Camp to encompassment'. For the broader African context, see Paul Gifford, African Christianity: Its public role (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1998).
178. Rijk van Dijk, 'The musical politics of transnational Pentecostalism in Ghana' (Paper presented at the African Studies Association Annual Meeting, Philadelphia, November 1999).
179. Van Dijk, 'Camp to encompassment'.
180. Van Dijk, 'Camp to encompassment'; ter Haar, 'African Christians'; and ter Haar, Halfway to Paradise. Ter Haar incorporates a broader discussion of Ghanaian churches in Europe.
181. Van Dijk, 'Camp to encompassment'; ter Haar, 'African Christians'; and ter Haar, Halfway to Paradise. Ter Haar incorporates a broader discussion of Ghanaian churches in Europe.
182. Ter Haar, 'African Christians', p. 6.
183. Gerloff, 'African Christian diaspora in Europe', pp. 115-20.
184. Ter Haar, 'African Christians', p. 30.
185. Ghana International Review (June 1999), p. 16.
186. Agyemang Atta-Poku, 'Asanteman Immigrant Ethnic Association: an effective tool for immigrant survival and adjustment problem solution in New York City', Journal of Black Studies, 27, 1 (1996), pp. 56-76.
187. Pashington Obeng, 'Re-membering through Oath: installation of African kings and queens', Journal of Black Studies, 28, 3 (1998), pp. 334-56.
188. Obeng, 'Re-membering through oath', pp. 336-7.
189. Obeng, 'Re-membering through Oath', p. 338, and Home Front (October-December 1996), p. 25.
190. Obeng, 'Re-membering through Oath', p. 338, and Home Front (October-December 1996), p. 25.
191. Peil, 'Ghanaians abroad', p. 355.
192. Peil, 'Ghanaians abroad', p. 353.
193. The author differs in this respect from Peil, who argues that Ghanaians in the US are not interested in acquiring permanent residence. Peil, 'Ghanaians abroad', p. 360.
194. For the past seven years or so, the US has operated an annual visa lottery programme designed to diversify and enlarge minorities by granting immigrant status to eligible foreigners. This facility has been extended to several African countries.
195. Peil, 'Ghanaians abroad', p. 359.
196. Personal correspondence from Kwesi Botchwey, former Finance Minister for Ghana, 14 December 1999.
197. 'Ghanaians abroad advised to invest in Ghana', Home Front (October-December 1996), p. 25.
198. World Bank, World Development Report: Knowledge for development (Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford, 1999), p. 222.
199. World Bank, World Development Report, p. 230; and Home Front (October-December 1996), p. 25.
200. World Bank, World Development Report, p. 230; and Home Front (October-December 1996), p. 25.
201. Brydon, 'Ghanaian responses', p. 567.
202. Ter Haar, Halfway to Paradise, p. 124.