The Lebanese communities of Cote d'Ivoire

African Affairs

Volumn 98, Issue 390, 1999, Pages 79-99

  Bierwirth, Chris ^a  

^a WEST TEXAS A AND M UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ETHNIC MINORITY; IMMIGRANT POPULATION;

COTE D'IVOIRE;

EID: 0033018942     PISSN: 00019909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a008004     Document Type: Article

References (115)

1. R. Bayly Winder, 'The Lebanese in West Africa', Comparative Studies in Society and History, IV (1962), p. 297. Chris Bierwirth, The initial establishment of the Lebanese community in Côte d'Ivoire, ca. 1925-45', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 30, 2 (1997), pp. 325-48.
2. R. Bayly Winder, 'The Lebanese in West Africa', Comparative Studies in Society and History, IV (1962), p. 297. Chris Bierwirth, The initial establishment of the Lebanese community in Côte d'Ivoire, ca. 1925-45', International Journal of Afican Historical Studies, 30, 2 (1997), pp. 325-48.
3. 'Lebanese-Ivoirian' refers to those immigrants from the Levant, and their descendants, who have established permanent residency in Côte d'Ivoire, either by obtaining a carte de séjour or Ivoirian citizenship.
4. The Lebanese embassy in Abidjan had registered about 22,000 Lebanese immigrants by 1975. See Dunia Taan, 'Les Libanais en Côte d'Ivoire d'hier à aujourd'hui' (Thèse de doctorat de 3ème cycle, Université de Nice, 1986), p. 29. Fouad Salamé, Secretary of the ULCM-CI, estimates that there were approximately 25,000 Lebanese in Côte d'Ivoire in 1975; interview, Abidjan-Plateau, 1 July 1992.
5. Cited in Naki Bouazo, 'Les Libanais en Côte d'Ivoire' (Mémoire de maitrise, Université Nationale de Côte d'Ivoire, 1983), pp. 36, 38.
6. While adult men are certainly more likely to emigrate than women or children, these ratios of males to females and adults to children seem highly suspect. For example, the 1975 census indicated a male:female ratio of 1.3:1 in the Lebanese population, and other established urban immigrant populations, like the French or the Jula from northern Côte d'Ivoire, have had male:female ratios approximating 1.2:1 and adult:child ratios of 1.9:1. See République de Côte d'Ivoire, Principaux résultats du recensement de 1975, Côte d'Ivoire entière (Ministère de l'Economie, des Finances et du Plan, Abidjan) 1978). In contrast, Dunia Taan estimated a total Lebanese-Ivoirian population of 60,000 in 1985, 'Les Libanais', pp. 28-9.
7. Mohamed Daher, Lebanese Ambassador, Abidjan-Plateau, 14 September 1992.
8. The figure of 300,000 is itself second-hand, taken from Ivoirian Customs officials' estimates 'based on all arrivals registered at the airport, ... the figure is then multiplied by four or five to include dependants who do not register, while simultaneously failing to take into consideration departures for countries such as Guinea and Benin'; Didier Bigo, 'The Lebanese community in the Ivory Coast: A non-native network at the heart of power?' in Albert Hourani and Nadim Shehadi (eds) The Lebanese in the World: A century of emigration, (Centre for Lebanese Studies and I. B. Tauris, London, 1992), pp. 515-16. This calculation also fails to consider those arrivals who find that they cannot succeed in West Africa and soon return to Lebanon; Joe Ezzedine, Abidjan-Yopougon, 19 March 1992; Ghaleb Fakhreddine, Gagnoa, 4 April 1992.
9. Mohamed Daher, Abidjan-Plateau, 14 September 1992.
10. Fouad Omaïs, Président Général ULCM-CI, Abidjan-Treichville, 25 March 1992; Ahmad Sabah, Directeur de la Commission d'Information ULCM-CI, Abidjan-Plateau, 17 June 1992; Fouad Salamé, Abidjan-Plateau, 24 June 1996. Note that both the Lebanese embassy and the ULCM-CI estimates exclude the 6,000 or so Lebanese with Ivoirian nationality.
11. Fouad Omaïs, Président Général ULCM-CI, Abidjan-Treichville, 25 March 1992; Ahmad Sabah, Directeur de la Commission d'Information ULCM-CI, Abidjan-Plateau, 17 June 1992; Fouad Salame, Abidjan-Plateau, 24 June 1996. Note that both the Lebanese embassy and the ULCM-CI estimates exclude the 6,000 or so Lebanese with Ivoirian nationality.
12. Fouad Ornaïs, Président Général ULCM-CI, Abidjan-Treichville, 25 March 1992; Ahmad Sabah, Directeur de la Commission d'Information ULCM-CI, Abidjan-Plateau, 17 June 1992; Fouad Salame, Abidjan-Plateau, 24 June 1996. Note that both the Lebanese embassy and the ULCM-CI estimates exclude the 6,000 or so Lebanese with Ivoirian nationality.
13. Bussim Jaber, Abidjan-Treichville, 9 September 1992. He bases his calculation on an estimate of 2,000 Lebanese-owned shops in Abidjan, assumed to employ an average of five Lebanese each; hence there would be about 10,000 Lebanese retail workers in Abidjan, and, assuming further that two-thirds of Lebanese-Ivoirians live in Abidjan, there would be about 15,000 in the whole country. Thus, he concludes, even if this number were doubled to account for non-workers, there could be no more than '25-30,000 maximum'.
14. Côte d'Ivoire Selection, No. 647 (2 June, 1992), p. 8.
15. There are no specific data on the proportion of economically active population for the Lebanese community, but other substantiating data do exist. The 1975 census revealed a 'Population étrangere non-africaine' in the Commune of Abidjan of 33,673, of which 10,030 were employed. This gives a ratio of total population to active labour force of about 3.4:1 for the whole of the non-African population in Abidjan. See République de Côte d'Ivoire, Recensement de 1975. In 1984, the ratio between the total urban population and the total urban labour force in Côte d'Ivoire was calculated to be 3.0:1; World Bank, World Development Report 1986 (Oxford University Press, New York, 1986). As a way of cross-checking, one might also look at a similar ethnic diaspora; in 1948, the total Indian population of Uganda was 33,767, of which 10,039 were 'gainfully occupied', which yields a ratio of 3.4:1; Uganda Protectorate, Report on the Census of the Non-Native Population of the Uganda Protectorate.
16. There are no specific data on the proportion of economically active population for the Lebanese community, but other substantiating data do exist. The 1975 census revealed a 'Population étrangere non-africaine' in the Commune of Abidjan of 33,673, of which 10,030 were employed. This gives a ratio of total population to active labour force of about 3.4:1 for the whole of the non-African population in Abidjan. See République de Côte d'Ivoire, Recensement de 1975. In 1984, the ratio between the total urban population and the total urban labour force in Côte d'Ivoire was calculated to be 3.0:1; World Bank, World Development Report 1986 (Oxford University Press, New York, 1986). As a way of cross-checking, one might also look at a similar ethnic diaspora; in 1948, the total Indian population of Uganda was 33,767, of which 10,039 were 'gainfully occupied', which yields a ratio of 3.4:1; Uganda Protectorate, Report on the Census of the Non-Native Population of the Uganda Protectorate.
17. There are no specific data on the proportion of economically active population for the Lebanese community, but other substantiating data do exist. The 1975 census revealed a 'Population étrangere non-africaine' in the Commune of Abidjan of 33,673, of which 10,030 were employed. This gives a ratio of total population to active labour force of about 3.4:1 for the whole of the non-African population in Abidjan. See République de Côte d'Ivoire, Recensement de 1975. In 1984, the ratio between the total urban population and the total urban labour force in Côte d'Ivoire was calculated to be 3.0:1; World Bank, World Development Report 1986 (Oxford University Press, New York, 1986). As a way of cross-checking, one might also look at a similar ethnic diaspora; in 1948, the total Indian population of Uganda was 33,767, of which 10,039 were 'gainfully occupied', which yields a ratio of 3.4:1; Uganda Protectorate, Report on the Census of the Non-Native Population of the Uganda Protectorate.
18. Approximately 6,000 Lebanese-Ivoirians now have Ivoirian nationality, and there are roughly an equal number with French nationality. However, since some of these would be included among the wholesalers, industrialists and professionals already taken into consideration, we should add no more than half of this group.
19. Based on anecdotal evidence, archival data, published figures, and my own observations, the following would be reasonable estimates for the maximum sizes of the Lebanese-Ivoirian immigrant population over time: 1930:200 1960:8,000 1980:65,000 1995:70,000 1940:800 1970:25,000 1985:90,000 1950:2,000 1975:40,000 1990:75,000
20. Of 300 Lebanese-Ivoirian questionnaire respondents, Dunia Taan reported that 249 (83 percent) were south Lebanese by origin; in a partial census conducted by Dunia Taan for the ULCM-CI in 1982, and published as an appendix to her thesis, it was found that, of 1,635 respondents who listed specific regions of Lebanon as their place of birth, 1,340 (82 percent) named South Lebanon; Taan 'Les Libanais', p. 270 and Appendix 5.
21. 'Le sud est très arriéré', Mohamed Daher, Abidjan-Plateau, 14 September 1992. Indeed, this under-development of southern Lebanon has been prolonged. In the early 1960s, a Lebanese government survey found that of the localités rurales in southern Lebanon, 30 percent fell into the classe de sous-développement and 70 percent in the classe de sous-développement partiel. This compares to the nation as a whole, where 23 percent were underdeveloped and 39 percent partially-underdeveloped, and to the central region, where only 5 percent were underdeveloped, and 25 percent partially-underdeveloped, but 45 percent in the classe de developpement amorcé and 25 percent in the classe de developpement avancé. See Georges Corm, Politique économique et planification au Liban 1953-1963 (Imprimerie Universelle, Beirut, n.d.), Tableau no. 4 (hors-texte).
22. In her survey, Dunia Taan found that only 47.2 percent of those from South Lebanon had completed secondary education, versus 50 percent of those from al-Biqa', 61.9 percent of those from Mount Lebanon, and 77.8 percent of those from North Lebanon; 'Les Libanais', p. 275.
23. Omar Sahyoun, Abidjan-Plateau, 20 February 1992. While this speculation is very plausible, we must also bear in mind that Omar, who is of Greek Orthodox Palestinian origin, was probably expressing some snobbishness regarding Shi'i Lebanese.
24. Hussein Hamadé, Korhogo, 7 July 1992; Genevieve Gaffari, Abidjan-Plateau, 25 September 1992.
25. Hussein Hamadé, Korhogo, 7 July 1992; Genevieve Gaffari, Abidjan-Plateau, 25 September 1992.
26. See Toyin Falola, 'The Lebanese in Colonial West Africa', in J. F. Ade Ajayi and J. D. Y. Peel, (eds) People and Empires in African History: Essays in memory of Michael Crowder, (Longman, London, 1992), p. 123.
27. This group is closely linked to the Lebanese communities of Bamako and Ouagadougou; in all three cities, the majority of immigrants originated from the same Lebanese towns; Archive Nationale de Côte d'Ivoire (ANCI), dossier 1729 (XVII-4-16), H. Boy, Commandant du Cercle de Bouaké, to A. Latrille, Gouverneur de la Côte d'Ivoire, 13 March 1945; Fuad I. Khuri, 'Kinship, emigration, and trade partnership among the Lebanese of West Africa', Africa, 35 (1965), p. 385.
28. In the 1982 ULCM-CI sampling, one-quarter of the respondents listed 'African or other countries' as their place of birth; Taan, 'Les Libanais', Appendix 5.
29. Kamel Sifaoui, Abidjan-Treichville, 28 February 1992; Amir Sharaffdeen. Bouaké, 20 May 1992; Fouad Salamé, Abidjan-Plateau 12 June, 1992. See also: Claude Rivière, 'Les Libanais en Guinée', Kroniek van Afrika, 6 (1975), pp. 274-81; René Charbonneau, 'Les Libano-syriens en Afrique noire', Revue française d'études politiques africaines, 26 (1968), pp. 63-4; Saïd Boumedouha, 'Adjustment to West African Realities: The Lebanese in Senegal', Africa, 60 (1990), pp. 539-42; and H. L. van der Laan, The Lebanese Traders in Sierra Leone (Mouton, The Hague; 1975), pp. 10-12, 285-94.
30. Kamel Sifaoui, Abidjan-Treichville, 28 February 1992; Amir Sharaffdeen. Bouaké, 20 May 1992; Fouad Salamé, Abidjan-Plateau 12 June, 1992. See also: Claude Rivière, 'Les Libanais en Guinée', Kroniek van Afrika, 6 (1975), pp. 274-81; René Charbonneau, 'Les Libano-syriens en Afrique noire', Revue française d'études politiques africaines, 26 (1968), pp. 63-4; Saïd Boumedouha, 'Adjustment to West African Realities: The Lebanese in Senegal', Africa, 60 (1990), pp. 539-42; and H. L. van der Laan, The Lebanese Traders in Sierra Leone (Mouton, The Hague; 1975), pp. 10-12, 285-94.
31. Kamel Sifaoui, Abidjan-Treichville, 28 February 1992; Amir Sharaffdeen. Bouaké, 20 May 1992; Fouad Salamé, Abidjan-Plateau 12 June, 1992. See also: Claude Rivière, 'Les Libanais en Guinée', Kroniek van Afrika, 6 (1975), pp. 274-81; René Charbonneau, 'Les Libano-syriens en Afrique noire', Revue française d'études politiques africaines, 26 (1968), pp. 63-4; Saïd Boumedouha, 'Adjustment to West African Realities: The Lebanese in Senegal', Africa, 60 (1990), pp. 539-42; and H. L. van der Laan, The Lebanese Traders in Sierra Leone (Mouton, The Hague; 1975), pp. 10-12, 285-94.
32. Kamel Sifaoui, Abidjan-Treichville, 28 February 1992; Amir Sharaffdeen. Bouaké, 20 May 1992; Fouad Salamé, Abidjan-Plateau 12 June, 1992. See also: Claude Rivière, 'Les Libanais en Guinée', Kroniek van Afrika, 6 (1975), pp. 274-81; René Charbonneau, 'Les Libano-syriens en Afrique noire', Revue française d'études politiques africaines, 26 (1968), pp. 63-4; Saïd Boumedouha, 'Adjustment to West African Realities: The Lebanese in Senegal', Africa, 60 (1990), pp. 539-42; and H. L. van der Laan, The Lebanese Traders in Sierra Leone (Mouton, The Hague; 1975), pp. 10-12, 285-94.
33. Kamel Sifaoui, Abidjan-Treichville, 28 February 1992; Amir Sharaffdeen. Bouaké, 20 May 1992; Fouad Salamé, Abidjan-Plateau 12 June, 1992. See also: Claude Rivière, 'Les Libanais en Guinée', Kroniek van Afrika, 6 (1975), pp. 274-81; René Charbonneau, 'Les Libano-syriens en Afrique noire', Revue française d'études politiques africaines, 26 (1968), pp. 63-4; Saïd Boumedouha, 'Adjustment to West African Realities: The Lebanese in Senegal', Africa, 60 (1990), pp. 539-42; and H. L. van der Laan, The Lebanese Traders in Sierra Leone (Mouton, The Hague; 1975), pp. 10-12, 285-94.
34. Kamel Sifaoui, Abidjan-Treichville, 28 February 1992; Amir Sharaffdeen. Bouaké, 20 May 1992; Fouad Salamé, Abidjan-Plateau 12 June, 1992. See also: Claude Rivière, 'Les Libanais en Guinée', Kroniek van Afrika, 6 (1975), pp. 274-81; René Charbonneau, 'Les Libano-syriens en Afrique noire', Revue française d'études politiques africaines, 26 (1968), pp. 63-4; Saïd Boumedouha, 'Adjustment to West African Realities: The Lebanese in Senegal', Africa, 60 (1990), pp. 539-42; and H. L. van der Laan, The Lebanese Traders in Sierra Leone (Mouton, The Hague; 1975), pp. 10-12, 285-94.
35. Kamel Sifaoui, Abidjan-Treichville, 28 February 1992; Amir Sharaffdeen. Bouaké, 20 May 1992; Found Salamé, Abidjan-Plateau 12 June, 1992. See also: Claude Rivière, 'Les Libanais en Guinée', Kroniek van Afrika, 6 (1975), pp. 274-81; René Charbonneau, 'Les Libano-syriens en Afrique noire', Revue française d'études politiques africaines, 26 (1968), pp. 63-4; Saïd Boumedouha, 'Adjustment to West African Realities: The Lebanese in Senegal', Africa, 60 (1990), pp. 539-42; and H. L. van der Laan, The Lebanese Traders in Sierra Leone (Mouton, The Hague; 1975), pp. 10-12, 285-94.
36. Fouad Omaïs, Abidjan-Treichville, 25 March 1992; Ghaleb Fakhreddine, Gagnoa, 4 April 1992; Bassim Jaber, Abidjan-Treichville, 9 September 1992.
37. Fouad Omaïs, Abidjan-Treichville, 25 March 1992; Ghaleb Fakhreddine, Gagnoa, 4 April 1992; Bassim Jaber, Abidjan-Treichville, 9 September 1992.
38. Fouad Omaïs, Abidjan-Treichville, 25 March 1992; Ghaleb Fakhreddine, Gagnoa, 4 April 1992; Bassim Jaber, Abidjan-Treichville, 9 September 1992.
39. Maha Dergham, Korhogo, 6 July 1992; Edouard Wehbé, Korhogo, 7 July 1992.
40. Maha Dergham, Korhogo, 6 July 1992; Edouard Wehbé, Korhogo, 7 July 1992.
41. Fouad Omaïs, Abidjan-Treichville, 25 March 1992 ('85 percent'); Ghaleb Fakhreddine, Gagnoa, 4 April 1992 ('80 to 85 percent'); Mohamed Daher, Abidjan-Plateau, 14 September 1992 ('92 percent').
42. Fouad Omaïs, Abidjan-Treichville, 25 March 1992 ('85 percent'); Ghaleb Fakhreddine, Gagnoa, 4 April 1992 ('80 to 85 percent'); Mohamed Daher, Abidjan-Plateau, 14 September 1992 ('92 percent').
43. Fouad Omaïs, Abidjan-Treichville, 25 March 1992 ('85 percent'); Ghaleb Fakhreddine, Gagnoa, 4 April 1992 ('80 to 85 percent'); Mohamed Daher, Abidjan-Plateau, 14 September 1992 ('92 percent').
44. Fouad Omaïs, Abidjan-Treichville, 25 March 1992.
45. In contemporary Lebanon, Shi'is have average family incomes amounting to only 72.5 percent of the national average (and to 63.2 percent of those of Christians, 73.3 percent of those of Muwahhids, and 81.3 percent of those of Sunnis). 31 percent of Shi'i men and 70 percent of Shi'i women have no schooling at all (cf. national averages of 21 percent and 40 percent respectively). See Samih K. Farsoun, 'E pluribus plura or e pluribus unum? Cultural pluralism and social class in Lebanon', in Halim Barakat (ed.), Toward a Viable Lebanon, (Croom Helm and The Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, London and Washington, DC, 1988), p. 122.
46. For example, Fouad Omaïs, though Shi'i, is married to a Maronite, and Mohamed Daher claimed that many Muslims contributed to the building of the Maronite church in Adjamé.
47. 'J'ai réussi tout seul', Hussein Hamadé, Korhogo, 7 July 1992.
48. Bigo, 'Lebanese community', pp. 516-17.
49. Joe Ezzedine, Abidjan-Plateau, 25 September 1992.
50. From Côte d'Ivoire Selection, no. 647 (2 June 1992), p. 8; PNCI is 'Programme national d'assistance aux commerçants ivoiriens'.
51. Nasser Ezedine, Gagnoa, 5 April 1992; Ikra Maxime, Abidjan-Plateau, 9 September 1992; Bassim Jaber, Abidjan-Treichville, 9 September 1992; Fouad Salamé, Abidjan-Plateau, 24 June 1996.
52. Nasser Ezedine, Gagnoa, 5 April 1992; Ikra Maxime, Abidjan-Plateau, 9 September 1992; Bassim Jaber, Abidjan-Treichville, 9 September 1992; Fouad Salamé, Abidjan-Plateau, 24 June 1996.
53. Nasser Ezedine, Gagnoa, 5 April 1992; Ikra Maxime, Abidjan-Plateau, 9 September 1992; Bassim Jaber, Abidjan-Treichville, 9 September 1992; Fouad Salamé, Abidjan-Plateau, 24 June 1996.
54. Nasser Ezedine, Gagnoa, 5 April 1992; Ikra Maxime, Abidjan-Plateau, 9 September 1992; Bassim Jaber, Abidjan-Treichville, 9 September 1992; Fouad Salamé, Abidjan-Plateau, 24 June 1996.
55. Kamel Sifaoui, Abidjan-Zone 2, 28 February 1992; Joe Ezzedine, Abidjon-Yopougon, 19 March 1992.
56. Kamel Sifaoui, Abidjan-Zone 2, 28 February 1992; Joe Ezzedine, Abidjon-Yopougon, 19 March 1992.
57. From information provided by Joe Ezzedine, Abidjan-Plateau, 19 March 1992, and Hassan Salamé, Gagnoa, 12 May 1992.
58. From information provided by Joe Ezzedine, Abidjan-Plateau, 19 March 1992, and Hassan Salamé, Gagnoa, 12 May 1992.
59. Cited in Taan, 'Les Libanais', p. 192.
60. Ikra Maxime, Directeur de la Chambre d'Industrie, Abidjan-Plateau, 9 September 1992; also, Bassim Jaber, Abidjan-Treichville, 9 September 1992; Fouad Salamé, 24 June 1996.
61. Ikra Maxime, Directeur de la Chambre d'Industrie, Abidjan-Plateau, 9 September 1992; also, Bassim Jaber, Abidjan-Treichville, 9 September 1992; Fouad Salamé, 24 June 1996.
62. Ikra Maxime, Directeur de la Chambre d'Industrie, Abidjan-Plateau, 9 September 1992; also, Bassim Jaber, Abidjan-Treichville, 9 September 1992; Fouad Salamé, 24 June 1996.
63. Fouad Omaïs, 25 March 1992.
64. Fouad Salamé Abidjan-Plateau, 1 July 1992.
65. 'Les Libanais dans l'économie', Le Démocrate, 13 May 1992, pp. 7-11.
66. Radia Fakhry Taleb, Abidjan-Treichville, 1 September 1992.
67. Joe Ezzedine, Abidjan-Yopougon, 19 March 1992.
68. Omar Sahyoun, Abidjan-Plateau, 10 September 1992: Bouazo, 'Les Libanais', p. 62.
69. Omar Sahyoun, Abidjan-Plateau, 10 September 1992: Bouazo, 'Les Libanais', p. 62.
70. 'Les Libanais dans i'économie', Le Démocrate, 13 May 1992, pp. 7-11.
71. The Basilica de Notre Dame de la Paix in Yamoussoukro, possibly the most famous (or notorious) building in Côte d'Ivoire, was designed by a Lebanese Ivoirian, Elie Fakhoury.
72. Imad Fakhreddine, Gagnoa, 4 April 1992; Bassim Jaber, Abidjan-Treichville, 9 September 1992; Océne Zein, Agboville, 17 September 1992.
73. Imad Fakhreddine, Gagnoa, 4 April 1992; Bassim Jaber, Abidjan-Treichville, 9 September 1992; Océne Zein, Agboville, 17 September 1992.
74. Imad Fakhreddine, Gagnoa, 4 April 1992; Bassim Jaber, Abidjan-Treichville, 9 September 1992; Océne Zein, Agboville, 17 September 1992.
75. Bassim Jaber, a member of the PDCI, told me that when he attends party rallies 'j'applaudis, et puis je retire', Abidjan-Treichville, 9 September 1992.
76. Océne Zein, Agboville, 17 September 1992; he added, though, 'Je suis pessimiste sur l'avenir'.
77. Ghaleb Fakhreddine, Gagnoa, 4 April 1992; Ali Bilal, Abidjan-Marcory, 14 September 1992; Océne Zein, Agboville, 17 September 1992.
78. Ghaleb Fakhreddine, Gagnoa, 4 April 1992; Ali Bilal, Abidjan-Marcory, 14 September 1992; Océne Zein, Agboville, 17 September 1992.
79. Ghaleb Fakhreddine, Gagnoa, 4 April 1992; Ali Bilal, Abidjan-Marcory, 14 September 1992; Océne Zein, Agboville, 17 September 1992.
80. 'La chasse aux Libanais et aux Marocains', La voie, 9 September 1992. p. 2; Dramera Mody, 22 June 1996.
81. 'La chasse aux Libanais et aux Marocains', La voie, 9 September 1992. p. 2; Dramera Mody, 22 June 1996.
82. See, for example, 'Le Libanais, pris avec les 78 millions', Ivoire Soir, 5 April 1992; and 'Le pouvoir des Libanais sur les magistrats ivoiriens', La Voie, 14 June 1996, in which were published the names of 42 Lebanese who had recently been arrested for a variety of crimes.
83. See, for example, 'Le Libanais, pris avec les 78 millions', Ivoire Soir, 5 April 1992; and 'Le pouvoir des Libanais sur les magistrats ivoiriens', La Voie, 14 June 1996, in which were published the names of 42 Lebanese who had recently been arrested for a variety of crimes.
84. Joe Ezzedine, Abidjan-Plateau, 25 September 1992.
85. Mariana Zraik, Grand Bassam, 14 July 1992; Ali Bilal, Abidjan-Marcory, 14 September 1992; Genevieve Gaffari, Abidjan-Plateau, 25 September 1992. It should be noted that the durable also blame the nouveaux in part for this change of attitude, asserting that their political radicalism, criminality and mistreatment of indigenous Africans have exacerbated resentment towards all Lebanese.
86. Mariana Zraik, Grand Bassam, 14 July 1992; Ali Bilal, Abidjan-Marcory, 14 September 1992; Genevieve Gaffari, Abidjan-Plateau, 25 September 1992. It should be noted that the durable also blame the nouveaux in part for this change of attitude, asserting that their political radicalism, criminality and mistreatment of indigenous Africans have exacerbated resentment towards all Lebanese.
87. Mariana Zraik, Grand Bassam, 14 July 1992; Ali Bilal, Abidjan-Marcory, 14 September 1992; Genevieve Gaffari, Abidjan-Plateau, 25 September 1992. It should be noted that the durable also blame the nouveaux in part for this change of attitude, asserting that their political radicalism, criminality and mistreatment of indigenous Africans have exacerbated resentment towards all Lebanese.
88. Océne Zein, Agboville, 17 September 1992.
89. Jamal Bukheir, Abidjan-Cocody, 6 August 1992.
90. Diarra Yacouba, Abidjan-Cocody, 2 March 1992; see also Bigo, 'Lebanese community', pp. 523-4.
91. Diarra Yacouba, Abidjan-Cocody, 2 March 1992; see also Bigo, 'Lebanese community', pp. 523-4.
92. In general this statement is more true of durables than of nouveaux. Most, though certainly not all, of the letter group are indifferent to integration since they hope to return soon to their homeland. Nicolas Younan, Bingerville, 7 September 1992.
93. Fouad Omaïs, Abidjan-Treichville, 25 March 1992.
94. Bouazo, 'Les Libanais', p. 71; Khodr, Liban en Côte d'Ivoire, pp. 58-64; 'Les Libanais en Côte d'Ivoire: les femmes au secours du social', Le Démocrate, 13 May 1992, p. 11.
95. Bouazo, 'Les Libanais', p. 71; Khodr, Liban en Côte d'Ivoire, pp. 58-64; 'Les Libanais en Côte d'Ivoire: les femmes au secours du social', Le Démocrate, 13 May 1992, p. 11.
96. Bouazo, 'Les Libanais', p. 71; Khodr, Liban en Côte d'Ivoire, pp. 58-64; 'Les Libanais en Côte d'Ivoire: les femmes au secours du social', Le Démocrate, 13 May 1992, p. 11.
97. Bouazo, 'Les Libanais', p 73.
98. Hekmat Khodr, O Libanes no Brasil (Brasilia, n.d.).
99. Océne Zein, Agboville, 17 September 1992.
100. Océne Zein, Agboville, 17 September 1992.
101. Imad Fakhreddine, Gagnoa, 4 April 1992.
102. Radia Fakhry Taleb, Abidjan-Treichville, 1 September 1992.
103. 'S'il y a un désîr d'assimilation chez les Libanais, ce n'est pas en faveur des, Africains, mais en faveur des Européens', Bouazo, 'Les Libanais', p. 81.
104. At a luncheon, I once heard a woman of the Ivoirian elite speaking disparagingly about poor Lebanese shopkeepers in rural towns because 'they live like Africans'.
105. 'Les relations des Libanais à l'égard de nos administrés africains sont exclusivement commerciales; les distances sont maintenues nettement', ANCI, dossier 1729 (XVII-4-16), no. 58PS, Mourgues, Commandant du Cercle de Daloa, to Latrille, Lieutenant-Governor of Côte d'Ivoire, 28 March 1945.
106. Océne Zein, Agboville, 17 September 1992.
107. Walid Hussein, Abidjan-Plateau, 4 March 1992; Kamal Karaky, Abidjan-Treichville, 1 July 1992; Hassan Yassine, Abidjan-Cocody, 29 August 1992. All three of these men are Lebanese-African métis.
108. Walid Hussein, Abidjan-Plateau, 4 March 1992; Kamal Karaky, Abidjan-Treichville, 1 July 1992; Hassan Yassine, Abidjan-Cocody, 29 August 1992. All three of these men are Lebanese-African métis.
109. Walid Hussein, Abidjan-Plateau, 4 March 1992; Kamal Karaky, Abidjan-Treichville, 1 July 1992; Hassan Yassine, Abidjan-Cocody, 29 August 1992. All three of these men are Lebanese-African métis.
110. Bigo, 'Lebanese community', p. 524.
111. Pierre Wakim, Abidjen-Adjamé, 12 June 1992. It should be noted that, while cross-cousin marriage may be the avowed preference, in actual practice this occurs in only a minority of cases.
112. Océne Zein, Agboville, 17 September 1992.
113. Diarra Yacouba, Abidjan-Cocody, 2 March 1992; Kouassi Pelagie, Abidjan-Cocody, 26 May 1992.
114. Diarra Yacouba, Abidjan-Cocody, 2 March 1992; Kouassi Pelagie, Abidjan-Cocody, 26 May 1992.
115. Océne Zein, Agboville, 17 September 1992.