The African Diaspora in the Northwestern Indian Ocean: Reconsideration of an Old Problem, New Directions for Research

Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East

Volumn 17, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 62-81

  Alpers, Edward A ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0039113939     PISSN: 1089201X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1215/1089201X-17-2-62     Document Type: Article

References (213)

1. Joseph E. Harris, The African Presence in Asia (Evanston, 1971), p. xv. An important intellectual exception, at least in principle, is the African Diaspora Research Project at Michigan State University, directed by Ruth Simms Hamilton. Harris serves as a member of the ADRP's International Advisory Committee.
2. See, e.g., Harris, "The Black Peoples of Asia," in World Encyclopedia of Black Peoples, I (St. Clair Shores, Michigan, 1975), pp. 264-272; "A commentary on the slave trade," in The African slave trade from the 15th to the 19th century (Paris, 1979), pp. 289-295; "A Comparative Approach to the Study of the African Diaspora," in Harris, ed., Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora (Washington, DC, 1982), pp. 112-124, esp. 117-120; "The African diaspora in the Old and New Worlds," in B.A. Ogot, ed., General History of Africa, V (Paris/Oxford/Berkeley, 1992), pp. 113-136, esp. 128-136; in collaboration with Slimane Zeghidour, "Africa and its diaspora since 1935," in Ali A. Mazrui, ed., General History of Africa, VIII (Paris/Oxford/Berkeley, 1993), pp. 705-723, esp. 720-721; "The Dynamics of the Global African Diaspora," in Alusine Jalloh and Stephen E. Maizlish, eds., The African Diaspora (College Station, Texas, 1996), pp. 7-21; and "African Diaspora Studies: Some International Dimensions," ISSUE - A Journal of Opinion, XXIV/2 (1996), pp. 6-8
3. See, e.g., Harris, "The Black Peoples of Asia," in World Encyclopedia of Black Peoples, I (St. Clair Shores, Michigan, 1975), pp. 264-272; "A commentary on the slave trade," in The African slave trade from the 15th to the 19th century (Paris, 1979), pp. 289-295; "A Comparative Approach to the Study of the African Diaspora," in Harris, ed., Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora (Washington, DC, 1982), pp. 112-124, esp. 117-120; "The African diaspora in the Old and New Worlds," in B.A. Ogot, ed., General History of Africa, V (Paris/Oxford/Berkeley, 1992), pp. 113-136, esp. 128-136; in collaboration with Slimane Zeghidour, "Africa and its diaspora since 1935," in Ali A. Mazrui, ed., General History of Africa, VIII (Paris/Oxford/Berkeley, 1993), pp. 705-723, esp. 720-721; "The Dynamics of the Global African Diaspora," in Alusine Jalloh and Stephen E. Maizlish, eds., The African Diaspora (College Station, Texas, 1996), pp. 7-21; and "African Diaspora Studies: Some International Dimensions," ISSUE - A Journal of Opinion, XXIV/2 (1996), pp. 6-8
4. See, e.g., Harris, "The Black Peoples of Asia," in World Encyclopedia of Black Peoples, I (St. Clair Shores, Michigan, 1975), pp. 264-272; "A commentary on the slave trade," in The African slave trade from the 15th to the 19th century (Paris, 1979), pp. 289-295; "A Comparative Approach to the Study of the African Diaspora," in Harris, ed., Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora (Washington, DC, 1982), pp. 112-124, esp. 117-120; "The African diaspora in the Old and New Worlds," in B.A. Ogot, ed., General History of Africa, V (Paris/Oxford/Berkeley, 1992), pp. 113-136, esp. 128-136; in collaboration with Slimane Zeghidour, "Africa and its diaspora since 1935," in Ali A. Mazrui, ed., General History of Africa, VIII (Paris/Oxford/Berkeley, 1993), pp. 705-723, esp. 720-721; "The Dynamics of the Global African Diaspora," in Alusine Jalloh and Stephen E. Maizlish, eds., The African Diaspora (College Station, Texas, 1996), pp. 7-21; and "African Diaspora Studies: Some International Dimensions," ISSUE - A Journal of Opinion, XXIV/2 (1996), pp. 6-8
5. See, e.g., Harris, "The Black Peoples of Asia," in World Encyclopedia of Black Peoples, I (St. Clair Shores, Michigan, 1975), pp. 264-272; "A commentary on the slave trade," in The African slave trade from the 15th to the 19th century (Paris, 1979), pp. 289-295; "A Comparative Approach to the Study of the African Diaspora," in Harris, ed., Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora (Washington, DC, 1982), pp. 112-124, esp. 117-120; "The African diaspora in the Old and New Worlds," in B.A. Ogot, ed., General History of Africa, V (Paris/Oxford/Berkeley, 1992), pp. 113-136, esp. 128-136; in collaboration with Slimane Zeghidour, "Africa and its diaspora since 1935," in Ali A. Mazrui, ed., General History of Africa, VIII (Paris/Oxford/Berkeley, 1993), pp. 705-723, esp. 720-721; "The Dynamics of the Global African Diaspora," in Alusine Jalloh and Stephen E. Maizlish, eds., The African Diaspora (College Station, Texas, 1996), pp. 7-21; and "African Diaspora Studies: Some International Dimensions," ISSUE - A Journal of Opinion, XXIV/2 (1996), pp. 6-8
6. See, e.g., Harris, "The Black Peoples of Asia," in World Encyclopedia of Black Peoples, I (St. Clair Shores, Michigan, 1975), pp. 264-272; "A commentary on the slave trade," in The African slave trade from the 15th to the 19th century (Paris, 1979), pp. 289-295; "A Comparative Approach to the Study of the African Diaspora," in Harris, ed., Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora (Washington, DC, 1982), pp. 112-124, esp. 117-120; "The African diaspora in the Old and New Worlds," in B.A. Ogot, ed., General History of Africa, V (Paris/Oxford/Berkeley, 1992), pp. 113-136, esp. 128-136; in collaboration with Slimane Zeghidour, "Africa and its diaspora since 1935," in Ali A. Mazrui, ed., General History of Africa, VIII (Paris/Oxford/Berkeley, 1993), pp. 705-723, esp. 720-721; "The Dynamics of the Global African Diaspora," in Alusine Jalloh and Stephen E. Maizlish, eds., The African Diaspora (College Station, Texas, 1996), pp. 7-21; and "African Diaspora Studies: Some International Dimensions," ISSUE - A Journal of Opinion, XXIV/2 (1996), pp. 6-8
7. See, e.g., Harris, "The Black Peoples of Asia," in World Encyclopedia of Black Peoples, I (St. Clair Shores, Michigan, 1975), pp. 264-272; "A commentary on the slave trade," in The African slave trade from the 15th to the 19th century (Paris, 1979), pp. 289-295; "A Comparative Approach to the Study of the African Diaspora," in Harris, ed., Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora (Washington, DC, 1982), pp. 112-124, esp. 117-120; "The African diaspora in the Old and New Worlds," in B.A. Ogot, ed., General History of Africa, V (Paris/Oxford/Berkeley, 1992), pp. 113-136, esp. 128-136; in collaboration with Slimane Zeghidour, "Africa and its diaspora since 1935," in Ali A. Mazrui, ed., General History of Africa, VIII (Paris/Oxford/Berkeley, 1993), pp. 705-723, esp. 720-721; "The Dynamics of the Global African Diaspora," in Alusine Jalloh and Stephen E. Maizlish, eds., The African Diaspora (College Station, Texas, 1996), pp. 7-21; and "African Diaspora Studies: Some International Dimensions," ISSUE - A Journal of Opinion, XXIV/2 (1996), pp. 6-8
8. See, e.g., Harris, "The Black Peoples of Asia," in World Encyclopedia of Black Peoples, I (St. Clair Shores, Michigan, 1975), pp. 264-272; "A commentary on the slave trade," in The African slave trade from the 15th to the 19th century (Paris, 1979), pp. 289-295; "A Comparative Approach to the Study of the African Diaspora," in Harris, ed., Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora (Washington, DC, 1982), pp. 112-124, esp. 117-120; "The African diaspora in the Old and New Worlds," in B.A. Ogot, ed., General History of Africa, V (Paris/Oxford/Berkeley, 1992), pp. 113-136, esp. 128-136; in collaboration with Slimane Zeghidour, "Africa and its diaspora since 1935," in Ali A. Mazrui, ed., General History of Africa, VIII (Paris/Oxford/Berkeley, 1993), pp. 705-723, esp. 720-721; "The Dynamics of the Global African Diaspora," in Alusine Jalloh and Stephen E. Maizlish, eds., The African Diaspora (College Station, Texas, 1996), pp. 7-21; and "African Diaspora Studies: Some International Dimensions," ISSUE - A Journal of Opinion, XXIV/2 (1996), pp. 6-8
9. "The African diaspora connection," in U. Bissoondoyal and S.B.C. Servansing, eds., Slavery in the South West Indian Ocean (Moka, Mauritius, 1989), p. 5.
10. Edward A. Alpers, "'Ordinary Household Chores': Ritual and Power in a 19th Century Swahili Women's Spirit Possession Cult," International Journal of African Historical Studies, 17/4 (1984), p. 685.
11. Harris, African Presence, chs. 6-8, quoted at pp. 127, 114.
12. See, e.g., Ronald Segal, The Black Diaspora (New York, 1995), although Segal acknowledges that there was a "substantial trade in slaves for the Islamic world" and includes a chapter on Blacks in Britain, pp. xiv, 263-286. Still, Segal's nod in this direction excludes much of the Indian Ocean world and all of the rest of Europe; indeed, he makes only passing reference to the presence of Africans in Spanish America in his coverage of the Atlantic world. On the other hand, an attractive pictorial work like Chester Higgins, Jr., Feeling the Spirit: Searching the World for the People of Africa (New York, 1994), gives the impression of being completely unaware of these other dimensions of the African Diaspora.
13. See, e.g., Ronald Segal, The Black Diaspora (New York, 1995), although Segal acknowledges that there was a "substantial trade in slaves for the Islamic world" and includes a chapter on Blacks in Britain, pp. xiv, 263-286. Still, Segal's nod in this direction excludes much of the Indian Ocean world and all of the rest of Europe; indeed, he makes only passing reference to the presence of Africans in Spanish America in his coverage of the Atlantic world. On the other hand, an attractive pictorial work like Chester Higgins, Jr., Feeling the Spirit: Searching the World for the People of Africa (New York, 1994), gives the impression of being completely unaware of these other dimensions of the African Diaspora.
14. See, e.g., Ronald Segal, The Black Diaspora (New York, 1995), although Segal acknowledges that there was a "substantial trade in slaves for the Islamic world" and includes a chapter on Blacks in Britain, pp. xiv, 263-286. Still, Segal's nod in this direction excludes much of the Indian Ocean world and all of the rest of Europe; indeed, he makes only passing reference to the presence of Africans in Spanish America in his coverage of the Atlantic world. On the other hand, an attractive pictorial work like Chester Higgins, Jr., Feeling the Spirit: Searching the World for the People of Africa (New York, 1994), gives the impression of being completely unaware of these other dimensions of the African Diaspora.
15. Graham W. Irwin, Africans Abroad: a Documentary History of the Black Diaspora in Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean During the Age of Slavery (New York, 1977), pp. 39-176.
16. J. Devisse and S. Labib, "Africa in inter-continental relations," in D.T. Niane, ed., General History of Africa, IV (Paris/London/ Berkeley, 1984), pp. 635-672, esp. 653-659.
17. For earlier reviews, see Alpers, The East African Slave Trade (Nairobi, 1967) and Bethwell A. Ogot, "Population movements between East Africa, the Horn of Africa and the neighbouring countries," in The African slave trade from the 15th to the 19th century, pp. 175-182, while noting that both focus on eastern Africa.
18. For earlier reviews, see Alpers, The East African Slave Trade (Nairobi, 1967) and Bethwell A. Ogot, "Population movements between East Africa, the Horn of Africa and the neighbouring countries," in The African slave trade from the 15th to the 19th century, pp. 175-182, while noting that both focus on eastern Africa.
19. Esmond B. Martin and T.C.I. Ryan, "A Quantitative Assessment of the Arab Slave Trade of East Africa, 1770-1896," Kenya Historical Review, 5/1 (1977), pp. 71-91; Abdul Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African Commercial Empire into the World Economy, 1770-1873 (London, 1987), esp. pp. 35-41.
20. Esmond B. Martin and T.C.I. Ryan, "A Quantitative Assessment of the Arab Slave Trade of East Africa, 1770-1896," Kenya Historical Review, 5/1 (1977), pp. 71-91; Abdul Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African Commercial Empire into the World Economy, 1770-1873 (London, 1987), esp. pp. 35-41.
21. Ralph A. Austen, "The 19th Century Islamic Slave Trade from East Africa (Swahili and Red Sea Coasts): A Tentative Census," in William Gervase Clarence-Smith, ed., The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the 19th Century (London, 1989), pp. 21-44; see note 1 for a complete listing of Austen's earlier papers.
22. Cf. the discussion in Patrick Manning, Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 50-53, 72-81.
23. See, e.g., Alpers, "The French Slave Trade in East Africa (1721-1810)," Cahiers d'Études Africaines, X, 37, pp. 80-124; J.M. Filliot, La Traite des Esclaves vers les Mascareignes au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1974); José Capela and Eduardo Medeiros, O Tráfico de Escravos de Moçambique para as Ilhas do Índico 1720-1902 (Maputo, 1987); Gwyn Campbell, "Madagascar and the Slave Trade, 1810-1895," Journal of African History, 22/2 (1981), pp. 203-227, and "The East African Slave Trade, 1861-1895: The 'Southern' Complex," International Journal of African Historical Studies, 22/1 (1989), pp. 1-26.
24. See, e.g., Alpers, "The French Slave Trade in East Africa (1721-1810)," Cahiers d'Études Africaines, X, 37, pp. 80-124; J.M. Filliot, La Traite des Esclaves vers les Mascareignes au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1974); José Capela and Eduardo Medeiros, O Tráfico de Escravos de Moçambique para as Ilhas do Índico 1720-1902 (Maputo, 1987); Gwyn Campbell, "Madagascar and the Slave Trade, 1810-1895," Journal of African History, 22/2 (1981), pp. 203-227, and "The East African Slave Trade, 1861-1895: The 'Southern' Complex," International Journal of African Historical Studies, 22/1 (1989), pp. 1-26.
25. See, e.g., Alpers, "The French Slave Trade in East Africa (1721-1810)," Cahiers d'Études Africaines, X, 37, pp. 80-124; J.M. Filliot, La Traite des Esclaves vers les Mascareignes au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1974); José Capela and Eduardo Medeiros, O Tráfico de Escravos de Moçambique para as Ilhas do Índico 1720-1902 (Maputo, 1987); Gwyn Campbell, "Madagascar and the Slave Trade, 1810-1895," Journal of African History, 22/2 (1981), pp. 203-227, and "The East African Slave Trade, 1861-1895: The 'Southern' Complex," International Journal of African Historical Studies, 22/1 (1989), pp. 1-26.
26. See, e.g., Alpers, "The French Slave Trade in East Africa (1721-1810)," Cahiers d'Études Africaines, X, 37, pp. 80-124; J.M. Filliot, La Traite des Esclaves vers les Mascareignes au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1974); José Capela and Eduardo Medeiros, O Tráfico de Escravos de Moçambique para as Ilhas do Índico 1720-1902 (Maputo, 1987); Gwyn Campbell, "Madagascar and the Slave Trade, 1810-1895," Journal of African History, 22/2 (1981), pp. 203-227, and "The East African Slave Trade, 1861-1895: The 'Southern' Complex," International Journal of African Historical Studies, 22/1 (1989), pp. 1-26.
27. See, e.g., Alpers, "The French Slave Trade in East Africa (1721-1810)," Cahiers d'Études Africaines, X, 37, pp. 80-124; J.M. Filliot, La Traite des Esclaves vers les Mascareignes au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1974); José Capela and Eduardo Medeiros, O Tráfico de Escravos de Moçambique para as Ilhas do Índico 1720-1902 (Maputo, 1987); Gwyn Campbell, "Madagascar and the Slave Trade, 1810-1895," Journal of African History, 22/2 (1981), pp. 203-227, and "The East African Slave Trade, 1861-1895: The 'Southern' Complex," International Journal of African Historical Studies, 22/1 (1989), pp. 1-26.
28. D.R. Banaji, Bombay and the Siddis (Bombay, 1932). have not been able to consult the unpublished dissertation by R.V. Ramdas on relations between the Sidis and the Marathas that is also cited by Harris, African Presence, p. 145.
29. D.R. Banaji, Bombay and the Siddis (Bombay, 1932). have not been able to consult the unpublished dissertation by R.V. Ramdas on relations between the Sidis and the Marathas that is also cited by Harris, African Presence, p. 145.
30. Richard Pankhurst, "The Hapshis of India," Ethiopia Observer, 4/10 (September 1960), pp. 347-352. I located this article, as well as several others on Africans in India, in the Fowler Museum of Cultural History Library, Arnold Rubin Collection, Indian Files, at UCLA. I am grateful for permission to work with and reproduce these materials to Director Doran Ross, as well as to Betsy Quick, Elizabeth Cameron, and Monica Sahagun for their assistance. Rubin, an Africanist art historian, spent the academic year 1983-1984 in India as a Senior Fulbright Scholar in search of African cultural survivals. For an interview with him during this period, see K.N. Sud, "Brought in chains centuries ago," The Overseas Hindustani Times, 24 March 1984, p. 8. This article also refers to the work of Professor Anirudha Gupta, whose work is mentioned below. References to Afro-Indians are also included in appropriate volumes of The New Cambridge History of India, e.g. II/4 by Stewart Gordon, The Marathas 1600-1818 (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 64, 65, 68, 123-124 on the Sidis of Janjira.
31. Richard Pankhurst, "The Hapshis of India," Ethiopia Observer, 4/10 (September 1960), pp. 347-352. I located this article, as well as several others on Africans in India, in the Fowler Museum of Cultural History Library, Arnold Rubin Collection, Indian Files, at UCLA. I am grateful for permission to work with and reproduce these materials to Director Doran Ross, as well as to Betsy Quick, Elizabeth Cameron, and Monica Sahagun for their assistance. Rubin, an Africanist art historian, spent the academic year 1983-1984 in India as a Senior Fulbright Scholar in search of African cultural survivals. For an interview with him during this period, see K.N. Sud, "Brought in chains centuries ago," The Overseas Hindustani Times, 24 March 1984, p. 8. This article also refers to the work of Professor Anirudha Gupta, whose work is mentioned below. References to Afro-Indians are also included in appropriate volumes of The New Cambridge History of India, e.g. II/4 by Stewart Gordon, The Marathas 1600-1818 (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 64, 65, 68, 123-124 on the Sidis of Janjira.
32. Richard Pankhurst, "The Hapshis of India," Ethiopia Observer, 4/10 (September 1960), pp. 347-352. I located this article, as well as several others on Africans in India, in the Fowler Museum of Cultural History Library, Arnold Rubin Collection, Indian Files, at UCLA. I am grateful for permission to work with and reproduce these materials to Director Doran Ross, as well as to Betsy Quick, Elizabeth Cameron, and Monica Sahagun for their assistance. Rubin, an Africanist art historian, spent the academic year 1983-1984 in India as a Senior Fulbright Scholar in search of African cultural survivals. For an interview with him during this period, see K.N. Sud, "Brought in chains centuries ago," The Overseas Hindustani Times, 24 March 1984, p. 8. This article also refers to the work of Professor Anirudha Gupta, whose work is mentioned below. References to Afro-Indians are also included in appropriate volumes of The New Cambridge History of India, e.g. II/4 by Stewart Gordon, The Marathas 1600-1818 (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 64, 65, 68, 123-124 on the Sidis of Janjira.
33. Richard Pankhurst, "The Hapshis of India," Ethiopia Observer, 4/10 (September 1960), pp. 347-352. I located this article, as well as several others on Africans in India, in the Fowler Museum of Cultural History Library, Arnold Rubin Collection, Indian Files, at UCLA. I am grateful for permission to work with and reproduce these materials to Director Doran Ross, as well as to Betsy Quick, Elizabeth Cameron, and Monica Sahagun for their assistance. Rubin, an Africanist art historian, spent the academic year 1983-1984 in India as a Senior Fulbright Scholar in search of African cultural survivals. For an interview with him during this period, see K.N. Sud, "Brought in chains centuries ago," The Overseas Hindustani Times, 24 March 1984, p. 8. This article also refers to the work of Professor Anirudha Gupta, whose work is mentioned below. References to Afro-Indians are also included in appropriate volumes of The New Cambridge History of India, e.g. II/4 by Stewart Gordon, The Marathas 1600-1818 (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 64, 65, 68, 123-124 on the Sidis of Janjira.
34. D.K. Bhattacharya, "Indians of African Origin," Cahiers d'Études Africaines, X, 40 (1970), pp. 579-582; Vasant D. Rao, "The Habshis: India's Unknown Africans," Africa Report, (September-October 1973), pp. 35-38. The latter includes some interesting photographs, as does Bhattacharya, "Anthropometry of a Negro Population: Siddis of Gujarat," Zinruigaku Zassi - The Journal of the Anthropological Society of Nippon, 77, 5/6, (1969), pp. 70-75, which includes some significant misinformation on slave sources from eastern Africa, quite apart from my general disinclination towards anthropometry.
35. D.K. Bhattacharya, "Indians of African Origin," Cahiers d'Études Africaines, X, 40 (1970), pp. 579-582; Vasant D. Rao, "The Habshis: India's Unknown Africans," Africa Report, (September-October 1973), pp. 35-38. The latter includes some interesting photographs, as does Bhattacharya, "Anthropometry of a Negro Population: Siddis of Gujarat," Zinruigaku Zassi - The Journal of the Anthropological Society of Nippon, 77, 5/6, (1969), pp. 70-75, which includes some significant misinformation on slave sources from eastern Africa, quite apart from my general disinclination towards anthropometry.
36. D.K. Bhattacharya, "Indians of African Origin," Cahiers d'Études Africaines, X, 40 (1970), pp. 579-582; Vasant D. Rao, "The Habshis: India's Unknown Africans," Africa Report, (September-October 1973), pp. 35-38. The latter includes some interesting photographs, as does Bhattacharya, "Anthropometry of a Negro Population: Siddis of Gujarat," Zinruigaku Zassi - The Journal of the Anthropological Society of Nippon, 77, 5/6, (1969), pp. 70-75, which includes some significant misinformation on slave sources from eastern Africa, quite apart from my general disinclination towards anthropometry.
37. G.S.P. Freeman-Grenville, "The Sidi and Swahili," Bulletin of the British Association of Orientalists, New Series, 6 (1971), pp. 3-18, republished in his The Swahili Coast, 2nd to 19th Centuries (London, 1988), XVII. I am grateful to Mr. Jeremy Prestholdt of Northwestern University for drawing my attention to this article. One of only two modern references to Afro-Pakistanis that I have discovered so far is, appropriately, in Harris, "African Diaspora Studies," p. 8, n. 1, where he calls them Sheedis.
38. G.S.P. Freeman-Grenville, "The Sidi and Swahili," Bulletin of the British Association of Orientalists, New Series, 6 (1971), pp. 3-18, republished in his The Swahili Coast, 2nd to 19th Centuries (London, 1988), XVII. I am grateful to Mr. Jeremy Prestholdt of Northwestern University for drawing my attention to this article. One of only two modern references to Afro-Pakistanis that I have discovered so far is, appropriately, in Harris, "African Diaspora Studies," p. 8, n. 1, where he calls them Sheedis.
39. G.S.P. Freeman-Grenville, "The Sidi and Swahili," Bulletin of the British Association of Orientalists, New Series, 6 (1971), pp. 3-18, republished in his The Swahili Coast, 2nd to 19th Centuries (London, 1988), XVII. I am grateful to Mr. Jeremy Prestholdt of Northwestern University for drawing my attention to this article. One of only two modern references to Afro-Pakistanis that I have discovered so far is, appropriately, in Harris, "African Diaspora Studies," p. 8, n. 1, where he calls them Sheedis.
40. Ayodeji Babalola, "The Siddis: African Descendants in India," Massife (reprinted from Network Africa Magazine), 1/1 (1984), one page unpaginated.
41. Abdulaziz Y. Lodhi, "African Settlements in India," Nordic Journal of African Studies, 1/1 (1992), pp. 83-86. My thanks to Mr. Lodhi for graciously sending me a copy of his article, which I might not otherwise have seen.
42. T.C. Palakshappa, The Siddhis of North Kanara (India), Working paper in the Department of Sociology, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand, 1973; T.B. Naik and G.P. Pandya, The Sidis of Gujarat (A Socio-Economic Study and a Development Plan) (Ahmedabad, 1993).
43. T.C. Palakshappa, The Siddhis of North Kanara (India), Working paper in the Department of Sociology, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand, 1973; T.B. Naik and G.P. Pandya, The Sidis of Gujarat (A Socio-Economic Study and a Development Plan) (Ahmedabad, 1993).
44. See brief reports of Kohli's work in Conexões, 1/1 (1989), pp. 4, 6-7; and 2/1 (1990), p. 9.
45. See brief reports of Kohli's work in Conexões, 1/1 (1989), pp. 4, 6-7; and 2/1 (1990), p. 9.
46. Jayanti K. Patel, "African Settlements in Gujarat," in Anirudha Gupta, ed., Minorities on India's West Coast: History and Society (Delhi, 1991), pp. 17-24; Appendix A, "Habshis of India" and Appendix B, "Siddi: A Negroid Tribe of Gujarat," pp. 203-222, as well as comments in the editor's introduction, pp. i-xix.
47. Jayanti K. Patel, "African Settlements in Gujarat," in Anirudha Gupta, ed., Minorities on India's West Coast: History and Society (Delhi, 1991), pp. 17-24; Appendix A, "Habshis of India" and Appendix B, "Siddi: A Negroid Tribe of Gujarat," pp. 203-222, as well as comments in the editor's introduction, pp. i-xix.
48. On his life, see sources indicated in Harris, African Presence, pp. 144-145, as well as B.G. Tamaskar, Life and Work of Malik Amber (Delhi, 1987). For differences regarding representations of Malik Ambar, see Karl Khandalaval and Moti Chandra, "Identification of the Portraits of Malik Ambar," Lalit Kala, 5/1-2 (1955-1956), pp. 23-32; Mark Zebrowski, Deccani Painting (London/Berkeley, 1983), Appendix to Ch. 1, "Malik Ambar, dictator of Ahmadnagar (1600-26)," pp. 36-39.
49. On his life, see sources indicated in Harris, African Presence, pp. 144-145, as well as B.G. Tamaskar, Life and Work of Malik Amber (Delhi, 1987). For differences regarding representations of Malik Ambar, see Karl Khandalaval and Moti Chandra, "Identification of the Portraits of Malik Ambar," Lalit Kala, 5/1-2 (1955-1956), pp. 23-32; Mark Zebrowski, Deccani Painting (London/Berkeley, 1983), Appendix to Ch. 1, "Malik Ambar, dictator of Ahmadnagar (1600-26)," pp. 36-39.
50. On his life, see sources indicated in Harris, African Presence, pp. 144-145, as well as B.G. Tamaskar, Life and Work of Malik Amber (Delhi, 1987). For differences regarding representations of Malik Ambar, see Karl Khandalaval and Moti Chandra, "Identification of the Portraits of Malik Ambar," Lalit Kala, 5/1-2 (1955-1956), pp. 23-32; Mark Zebrowski, Deccani Painting (London/Berkeley, 1983), Appendix to Ch. 1, "Malik Ambar, dictator of Ahmadnagar (1600-26)," pp. 36-39.
51. On his life, see sources indicated in Harris, African Presence, pp. 144-145, as well as B.G. Tamaskar, Life and Work of Malik Amber (Delhi, 1987). For differences regarding representations of Malik Ambar, see Karl Khandalaval and Moti Chandra, "Identification of the Portraits of Malik Ambar," Lalit Kala, 5/1-2 (1955-1956), pp. 23-32; Mark Zebrowski, Deccani Painting (London/Berkeley, 1983), Appendix to Ch. 1, "Malik Ambar, dictator of Ahmadnagar (1600-26)," pp. 36-39.
52. On his life, see sources indicated in Harris, African Presence, pp. 144-145, as well as B.G. Tamaskar, Life and Work of Malik Amber (Delhi, 1987). For differences regarding representations of Malik Ambar, see Karl Khandalaval and Moti Chandra, "Identification of the Portraits of Malik Ambar," Lalit Kala, 5/1-2 (1955-1956), pp. 23-32; Mark Zebrowski, Deccani Painting (London/Berkeley, 1983), Appendix to Ch. 1, "Malik Ambar, dictator of Ahmadnagar (1600-26)," pp. 36-39.
53. Ann M. Pescatello, "The African Presence in Portuguese India," Journal of Asian History, 11/1 (1977), pp. 26-48.
54. See King to Viceroy of India, Lisboa, February 23, 1608, in Documentos sobre os Portugueses em Moçambique e na Africa Central 1497-1840, IX (Lisboa, 1989), pp. 116-117, noting that slaves from Mozambique should be sent to the royal galleys, "since they alone serve for the work of the oars as they are strong and there is usually a shortage of galley-slaves." Once again I thank Jeremy Prestholdt for alerting me to this reference. In addition, see G.V. Scammell, "Indigenous assistance and the survival of the Estado da India c. 1600-1700," Studio, 49 (1989), pp. 105, 109-111; B.S. Shastry, "Slavery in Portuguese Goa (A Note on the 19th Century Scene)," paper presented at the workshop on the long-distance trade in slaves across the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea in the 19th century, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, December 17-19, 1987, 8 pp.
55. See King to Viceroy of India, Lisboa, February 23, 1608, in Documentos sobre os Portugueses em Moçambique e na Africa Central 1497-1840, IX (Lisboa, 1989), pp. 116-117, noting that slaves from Mozambique should be sent to the royal galleys, "since they alone serve for the work of the oars as they are strong and there is usually a shortage of galley-slaves." Once again I thank Jeremy Prestholdt for alerting me to this reference. In addition, see G.V. Scammell, "Indigenous assistance and the survival of the Estado da India c. 1600-1700," Studio, 49 (1989), pp. 105, 109-111; B.S. Shastry, "Slavery in Portuguese Goa (A Note on the 19th Century Scene)," paper presented at the workshop on the long-distance trade in slaves across the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea in the 19th century, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, December 17-19, 1987, 8 pp.
56. See King to Viceroy of India, Lisboa, February 23, 1608, in Documentos sobre os Portugueses em Moçambique e na Africa Central 1497-1840, IX (Lisboa, 1989), pp. 116-117, noting that slaves from Mozambique should be sent to the royal galleys, "since they alone serve for the work of the oars as they are strong and there is usually a shortage of galley-slaves." Once again I thank Jeremy Prestholdt for alerting me to this reference. In addition, see G.V. Scammell, "Indigenous assistance and the survival of the Estado da India c. 1600-1700," Studio, 49 (1989), pp. 105, 109-111; B.S. Shastry, "Slavery in Portuguese Goa (A Note on the 19th Century Scene)," paper presented at the workshop on the long-distance trade in slaves across the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea in the 19th century, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, December 17-19, 1987, 8 pp.
57. Jeanette Pinto, Slavery in Portuguese India 1510-1842 (Bombay, 1992).
58. See Teotonio R. de Souza, "French Slave-Trading in Portuguese Goa (1773-1791)," in de Souza, ed., Essays in Goan History (New Delhi, 1989), pp. 119-131; Celsa Pinto, Trade and Finance in Portuguese India: A Study of the Portuguese Country Trade 1770-1840 (New Delhi, 1994), pp. 163-171.
59. See Teotonio R. de Souza, "French Slave-Trading in Portuguese Goa (1773-1791)," in de Souza, ed., Essays in Goan History (New Delhi, 1989), pp. 119-131; Celsa Pinto, Trade and Finance in Portuguese India: A Study of the Portuguese Country Trade 1770-1840 (New Delhi, 1994), pp. 163-171.
60. Rudy Bauss, "A Critical Survey of the Portuguese Slave Trade from Mozambique to Portuguese India and Macau and Comments on Timor, 1750-1850;" see also Bauss, "A Demographic Study of Portuguese India and Macau as well as comments on Mozambique and Timor, 1750-1850." I am most grateful to Dr. Bauss for generously sharing these papers in draft form with me.
61. Rudy Bauss, "A Critical Survey of the Portuguese Slave Trade from Mozambique to Portuguese India and Macau and Comments on Timor, 1750-1850;" see also Bauss, "A Demographic Study of Portuguese India and Macau as well as comments on Mozambique and Timor, 1750-1850." I am most grateful to Dr. Bauss for generously sharing these papers in draft form with me.
62. See, e.g., Sergew Hable Sellassie, Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270 (Addis Ababa, 1972), pp. 26-34, 126-132, 145-158; H. de Contenson, "Pre-Aksumite culture," pp. 341-361, esp. 343-355, and scattered references in F. Anfray, "The civilization of Aksum from the first to the seventh century," pp. 362-378, both in G. Mokhtar, ed., General History of Africa, II (Paris/London/Berkeley, 1981); Walter Raunig, "Yemen and Ethiopia - Ancient Cultural Links between two neighbouring Countries on the Red Sea," in Werner Daum, ed., Yemen: 3000 Years of Art and Civilisation in Arabia Felix (Innsbruck/Frankfurt, 1988), pp. 409-418.
63. See, e.g., Sergew Hable Sellassie, Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270 (Addis Ababa, 1972), pp. 26-34, 126-132, 145-158; H. de Contenson, "Pre-Aksumite culture," pp. 341-361, esp. 343-355, and scattered references in F. Anfray, "The civilization of Aksum from the first to the seventh century," pp. 362-378, both in G. Mokhtar, ed., General History of Africa, II (Paris/London/Berkeley, 1981); Walter Raunig, "Yemen and Ethiopia - Ancient Cultural Links between two neighbouring Countries on the Red Sea," in Werner Daum, ed., Yemen: 3000 Years of Art and Civilisation in Arabia Felix (Innsbruck/Frankfurt, 1988), pp. 409-418.
64. See, e.g., Sergew Hable Sellassie, Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270 (Addis Ababa, 1972), pp. 26-34, 126-132, 145-158; H. de Contenson, "Pre-Aksumite culture," pp. 341-361, esp. 343-355, and scattered references in F. Anfray, "The civilization of Aksum from the first to the seventh century," pp. 362-378, both in G. Mokhtar, ed., General History of Africa, II (Paris/London/Berkeley, 1981); Walter Raunig, "Yemen and Ethiopia - Ancient Cultural Links between two neighbouring Countries on the Red Sea," in Werner Daum, ed., Yemen: 3000 Years of Art and Civilisation in Arabia Felix (Innsbruck/Frankfurt, 1988), pp. 409-418.
65. See, e.g., Sergew Hable Sellassie, Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270 (Addis Ababa, 1972), pp. 26-34, 126-132, 145-158; H. de Contenson, "Pre-Aksumite culture," pp. 341-361, esp. 343-355, and scattered references in F. Anfray, "The civilization of Aksum from the first to the seventh century," pp. 362-378, both in G. Mokhtar, ed., General History of Africa, II (Paris/London/Berkeley, 1981); Walter Raunig, "Yemen and Ethiopia - Ancient Cultural Links between two neighbouring Countries on the Red Sea," in Werner Daum, ed., Yemen: 3000 Years of Art and Civilisation in Arabia Felix (Innsbruck/Frankfurt, 1988), pp. 409-418.
66. See, e.g., Sergew Hable Sellassie, Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270 (Addis Ababa, 1972), pp. 26-34, 126-132, 145-158; H. de Contenson, "Pre-Aksumite culture," pp. 341-361, esp. 343-355, and scattered references in F. Anfray, "The civilization of Aksum from the first to the seventh century," pp. 362-378, both in G. Mokhtar, ed., General History of Africa, II (Paris/London/Berkeley, 1981); Walter Raunig, "Yemen and Ethiopia - Ancient Cultural Links between two neighbouring Countries on the Red Sea," in Werner Daum, ed., Yemen: 3000 Years of Art and Civilisation in Arabia Felix (Innsbruck/Frankfurt, 1988), pp. 409-418.
67. Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry (New York/Oxford, 1990).
68. R.B. Serjeant, "South Arabia and Ethiopia - African Elements in the South Arabian Population," in Proceedings of the Third International Congress of Ethiopian Studies (Addis Ababa, 1969), pp. 25-33, and "Some Observations on African Slaves in Arabia," paper presented at the workshop on the long-distance trade in slaves across the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea in the 19th century, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, December 17-19, 1987, 3 pp.
69. R.B. Serjeant, "South Arabia and Ethiopia - African Elements in the South Arabian Population," in Proceedings of the Third International Congress of Ethiopian Studies (Addis Ababa, 1969), pp. 25-33, and "Some Observations on African Slaves in Arabia," paper presented at the workshop on the long-distance trade in slaves across the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea in the 19th century, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, December 17-19, 1987, 3 pp.
70. Fredrik Barth, Sohar: Culture and Society in an Omani Town (Baltimore/London, 1983), pp. 42-49, 98-99.
71. Husayn ibn 'Abdallah al-Amri, "Slaves and Mamelukes in the History of Yemen," in Daum, ed., Yemen, pp. 140-157.
72. Alpers, "The Somali Community at Aden in the 19th Century," Northeast African Studies, 8/2-3 (1986), pp. 143-168.
73. Albertine Jwaideh and J.W. Cox, "The Black Slaves of Turkish Arabia during the 19th Century? in Clarence-Smith, ed., Indian Ocean Slave Trade, pp. 45-59, quoted at 56.
74. Thomas M. Ricks, "Slaves and Slave Traders in the Persian Gulf, 18th and 19th Centuries: An Assessment," in ibid., pp. 60-70. Other contributions to the Clarence-Smith collection of special interest for the Red Sea zone are by Janet Ewald, "The Nile Valley System and the Red Sea Slave Trade 1820-1880," pp. 71-92; Abdussamad H. Ahmad, "Ethiopian Slave Exports at Matamma, Massawa and Tajura c. 1830 to 1885," pp. 93-102; and Timothy Fernyhough, "Slavery and the Slave Trade in Southern Ethiopia in the 19th Century," pp. 103-130; see also Clarence-Smith's far-ranging introduction, "The Economics of the Indian Ocean and Red Sea Slave Trades in the 19th Century: An Overview," pp. 1-20.
75. Thomas M. Ricks, "Slaves and Slave Traders in the Persian Gulf, 18th and 19th Centuries: An Assessment," in ibid., pp. 60-70. Other contributions to the Clarence-Smith collection of special interest for the Red Sea zone are by Janet Ewald, "The Nile Valley System and the Red Sea Slave Trade 1820-1880," pp. 71-92; Abdussamad H. Ahmad, "Ethiopian Slave Exports at Matamma, Massawa and Tajura c. 1830 to 1885," pp. 93-102; and Timothy Fernyhough, "Slavery and the Slave Trade in Southern Ethiopia in the 19th Century," pp. 103-130; see also Clarence-Smith's far-ranging introduction, "The Economics of the Indian Ocean and Red Sea Slave Trades in the 19th Century: An Overview," pp. 1-20.
76. Thomas M. Ricks, "Slaves and Slave Traders in the Persian Gulf, 18th and 19th Centuries: An Assessment," in ibid., pp. 60-70. Other contributions to the Clarence-Smith collection of special interest for the Red Sea zone are by Janet Ewald, "The Nile Valley System and the Red Sea Slave Trade 1820-1880," pp. 71-92; Abdussamad H. Ahmad, "Ethiopian Slave Exports at Matamma, Massawa and Tajura c. 1830 to 1885," pp. 93-102; and Timothy Fernyhough, "Slavery and the Slave Trade in Southern Ethiopia in the 19th Century," pp. 103-130; see also Clarence-Smith's far-ranging introduction, "The Economics of the Indian Ocean and Red Sea Slave Trades in the 19th Century: An Overview," pp. 1-20.
77. Thomas M. Ricks, "Slaves and Slave Traders in the Persian Gulf, 18th and 19th Centuries: An Assessment," in ibid., pp. 60-70. Other contributions to the Clarence-Smith collection of special interest for the Red Sea zone are by Janet Ewald, "The Nile Valley System and the Red Sea Slave Trade 1820-1880," pp. 71-92; Abdussamad H. Ahmad, "Ethiopian Slave Exports at Matamma, Massawa and Tajura c. 1830 to 1885," pp. 93-102; and Timothy Fernyhough, "Slavery and the Slave Trade in Southern Ethiopia in the 19th Century," pp. 103-130; see also Clarence-Smith's far-ranging introduction, "The Economics of the Indian Ocean and Red Sea Slave Trades in the 19th Century: An Overview," pp. 1-20.
78. Thomas M. Ricks, "Slaves and Slave Traders in the Persian Gulf, 18th and 19th Centuries: An Assessment," in ibid., pp. 60-70. Other contributions to the Clarence-Smith collection of special interest for the Red Sea zone are by Janet Ewald, "The Nile Valley System and the Red Sea Slave Trade 1820-1880," pp. 71-92; Abdussamad H. Ahmad, "Ethiopian Slave Exports at Matamma, Massawa and Tajura c. 1830 to 1885," pp. 93-102; and Timothy Fernyhough, "Slavery and the Slave Trade in Southern Ethiopia in the 19th Century," pp. 103-130; see also Clarence-Smith's far-ranging introduction, "The Economics of the Indian Ocean and Red Sea Slave Trades in the 19th Century: An Overview," pp. 1-20.
79. Ewald, "Crossers of the Sea: Slaves and Migrants in the Western Indian Ocean, c. 1800-1900." I am very grateful to Professor Ewald for sharing a draft of this unpublished paper with me.
80. Ibid., p. 45.
81. A. J. Temu, "The role of the Bombay Africans (Liberated Africans) on the Mombasa Coast 1874-1904," in Ogot, ed., Hadith 3 (Nairobi, 1971), pp. 53-81, which is essentially reproduced in Temu, British Protestant Missions (London, 1972), pp. 63-90.
82. A. J. Temu, "The role of the Bombay Africans (Liberated Africans) on the Mombasa Coast 1874-1904," in Ogot, ed., Hadith 3 (Nairobi, 1971), pp. 53-81, which is essentially reproduced in Temu, British Protestant Missions (London, 1972), pp. 63-90.
83. Harris, Repatriates and refugees in a colonial society: the case of Kenya (Washington, DC, 1987).
84. Francesca Declich, "Coming Back from Southern Somalia to 'Zigualand' in Tanzania: What Matri-Kin Group do I belong to?," paper presented at the 38th Annual Meting of the African Studies Association, Orlando, Florida, 5 November 1995. For references to the slave trade in Uzigua, see James L. Giblin, The Politics of Environmental Control in Northeastern Tanzania, 1840-1940 (Philadelphia, 1992).
85. Francesca Declich, "Coming Back from Southern Somalia to 'Zigualand' in Tanzania: What Matri-Kin Group do I belong to?," paper presented at the 38th Annual Meting of the African Studies Association, Orlando, Florida, 5 November 1995. For references to the slave trade in Uzigua, see James L. Giblin, The Politics of Environmental Control in Northeastern Tanzania, 1840-1940 (Philadelphia, 1992).
86. Cf. de Souza, "The Voiceless in Goan Historiography: A Case for the Source-Value of Church Records in Goa," in de Souza, Indo-Portuguese History: Sources and Problems (Bombay, 1981), pp. 114-131.
87. Hubert Gerbeau, "The slave trade in the Indian Ocean: problems facing the historian and research to be undertaken," in The African slave trade from the 15th to the 19th century, p. 184.
88. Ibid., pp. 186, 203.
89. John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the making of the Atlantic world, 1400-1680 (Cambridge, 1992), p. 206.
90. Ibid., pp. 207-211, quoted at 207-209.
91. Alpers, "Dance and Society in 19th Century Mogadishu," in Thomas J. Labahn, ed., Proceedings of the Second International Congress of Somali Studies, II (Hamburg, 1983), pp. 127-144, quoted at 134-135.
92. Joseph B.F. Osgood, Notes of Travel or Recollections of Majunga, Zanzibar, Muscat, Aden, Mocha, and other Eastern Ports (Salem, 1854), pp. 106-108.
93. J.R. Wellsted, Travels in Arabia, I (London, 1838), pp. 28-19.
94. Ibid., pp. 63-64.
95. Ibid., pp. 345-347.
96. Ibid., pp. 388-389 ; for a 20th century example of Hadrami categorization of slave origins, see Serjeant, "Forms of plea: a Šaf'i manual from al-Šihr," (1955) in his Customary and Shari'ah Law in Arabian Society (Hampshire, 1991), XI, p. 6: "I was told that in relatively recent times, three categories of slaves were distinguished: al-Biharah, i.e. slaves from al-Sawahil; Tulud (S. Talid), slaves born and raised in Hadramawt; 3) Nubah, Nubians."
97. Ibid., pp. 388-389 ; for a 20th century example of Hadrami categorization of slave origins, see Serjeant, "Forms of plea: a Šaf'i manual from al-Šihr," (1955) in his Customary and Shari'ah Law in Arabian Society (Hampshire, 1991), XI, p. 6: "I was told that in relatively recent times, three categories of slaves were distinguished: al-Biharah, i.e. slaves from al-Sawahil; Tulud (S. Talid), slaves born and raised in Hadramawt; 3) Nubah, Nubians."
98. Ibid., pp. 388-389 ; for a 20th century example of Hadrami categorization of slave origins, see Serjeant, "Forms of plea: a Šaf'i manual from al-Šihr," (1955) in his Customary and Shari'ah Law in Arabian Society (Hampshire, 1991), XI, p. 6: "I was told that in relatively recent times, three categories of slaves were distinguished: al-Biharah, i.e. slaves from al-Sawahil; Tulud (S. Talid), slaves born and raised in Hadramawt; 3) Nubah, Nubians."
99. Barth, Sohar, pp. 45, 48-49, 99.
100. Youssef Shawki Moustafa, "Traditional Musical Instruments of Oman," in Issam el-Mallah, ed., The Complete Documents of the International Symposium on the Traditional Music in Oman, October 6-16, 1985 (Wilhelmshaven, 1994), I, pp. 53-54. I am indebted to my colleague at UCLA, Professor of Ethnomusicology Ali Jihad Racy, for sharing his copy of this important publication with me.
101. Frederick Johnson, A Standard Swahili-English Dictionary (Oxford, 1939), p. 304.
102. Moustafa, "Collecting and Documenting the Traditional Music in Oman," in el-Mallah, ed., Complete Documents, II, pp. 18-19.
103. There is a rich literature on zar possession in northeastern and eastern Africa, as well as in Arabia; see, e.g., I.M. Lewis, Ahmed al-Safi, and Sayyid Hurreiz, eds., Women's Medicine: the Zar-Bori cult in Africa and beyond (Edinburgh, 1991), which includes an excellent select annotated bibliography; Alpers, "'Ordinary Household Chores," p. 688 and sources cited therein. My thanks to Shahram Khosravi of Stockhohn University for drawing my attention to a reference to zar possession among the African peoples of coastal southern Iran: Kaveh Safa, "Reading Saedi's Ahl-e Hava," Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 12 (1988), pp. 85-111. While I have not been able to examine the African diaspora in Iran for this paper, I hope to be able to do so in the future.
104. There is a rich literature on zar possession in northeastern and eastern Africa, as well as in Arabia; see, e.g., I.M. Lewis, Ahmed al-Safi, and Sayyid Hurreiz, eds., Women's Medicine: the Zar-Bori cult in Africa and beyond (Edinburgh, 1991), which includes an excellent select annotated bibliography; Alpers, "'Ordinary Household Chores," p. 688 and sources cited therein. My thanks to Shahram Khosravi of Stockhohn University for drawing my attention to a reference to zar possession among the African peoples of coastal southern Iran: Kaveh Safa, "Reading Saedi's Ahl-e Hava," Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 12 (1988), pp. 85-111. While I have not been able to examine the African diaspora in Iran for this paper, I hope to be able to do so in the future.
105. There is a rich literature on zar possession in northeastern and eastern Africa, as well as in Arabia; see, e.g., I.M. Lewis, Ahmed al-Safi, and Sayyid Hurreiz, eds., Women's Medicine: the Zar-Bori cult in Africa and beyond (Edinburgh, 1991), which includes an excellent select annotated bibliography; Alpers, "'Ordinary Household Chores," p. 688 and sources cited therein. My thanks to Shahram Khosravi of Stockhohn University for drawing my attention to a reference to zar possession among the African peoples of coastal southern Iran: Kaveh Safa, "Reading Saedi's Ahl-e Hava," Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 12 (1988), pp. 85-111. While I have not been able to examine the African diaspora in Iran for this paper, I hope to be able to do so in the future.
106. Moustafa, "Collecting and Documenting," p. 18; Pamela Constantinides, "The History of Zar in the Sudan: Theories of Origin, Recorded Observation and Oral Tradition," in Lewis et al., eds., Women's Medicine, pp. 89-91; G. Makris and Ahmad Al-Safi, "The Tumbura Spirit Possession Cult of the Sudan, Past and Present," in ibid., pp. 122-123.
107. Moustafa, "Collecting and Documenting," p. 18; Pamela Constantinides, "The History of Zar in the Sudan: Theories of Origin, Recorded Observation and Oral Tradition," in Lewis et al., eds., Women's Medicine, pp. 89-91; G. Makris and Ahmad Al-Safi, "The Tumbura Spirit Possession Cult of the Sudan, Past and Present," in ibid., pp. 122-123.
108. Moustafa, "Collecting and Documenting," p. 18; Pamela Constantinides, "The History of Zar in the Sudan: Theories of Origin, Recorded Observation and Oral Tradition," in Lewis et al., eds., Women's Medicine, pp. 89-91; G. Makris and Ahmad Al-Safi, "The Tumbura Spirit Possession Cult of the Sudan, Past and Present," in ibid., pp. 122-123.
109. Moustafa, "Collecting and Documenting," p. 19; see also, p. 26, where he notes that in Sur, sharh, one of the five types of art performance he lists previously, "designates a type of art which is believed by those who practice it to free a sick man from a ginn spirit that has dominated him, causing his illness." It is also worth mentioning that this is only one of four localized meanings for ash-sharh, which demonstrates the need for close collaboration with local scholars and performers who are capable of making these distinctions. Finally, Moustafa notes, pp. 30-31, the kinds of occasions on which Afro-Omani arts are performed.
110. Ali Jihad Racy, "Africa and Arabia: Performance Traditions from the Arab Gulf Region," illustrated lecture delivered at the Symposium on African Music, UCLA, February 23, 1996. The following account is based on my lecture notes.
111. The same association with the lyre and women is observed in zar, according to a comment by Lois Anderson following Professor Racy's presentation. It is important to note here that Professor Racy has also completed research in the Sudan. For a broader perspective on this instrument and its Sudanic origins in the Arab Gulf area, see Racy, "The Lyre of the Arab Gulf: Historical Roots, Geographical Links, and the Local Context," Al-Ma'thurat Al-Sha'biyyah, 27 (1992), pp. 7-17.
112. For tabura (sic) in southern Somalia, see Gustavo Pesenti, "Canti e ritmi arabici, somalici e suaheli" (1910), pp. 1422-1424 (unattributed reprint). Mangur or manjur is the name given to this ceremonial belt in the Sudan, where it is an integral part of tumbura; see Constantinides, "History of Zar," pp. 89-91; Makris and Al-Safi," The Tumbura Spirit Possession Cult," pp. 123, 128.
113. For tabura (sic) in southern Somalia, see Gustavo Pesenti, "Canti e ritmi arabici, somalici e suaheli" (1910), pp. 1422-1424 (unattributed reprint). Mangur or manjur is the name given to this ceremonial belt in the Sudan, where it is an integral part of tumbura; see Constantinides, "History of Zar," pp. 89-91; Makris and Al-Safi," The Tumbura Spirit Possession Cult," pp. 123, 128.
114. For tabura (sic) in southern Somalia, see Gustavo Pesenti, "Canti e ritmi arabici, somalici e suaheli" (1910), pp. 1422-1424 (unattributed reprint). Mangur or manjur is the name given to this ceremonial belt in the Sudan, where it is an integral part of tumbura; see Constantinides, "History of Zar," pp. 89-91; Makris and Al-Safi," The Tumbura Spirit Possession Cult," pp. 123, 128.
115. Paul Rovsing Olsen, "La musique africaine dans le golfe persique," Journal of the International Folk Music Council, 19 (1967), pp. 28-29, 36; Habib Hassan Touma, "The Fidjri, a Major Vocal Form of the Bahrain Pearl-divers," The World of Music, 19/3-4 (1977), p. 122, also mentions tanburah in passing at Bahrain. Racy confirms Olsen's point about pentatonism and rhythms and also mentioned a girdle of sheep's or goat's hooves in tanburah at Dubai when I met with him on December 10, 1996.
116. Paul Rovsing Olsen, "La musique africaine dans le golfe persique," Journal of the International Folk Music Council, 19 (1967), pp.
117. Declich, "Identity, Dance and Islam among People with Bantu Origins in Riverine Areas of Somalia," in Ali Jimale Ahmed, ed., The Invention of Somalia (Lawrenceville, NJ, 1995), pp. 191-222.
118. Cf. Tourna, "Fidjri," pp. 121-127 Although Tourna does not identify any aspect of fidjri as African, he includes references to connections in instrumentation and performance in the Sudan; Jwaideh and Cox, "Black Slaves," p. 53, also report that the small African community at Kuwait had "its own club and peculiar sky-signs, where they frequently danced to their own music through the night."
119. Cf. Tourna, "Fidjri," pp. 121-127 Although Tourna does not identify any aspect of fidjri as African, he includes references to connections in instrumentation and performance in the Sudan; Jwaideh and Cox, "Black Slaves," p. 53, also report that the small African community at Kuwait had "its own club and peculiar sky-signs, where they frequently danced to their own music through the night."
120. Alan Villiers, Sons of Sinbad (New York, 1940), pp. 201-203; for his observation that "an astonishingly high proportion" of the nearly 10,000 "qualified deep-sea sailors" at Aden in 1939 were "of Negro origin," see Villiers, "Some Aspects of the Arab Dhow Trade," The Middle East Journal, 2/4 (1948), pp. 406-407.
121. Alan Villiers, Sons of Sinbad (New York, 1940), pp. 201-203; for his observation that "an astonishingly high proportion" of the nearly 10,000 "qualified deep-sea sailors" at Aden in 1939 were "of Negro origin," see Villiers, "Some Aspects of the Arab Dhow Trade," The Middle East Journal, 2/4 (1948), pp. 406-407.
122. Ruth M. Stone, "Oman and the African Diaspora in Song, Dance and Aesthetic Expression," in el-Mallah, ed., Complete Documents, III, pp. 58-59. Stone transliterates lewa as leiwah; I have chosen to adopt the form preferred by both Moustafa, "Traditional Musical Instruments," p. 53, and Dieter Christensen, "Music Making in Sohar: Arts and Society in al-Batinah of Oman," in ibid., II, pp. 76-77.
123. Ruth M. Stone, "Oman and the African Diaspora in Song, Dance and Aesthetic Expression," in el-Mallah, ed., Complete Documents, III, pp. 58-59. Stone transliterates lewa as leiwah; I have chosen to adopt the form preferred by both Moustafa, "Traditional Musical Instruments," p. 53, and Dieter Christensen, "Music Making in Sohar: Arts and Society in al-Batinah of Oman," in ibid., II, pp. 76-77.
124. Ruth M. Stone, "Oman and the African Diaspora in Song, Dance and Aesthetic Expression," in el-Mallah, ed., Complete Documents, III, pp. 58-59. Stone transliterates lewa as leiwah; I have chosen to adopt the form preferred by both Moustafa, "Traditional Musical Instruments," p. 53, and Dieter Christensen, "Music Making in Sohar: Arts and Society in al-Batinah of Oman," in ibid., II, pp. 76-77.
125. Stone, "African Diaspora," p. 59, who also identifies the musundu as a drum of African origin, "with African looking incisions in the wood;" Christensen, "Music Making," pp. 76-77. Christensen may be mistaken here, since Moustafa identifies burgham as "an animal horn," of the type noted by Osgood, for example, at Muscat in the 1850s, and as distinguished from sea conches. Gum, however, would seem to be derived from either Swahili kome or kombe, generic terms for univalve and bivalve shells; see Johnston, Dictionary, pp. 218-219.
126. Stone, "African Diaspora," p. 59, who also identifies the musundu as a drum of African origin, "with African looking incisions in the wood;" Christensen, "Music Making," pp. 76-77. Christensen may be mistaken here, since Moustafa identifies burgham as "an animal horn," of the type noted by Osgood, for example, at Muscat in the 1850s, and as distinguished from sea conches. Gum, however, would seem to be derived from either Swahili kome or kombe, generic terms for univalve and bivalve shells; see Johnston, Dictionary, pp. 218-219.
127. Stone, "African Diaspora," p. 59, who also identifies the musundu as a drum of African origin, "with African looking incisions in the wood;" Christensen, "Music Making," pp. 76-77. Christensen may be mistaken here, since Moustafa identifies burgham as "an animal horn," of the type noted by Osgood, for example, at Muscat in the 1850s, and as distinguished from sea conches. Gum, however, would seem to be derived from either Swahili kome or kombe, generic terms for univalve and bivalve shells; see Johnston, Dictionary, pp. 218-219.
128. Jihad Racy has commented that some of the songs he heard in Dubai contain similar African geographical references, in his case to Port Said. Personal communication, December 10, 1996.
129. Stone, "African Diaspora," pp. 59-60.
130. Christensen, "Music Making," p. 69.
131. Stone, "African Diaspora," p. 61. There are bound to be recognizable African elements in certain Omani dances, as well, although the one paper at the 1985 symposium that addresses this topic is not particularly helpful; see Hazel Chung-Hood, "Afro-Omani Reciprocal Influences in the Traditional Dances of Oman," in el-Mallah, ed., Complete Documents, III, pp. 97-102.
132. Stone, "African Diaspora," p. 61. There are bound to be recognizable African elements in certain Omani dances, as well, although the one paper at the 1985 symposium that addresses this topic is not particularly helpful; see Hazel Chung-Hood, "Afro-Omani Reciprocal Influences in the Traditional Dances of Oman," in el-Mallah, ed., Complete Documents, III, pp. 97-102.
133. Olsen, "La musique africaine," pp. 30-36. Touma, Fidjri," p. 122, mentions lewa at Bahrain, as well, and Racy does likewise for Dubai. See also, Zubaydah Ashkanani, "Zar in a Changing World: Kuwait," in Lewis et al., eds., Women's Medicine, pp. 219-229.
134. Olsen, "La musique africaine," pp. 30-36. Touma, Fidjri," p. 122, mentions lewa at Bahrain, as well, and Racy does likewise for Dubai. See also, Zubaydah Ashkanani, "Zar in a Changing World: Kuwait," in Lewis et al., eds., Women's Medicine, pp. 219-229.
135. Olsen, "La musique africaine," pp. 30-36. Touma, Fidjri," p. 122, mentions lewa at Bahrain, as well, and Racy does likewise for Dubai. See also, Zubaydah Ashkanani, "Zar in a Changing World: Kuwait," in Lewis et al., eds., Women's Medicine, pp. 219-229.
136. Villiers, Sons of Sinbad, p. 28.
137. Wendell Phillips, Unknown Oman (Beirut, 1971), pp. 10-11.
138. Serjeant, "South Arabia and Ethiopia," p. 32, and "South Arabia," (1967) in his Studies in Arabian History and Civilization (London, 1981), p. 234.
139. rd ed. (New York/London, 1923), II, p. 491.
140. Ibid., pp. 76, 77, 84-85.
141. Serjeant, South Arabian Poetry I - Prose and Poetry from Hadramawt (London, 1951), p. 11.
142. Serjeant, "African Slaves in Arabia," p. 3; also his "South Arabia and Ethiopia," p. 27, where he includes the tantalizing note that these huts were owned by women in the northern Yemen village of Mashaf. At Mukalla in the 1830s, Wellsted, Travels, II, p. 428, says that the blacksmiths "are principally natives of Zanzibar" It would be interesting to see if any vestige of their craft survives today. For a photograph of a slave, obviously African, making bread at El Tanem in the Tihamah in 1912, see Andrew Wheatcroft, Arabia and the Gulf: In Original Photographs 1880-1950 (London, 1982), p. 135. This volume includes other photographs that depict African retainers of various Arab dignataries, as well as a frequently reproduced photograph from C. Snouck Hurgronje, Mekka in the latter part of the 19th century, trans. J.H. Monahan (Leiden and London, 1931), of an African nursemaid and eunuch, c. 1886, at p. 121.
143. Serjeant, "African Slaves in Arabia," p. 3; also his "South Arabia and Ethiopia," p. 27, where he includes the tantalizing note that these huts were owned by women in the northern Yemen village of Mashaf. At Mukalla in the 1830s, Wellsted, Travels, II, p. 428, says that the blacksmiths "are principally natives of Zanzibar" It would be interesting to see if any vestige of their craft survives today. For a photograph of a slave, obviously African, making bread at El Tanem in the Tihamah in 1912, see Andrew Wheatcroft, Arabia and the Gulf: In Original Photographs 1880-1950 (London, 1982), p. 135. This volume includes other photographs that depict African retainers of various Arab dignataries, as well as a frequently reproduced photograph from C. Snouck Hurgronje, Mekka in the latter part of the 19th century, trans. J.H. Monahan (Leiden and London, 1931), of an African nursemaid and eunuch, c. 1886, at p. 121.
144. Serjeant, "African Slaves in Arabia," p. 3; also his "South Arabia and Ethiopia," p. 27, where he includes the tantalizing note that these huts were owned by women in the northern Yemen village of Mashaf. At Mukalla in the 1830s, Wellsted, Travels, II, p. 428, says that the blacksmiths "are principally natives of Zanzibar" It would be interesting to see if any vestige of their craft survives today. For a photograph of a slave, obviously African, making bread at El Tanem in the Tihamah in 1912, see Andrew Wheatcroft, Arabia and the Gulf: In Original Photographs 1880-1950 (London, 1982), p. 135. This volume includes other photographs that depict African retainers of various Arab dignataries, as well as a frequently reproduced photograph from C. Snouck Hurgronje, Mekka in the latter part of the 19th century, trans. J.H. Monahan (Leiden and London, 1931), of an African nursemaid and eunuch, c. 1886, at p. 121.
145. Serjeant, "African Slaves in Arabia," p. 3; also his "South Arabia and Ethiopia," p. 27, where he includes the tantalizing note that these huts were owned by women in the northern Yemen village of Mashaf. At Mukalla in the 1830s, Wellsted, Travels, II, p. 428, says that the blacksmiths "are principally natives of Zanzibar" It would be interesting to see if any vestige of their craft survives today. For a photograph of a slave, obviously African, making bread at El Tanem in the Tihamah in 1912, see Andrew Wheatcroft, Arabia and the Gulf: In Original Photographs 1880-1950 (London, 1982), p. 135. This volume includes other photographs that depict African retainers of various Arab dignataries, as well as a frequently reproduced photograph from C. Snouck Hurgronje, Mekka in the latter part of the 19th century, trans. J.H. Monahan (Leiden and London, 1931), of an African nursemaid and eunuch, c. 1886, at p. 121.
146. Serjeant, "African Slaves in Arabia," p. 3; also his "South Arabia and Ethiopia," p. 27, where he includes the tantalizing note that these huts were owned by women in the northern Yemen village of Mashaf. At Mukalla in the 1830s, Wellsted, Travels, II, p. 428, says that the blacksmiths "are principally natives of Zanzibar" It would be interesting to see if any vestige of their craft survives today. For a photograph of a slave, obviously African, making bread at El Tanem in the Tihamah in 1912, see Andrew Wheatcroft, Arabia and the Gulf: In Original Photographs 1880-1950 (London, 1982), p. 135. This volume includes other photographs that depict African retainers of various Arab dignataries, as well as a frequently reproduced photograph from C. Snouck Hurgronje, Mekka in the latter part of the 19th century, trans. J.H. Monahan (Leiden and London, 1931), of an African nursemaid and eunuch, c. 1886, at p. 121.
147. Osgood, Notes of Travel p. 193; Robin Bidwell, Travelers in Arabia (London, 1976), p. 45, reproducing a plan from J. Bellin, Le petit atlas maritime (1764), III, map 20, according to a letter to the author dated December 5, 1985 from Charlotte Dean of Newnes Books, Feltham, Middlesex, UK.
148. Osgood, Notes of Travel p. 193; Robin Bidwell, Travelers in Arabia (London, 1976), p. 45, reproducing a plan from J. Bellin, Le petit atlas maritime (1764), III, map 20, according to a letter to the author dated December 5, 1985 from Charlotte Dean of Newnes Books, Feltham, Middlesex, UK.
149. Osgood, Notes of Travel p. 193; Robin Bidwell, Travelers in Arabia (London, 1976), p. 45, reproducing a plan from J. Bellin, Le petit atlas maritime (1764), III, map 20, according to a letter to the author dated December 5, 1985 from Charlotte Dean of Newnes Books, Feltham, Middlesex, UK.
150. Doughty, Travels, II, pp. 533, 535.
151. Ibid., p. 118.
152. Snouck Hurgronje, Mekka, pp. 11-12, also includes four bars of a repeated sequence of notes.
153. Serjeant, "South Arabia and Ethiopia," p. 32. Serjeant also comments (n. 25): "Tamburah is a word also known in al-Bahrain where it seems to mean an African dance," which provides still another Persian Gulf manifestation of this dance. Again, in n. 26 he writes that gadbah derives from Classical Arabic jadhb and cites C. de Landberg, Glossaire datinois (Leiden, 1920-1942), p. 272, "where jadhabh is described as a sort of dance executed at the mawlid of a saint," which seems to confirm Racy's information on the sacred transformation of this musical performance. For drumming, see Serjeant, "African Slaves," p. 3.
154. Serjeant, "South Arabia and Ethiopia," p. 32. Serjeant also comments (n. 25): "Tamburah is a word also known in al-Bahrain where it seems to mean an African dance," which provides still another Persian Gulf manifestation of this dance. Again, in n. 26 he writes that gadbah derives from Classical Arabic jadhb and cites C. de Landberg, Glossaire datinois (Leiden, 1920-1942), p. 272, "where jadhabh is described as a sort of dance executed at the mawlid of a saint," which seems to confirm Racy's information on the sacred transformation of this musical performance. For drumming, see Serjeant, "African Slaves," p. 3.
155. Serjeant, "South Arabia and Ethiopia," p. 32. Serjeant also comments (n. 25): "Tamburah is a word also known in al-Bahrain where it seems to mean an African dance," which provides still another Persian Gulf manifestation of this dance. Again, in n. 26 he writes that gadbah derives from Classical Arabic jadhb and cites C. de Landberg, Glossaire datinois (Leiden, 1920-1942), p. 272, "where jadhabh is described as a sort of dance executed at the mawlid of a saint," which seems to confirm Racy's information on the sacred transformation of this musical performance. For drumming, see Serjeant, "African Slaves," p. 3.
156. Serjeant, Prose and Poetry, pp. 18-19. The setting detailed by Serjeant recalls Touma's description of the special house called dar which he likens to a pearl-divers' club, where the men "drink tea, smoke, tell stories, eat, sing and dance." In the 19th century, there were more than a hundred dar scattered along the Bahrain coast, but only twelve remained in 1977 See Touma, "Fidjri," pp. 123-124, which also reproduces a photograph with a ship painted on the wall from inside a dar.
157. Serjeant, Prose and Poetry, pp. 18-19. The setting detailed by Serjeant recalls Touma's description of the special house called dar which he likens to a pearl-divers' club, where the men "drink tea, smoke, tell stories, eat, sing and dance." In the 19th century, there were more than a hundred dar scattered along the Bahrain coast, but only twelve remained in 1977 See Touma, "Fidjri," pp. 123-124, which also reproduces a photograph with a ship painted on the wall from inside a dar.
158. Doughty, Travels, I, p. 536; for the Gurage reference, see Snouck Hurgronje, Mekka, p. 14.
159. Doughty, Travels, I, p. 536; for the Gurage reference, see Snouck Hurgronje, Mekka, p. 14.
160. Ibid., p. 12; John Lewis Burckhardt, Travels in Arabia (London, 1829), p. 112; other references at 257, 384. I have not yet been able to identify the etymology of this term.
161. Ibid., p. 12; John Lewis Burckhardt, Travels in Arabia (London, 1829), p. 112; other references at 257, 384. I have not yet been able to identify the etymology of this term.
162. Serjeant, "The cultivation of cereals in medieval Yemen," (1984) in his Farmers and Fishermen in Arabia (Aldershot, 1995), ed. G. Rex Smith, VII, pp. 45, 52, and 71, n. 165.
163. Serjeant, "The cultivation of cereals in medieval Yemen," (1984) in his Farmers and Fishermen in Arabia (Aldershot, 1995), ed. G. Rex Smith, VII, pp. 45, 52, and 71, n. 165.
164. Serjeant, "South Arabia and Ethiopia," p. 32; "The Quarters of Tarim and their Tansurahs," Le Muséon, LXIII, 3/4 (1950), pp. 277, 279, 283-284; D. van der Meulen and H. von Wissman, Hadramaut - Some of its Mysteries Unveiled (Leiden, 1932), pp. 16-17, Plate 3.
165. Serjeant, "South Arabia and Ethiopia," p. 32; "The Quarters of Tarim and their Tansurahs," Le Muséon, LXIII, 3/4 (1950), pp. 277, 279, 283-284; D. van der Meulen and H. von Wissman, Hadramaut - Some of its Mysteries Unveiled (Leiden, 1932), pp. 16-17, Plate 3.
166. Serjeant, "South Arabia and Ethiopia," p. 32; "The Quarters of Tarim and their Tansurahs," Le Muséon, LXIII, 3/4 (1950), pp. 277, 279, 283-284; D. van der Meulen and H. von Wissman, Hadramaut - Some of its Mysteries Unveiled (Leiden, 1932), pp. 16-17, Plate 3.
167. For the former, see Serjeant, "Some irrigation systems in Hadramawt," (1964) in Farmers and Fishermen, VIII, p. 58
168. ; for Zinjibar, as it appears on modern maps, see van der Meulen, Aden to Hadramaut - A Journey in South Arabia (London, 1947), p. 21. Both Serjeant and van der Meulen provide some explicit indications of where and where not in south Arabia one was most likely to find African communities at the times of their travels.
169. Serjeant, Prose and Poetry, pp. 9-10.
170. L.W.C. van den Berg, Le Hadhramaut et les Colonies Arabes dans l'Archipel Indien (Batavia, 1886), p. 70.
171. Serjeant, "South Arabia and Ethiopia," pp. 32-33.
172. Serjeant, "Sex, Birth, Circumcision: Some Notes from South West Arabia," (1962) in his Customary and Shari'ah Law, XIV, p. 195.
173. Doughty, Travels, II, pp. 156-166, 168.
174. Harold Ingrams, Arabia and the Isles (London, 1942), pp. 154, n. 1, 155-156.
175. Wellsted, Travels, II, p. 431; van den Berg, Le Hadhramaut, p. 69, notes that there were also significant numbers of Somali slaves in the Hadramaut.
176. Wellsted, Travels, II, p. 431; van den Berg, Le Hadhramaut, p. 69, notes that there were also significant numbers of Somali slaves in the Hadramaut.
177. van der Meulen and von Wissman, Hadramaut, p. 150.
178. See Abu'l-Qasim Afnan, Black Pearls: Servants in the Households of the Báb and Bahá'u'lláh (Los Angeles, 1988), pp. xxi, 41-42.
179. Reprinted in Irwin, Africans Abroad, pp. 165-166.
180. Cf. Sud, "Brought in chains;" A Bibliography of Indian Geology and Physical Geography (London, 1917), I, p. 153; Bhattacharya, "Indians of African Origin," p. 580; Gupta, Minorities, pp. 216-217. There is much conflicting genealogical and geographical evidence about Baba Gor that needs resolution.
181. Cf. Sud, "Brought in chains;" A Bibliography of Indian Geology and Physical Geography (London, 1917), I, p. 153; Bhattacharya, "Indians of African Origin," p. 580; Gupta, Minorities, pp. 216-217. There is much conflicting genealogical and geographical evidence about Baba Gor that needs resolution.
182. Cf. Sud, "Brought in chains;" A Bibliography of Indian Geology and Physical Geography (London, 1917), I, p. 153; Bhattacharya, "Indians of African Origin," p. 580; Gupta, Minorities, pp. 216-217. There is much conflicting genealogical and geographical evidence about Baba Gor that needs resolution.
183. Ibid., pp. 219-222, for the following paragraph and its quoted passages.
184. Naik and Pandya, Sidis of Gujarat, p. 20, confirm the names of some of these instruments and add one or two others in a paragraph on "Material Culture of Religion." They note, too, that these instruments are kept in the Baba Gor mosque at Ratanpur in Bharuch District, for which see p. 88.
185. The part of Gujarat inhabited by many of the Sidi community today is near the Gir Forest, the only place in India where lions remain in the wild. See Bhattacharya, "Anthropometry" p. 70.
186. Bhattacharya, "Indians of African Origin," pp. 581-582. Again, Naik and Pandya, Sidis of Gujarat, p. 89, confirm that Dhamal dancers paint their bodies, while adding that they dress in skins, as well as feathers.
187. Bhattacharya, "Indians of African Origin," pp. 581-582. Again, Naik and Pandya, Sidis of Gujarat, p. 89, confirm that Dhamal dancers paint their bodies, while adding that they dress in skins, as well as feathers.
188. Harris, African Presence, p.112. For what appears to be a more recent similar public performance, in 1987, according to Austen, "The 19th Century Islamic Slave Trade," p. 42, n. 23, "BBC reports of Benazir Bhutto's wedding celebration in Pakistan singled out the role of local African-descended communities."
189. Harris, African Presence, p.112. For what appears to be a more recent similar public performance, in 1987, according to Austen, "The 19th Century Islamic Slave Trade," p. 42, n. 23, "BBC reports of Benazir Bhutto's wedding celebration in Pakistan singled out the role of local African-descended communities."
190. Miguel de Noronha de Paiva Couceiro, Diu e Eu (Lisboa, 1969), p. 137.
191. Pinto, Slavery in Portuguese India, p. 94. This sounds very much like a gloss on Moniz's account of St. Benedict's Feast celebrations, for which see below, p. 28 at n. 115.
192. Bhattacharya, "Indians of African Origin," p. 581; Sud, "Brought in chains;" Lodhi, "African Settlements," pp. 83-84. Afro-Indian place names are well known as markers of Sidi and Habshi communities: see, e.g., Rao, "The Habshis," p. 35.
193. Bhattacharya, "Indians of African Origin," p. 581; Sud, "Brought in chains;" Lodhi, "African Settlements," pp. 83-84. Afro-Indian place names are well known as markers of Sidi and Habshi communities: see, e.g., Rao, "The Habshis," p. 35.
194. Bhattacharya, "Indians of African Origin," p. 581; Sud, "Brought in chains;" Lodhi, "African Settlements," pp. 83-84. Afro-Indian place names are well known as markers of Sidi and Habshi communities: see, e.g., Rao, "The Habshis," p. 35.
195. Bhattacharya, "Indians of African Origin," p. 581; Sud, "Brought in chains;" Lodhi, "African Settlements," pp. 83-84. Afro-Indian place names are well known as markers of Sidi and Habshi communities: see, e.g., Rao, "The Habshis," p. 35.
196. Naik and Pandya, Sidis of Gujarat, pp. 6, 48-40, 74-79. Another African-derived possibility found among clan names represented by spouses of their families, Varanga, might derive from the Karanga of the Zambezi valley.
197. Ibid., p. 53.
198. Kenneth David Jackson, Sing without Shame: Oral Traditions in Indo-Portuguese Creole Verse (Philadelphia/Amsterdam and Macau, 1990); see also, i.a., M.H. Goonatilleka, "A Portuguese Creole in Sri Lanka: A Brief Socio-linguistic Survey," in de Souza, Indo-Portuguese History, pp. 147-180; Ian R. Smith, Sri Lanka Creole Portuguese Phonology (Vanchiyoor, Trivandrum, 1978); Dennis B. McGilvray, "Dutch Burghers and Portuguese Mechanics: Eurasian Ethnicity in Sri Lanka," Comparative Studies in Society and History, 24/2 (1982), pp. 235-263.
199. Kenneth David Jackson, Sing without Shame: Oral Traditions in Indo-Portuguese Creole Verse (Philadelphia/Amsterdam and Macau, 1990); see also, i.a., M.H. Goonatilleka, "A Portuguese Creole in Sri Lanka: A Brief Socio-linguistic Survey," in de Souza, Indo-Portuguese History, pp. 147-180; Ian R. Smith, Sri Lanka Creole Portuguese Phonology (Vanchiyoor, Trivandrum, 1978); Dennis B. McGilvray, "Dutch Burghers and Portuguese Mechanics: Eurasian Ethnicity in Sri Lanka," Comparative Studies in Society and History, 24/2 (1982), pp. 235-263.
200. Kenneth David Jackson, Sing without Shame: Oral Traditions in Indo-Portuguese Creole Verse (Philadelphia/Amsterdam and Macau, 1990); see also, i.a., M.H. Goonatilleka, "A Portuguese Creole in Sri Lanka: A Brief Socio-linguistic Survey," in de Souza, Indo-Portuguese History, pp. 147-180; Ian R. Smith, Sri Lanka Creole Portuguese Phonology (Vanchiyoor, Trivandrum, 1978); Dennis B. McGilvray, "Dutch Burghers and Portuguese Mechanics: Eurasian Ethnicity in Sri Lanka," Comparative Studies in Society and History, 24/2 (1982), pp. 235-263.
201. Kenneth David Jackson, Sing without Shame: Oral Traditions in Indo-Portuguese Creole Verse (Philadelphia/Amsterdam and Macau, 1990); see also, i.a., M.H. Goonatilleka, "A Portuguese Creole in Sri Lanka: A Brief Socio-linguistic Survey," in de Souza, Indo-Portuguese History, pp. 147-180; Ian R. Smith, Sri Lanka Creole Portuguese Phonology (Vanchiyoor, Trivandrum, 1978); Dennis B. McGilvray, "Dutch Burghers and Portuguese Mechanics: Eurasian Ethnicity in Sri Lanka," Comparative Studies in Society and History, 24/2 (1982), pp. 235-263.
202. For a passing reference in a contemporary Sinhalese poem to "'Kaffirs and Abyssinian'" in the Portuguese army that invaded Sri Lanka in the 17th-century, see Edmund Peiris, "An Interesting Ethnical Group from Mannar," The Ceylon Historical Journal, III (1953), p. 16, quoting Kustantinu Hatana, vol. 96. This reference to African troops should also remind us that the slave trade was not the only source for the African diaspora in the Indian Ocean, as does Janet Ewald's paper for this conference.
203. For a passing reference in a contemporary Sinhalese poem to "'Kaffirs and Abyssinian'" in the Portuguese army that invaded Sri Lanka in the 17th-century, see Edmund Peiris, "An Interesting Ethnical Group from Mannar," The Ceylon Historical Journal, III (1953), p. 16, quoting Kustantinu Hatana, vol. 96. This reference to African troops should also remind us that the slave trade was not the only source for the African diaspora in the Indian Ocean, as does Janet Ewald's paper for this conference.
204. Jackson, Sing without Shame, p. 75.
205. Jackson, "Canta sen vargonya: Portuguese Creole Verse in Sri Lanka," Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, 2/1 (1987), pp. 39-41.
206. Jackson, Sing without Shame, pp. 64, 75, 84.
207. Ibid., p. 74.
208. Jackson, Canta sen vargonya, p. 32. Baila (from Portuguese bailar, to dance) itself reflects still another external cultural influence in that society.
209. Palakshappa, Siddhis of North Kanara, p. 59; Naik and Pandya, Sidis of Gujarat, p. 60.
210. Palakshappa, Siddhis of North Kanara, p. 59; Naik and Pandya, Sidis of Gujarat, p. 60.
211. Ibid., p. 63; see also, p. 93, which reproduces a 1979 resolution published by this journal declaring that they alone "be included in the administration of the tomb of Baba Gor." Harris, "Africa and the Diaspora," pp. 720-721, also notes that a delegation of Sidis visited East Africa in 1973 to learn about the continent and "explore areas of possible cooperation."
212. Ibid., p. 63; see also, p. 93, which reproduces a 1979 resolution published by this journal declaring that they alone "be included in the administration of the tomb of Baba Gor." Harris, "Africa and the Diaspora," pp. 720-721, also notes that a delegation of Sidis visited East Africa in 1973 to learn about the continent and "explore areas of possible cooperation."
213. Armoogum Parsuraman, From Ancestral Cultures to National Culture - Mauritius (Moka, 1988), pp. 62-64. The author was Minister of Education, Arts and Culture.