Molecular analysis of the sodium/ iodide symporter: Impact on thyroid and extrathyroid pathophysiology

Physiological Reviews

Volumn 80, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 1083-1105

  De La Vieja, Antonio ^a   Dohan, Orsolya ^a   Levy, Orlie ^a   Carrasco, Nancy ^a  

^a ALBERT EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CARRIER PROTEIN; IODINE; MEMBRANE PROTEIN; SODIUM; THYROTROPIN;

GENE THERAPY; HORMONE METABOLISM; HORMONE SYNTHESIS; HORMONE TRANSPORT; HUMAN; MEMBRANE TRANSPORT; NONHUMAN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN ANALYSIS; PROTEIN PROCESSING; PROTEIN SECONDARY STRUCTURE; PROTEIN TRANSPORT; REVIEW; THYROID DISEASE; TRANSCRIPTION REGULATION;

EID: 0033922682     PISSN: 00319333     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1152/physrev.2000.80.3.1083     Document Type: Review

References (134)

1. ABRAMOWICZ MJ, DUPREZ L, PARM J, VASSART G, AND HEINRICHS C. Familial congenital hypothyroidism due to inactivating mutation of the thyrotropin receptor causing profound hypoplasia of the thyroid gland. J Clin Invest 99: 3018-3024, 1997.
2. ABRAMOWICZ MJ, TARGONIK HM, VARELA V, COCHAUX P, KRAWIEC L, AND PISAREV MA. Identification of a mutation in the coding sequence of the human thyroid peroxidase gene causing congenital goiter. J Clin Invest 90: 1200-1204, 1992.
3. AJJAN RA, FINDLAY C, METCALFE RA, WATSON PF, CRISP M, LUDGATE M, AND WEETMAN AP. The modulation of the human sodium iodide symporter activity by Graves sera. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83: 1217-1221, 1998.
4. AJJAN RA, KAMARUDDIN NA, CRISP M, WATSON PF, LUDGATE M, AND WEETMAN AP. Regulation and tissue distribution of the human sodium iodide symporter gene. Clin Emlocrinol 49: 517-523, 1998.
5. AJJAN RA, WATSON PF, FINDLAY C, METCALFE RA, CRISP M, LUDGATE M, AND WEETMAN AP. The sodium iodide symporter gene and its regulation by cytokines found in autoimmunity. J Endocrinol 158: 351-358, 1998.
6. ALEXANDER WD AND WOLFF I. Cation requirements for iodide transport Arch Biochem Biophys 106: 525-528, 1964.
7. ARTURI F, RUSSO D, SCHLUMBERGER M, DUVILLARD JA, AND CAILLOU B. Iodide symporter gene expression in human thyroid tumors. J Clin Emlocrinol Metab 83: 2493-2496, 1998.
8. AZA-BLANZ P, DI LAURO R, AND SANTISTEBAN P. Identification of a cis-regulatory element and a thyroid-specific factor mediating the hormonal regulation of rat thyroid peroxidase promoter activity. Mol Endocrinol 7: 1297-1306, 1993.
9. BAGCHI N AND FAWCETT DM. Role of sodium ion in active transport of iodide by cultured thyroid cells. Biochim Biophys Acta 318: 235-251, 1973.
10. BEHR M, SCHMITT TL, ESPINOZA CR, AND LOOS U. Cloning of a functional promoter of the human sodium/iodide symporter gene. Biochem J 331: 359-363, 1998.
11. BIKKER H, VULSMA T, BAAS F, AND DE VIJLDER JJM. Identification of five novel inactivating mutations in the human thyroid peroxidase gene by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis. Hum Mutat 6: 9-16, 1995.
12. BRAVERMAN, LE AND INGBAR SH. Changes in thyroidal function during adaptation to large doses of iodide. J Clin Invest 42: 1216-1231, 1963.
13. BROWN-GRANT K. Extra thyroidal iodide concentrating mechanisms. Physiol Rev 41: 189-213, 1961.
14. - symporter distribution in human thyroid tissues: an immunohistochemical study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83: 4102-4106, 1998.
15. CAMARGO RYA, GROSS JL, SILVEIRO SP, KNOBEL M, AND MEDEIROS-NETO G. Pathological findings in dyshormonogenetic goiter with defective iodide transport. Endocr Pathol 9: 225-233, 1998.
16. CARRASCO N. Iodide transport in the thyroid gland. Biochim Biophys Ada 1154: 65-82, 1993.
17. CATUREGLI, P, HEJAZI M, SUZUKI K, DOHAN O, CARRASCO N, KOHN LK, AND ROSE NR. Hypothyroidism in transgenic mice expressing IFN-gamma in the thyroid. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97: 1719-1724, 2000.
18. CHENG SH, GREGORY RJ, MARSHALL J, SUCHARITA P, SOUZA DW, WHITE GA, O'RIORDAN CR, AND SMITH A. Defective intra-cellular transport and processing of CFTR is the molecular basis of most cystic fibrosis. Cell 63: 827-834, 1990.
19. COMB M, MERMOD N, HYMAN SE, PEARLBERG J, ROSS ME, AND GOODMAN HM. Proteins bound at adjacent DNA elements act synergistically to regulate human proenkephalin cAMP inducible transcription. EMBO J 7: 3793-3805, 1988.
20. DAI G, LEVY O, AMZEL LM, AND CARRASCO N. The mediator of thyroidal iodide accumulation: the sodium/iodide symporter. In: Handbook of Biological Physics. Transport Processes in Eukaryolic and Prokaryotic Organisms, edited by W. N. Konings, H. R. Kaback, and J. S. Lolkema. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1996, vol. II, p. 343-367.
21. DAI G, LEVY O, AND CARRASCO N. Cloning and characterization of the thyroid iodide transporter. Nature 379: 458-460, 1996.
22. DAMANTE G AND DI LAURO R. Thyroid-specific gene expression. Biochim Biophys Acta 1218: 255-266, 1994.
23. DEGROOT LI (Editor). Endocrinology. Orlando, FL: Grune & Stratton, 1995.
24. DELANGE F. The disorders induced by iodine deficiency. Thyroid 4: 107-128, 1994.
25. DE LA VIEJA A, GINTER CS, AND CARRASCO N. Topology of the sodium/iodide symporter (Abstract). In: Proceedings of the AAPS Frontier Symposium: Membrane Transporters and Drug Therapy. Bethesda, MD: NIH, 1999. p. 49.
26. DEVIDAS S AND GUGGINO WB. CFTR: domains, structure, and function. J Bioenerg Biomembr 29: 443-451, 1997.
27. DEVIDAS S, YUE H, AND GUGGINO WB. The second half of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane concductance regulator forms a functional chloride channel. J Biol Chem 273: 29373-29380, 1998.
28. DUGRILLON, A. lodolactones and iodoaldehydes: mediators of iodine in thyroid autoregulation. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 104, Suppl 4: 41-45, 1996.
29. ENDO T, KANESHIGE M, NAKAZATO M, KOGAI T, SAITO T, AND ONAYA T. Autoantibody against thyroid iodide transporter in the sera from patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis possesses iodide transport inhibitory activity. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 228: 199-202, 1996.
30. - symporter gene. Mot Endocrinol 11: 1747-1755, 1997.
31. - symporter in the sera of patients with autoimmune thyroid disease. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 224: 92-95, 1996.
32. ENDO T, OHNO M, KOTANI S, GUNJI K, AND ONAYA T. Thyrotropin receptor in nonthyroid tissues. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 190: 774-779, 1993.
33. ENG PHK, CARDONA GR, FANG SL, ALEX S, CARRASCO N, CHIN WW, AND BRAVERMAN LE. "Escape from the acute Wolff-Chaikoff effect is associated with a decrease in thyroid sodium/iodide symporter (NIS) expression." Endocrinology. In press.
34. - symporter: mechanism, stoichiometry, and specificity. J Biol Chem 272: 27230-27238, 1997.
35. ESPOSITO C, MICCADEI S, SAIARDI A, AND CIVITAREALE D. Pax8 activates the enhancer of the human thyroperoxidase gene. Biochem J 331: 37-40, 1998.
36. FEDERMAN D, BOBBINS J, AND RALL JE. Some observations on cretinism and its treatment. N Engl J Med 259: 610-616, 1958.
37. FISFALEN ME AND DEGROOT LJ. Graves disease and autoimmune thyroiditis. In: Molecular Endocrinology: Basic Concepts and Clinical Correlations, edited by B. D. Weintraub. New York : Raven, 1995, p. 319-369.
38. FOLEY KP, LEONARD MW, AND ENGEL JD. Quantitation of RNA using the polymerase chain reaction. Trends Genet 9: 380-385, 1993.
39. - symporter. Nature Genet 16: 124-125, 1997.
40. +/I symporter in patients with iodide transport defect. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83: 2940-2943, 1998.
41. GERARD CM, LEFORT A, LIBERT F, CHRISTOPHE D, DUMONT JE, AND VASSART G. Transcriptional regulation of the thyroperoxidase gene by thyrotropin and forskolin. Mol Cell Endocrinol 60: 239-242, 1988.
42. HALMI NS. Thyroidal iodide transport. Vitam Horm 19: 133-163, 1961.
43. HALMI NS, NISSEN WM, AND SCRANTON JR. The kinetics of the enhancement of thyroid iodide accumulation after actinomysin D administration. Endocrinology 84: 943-945, 1969.
44. HAMADA S, MATSUMURA T, AND YAWATA M. A case of iodide concentration disorder thyroid disease accompanied by citrullinemia Nippon Riosho 32: 2439-2442, 1974.
45. IFF HW AND WILLBRANDT W. Die Abhengigkeit der Jodakkumulation in Schilddrüsenschnitten von der ionalen Zusammensetzung des Inkubationsmediums und ihre Beeinflussung durch Herzglycoside. Biochim Biophys Acta 78: 711-752, 1963.
46. INOMATA H, TAMRU K, SATO H, SASAKI N, NIIMI H, AND NAKAJIMA H. Two sibbigs of absence of iodide-concentrating mechanism. Nippon Shonika Gakkai Zasshi 92: 2383-2388, 1988.
47. JANSEN E, AYOUBI TAY, MEULEMAN SMP, AND VAN DE VEN. Cell type-specific protein-DNA interactions at the cAMP response elements of the prohormone convertase 1 promoter. J Biol Chem 272: 2500-2508, 1997.
48. - symporter in human thyroid tissues and salivary gland tissues. Endocrinology 139: 4416-4419, 1998.
49. KAMBE F, NOMURA Y, OKAMOTO T, AND SEO H. Redox regulation for thyroid-transcription factors, Pax-8 and TTF-1, is involved in their increased DNA-binding activities by thyrotropin in rat thyroid FRTL-5 cells. Mol Endocrinol 10: 801-812, 1996.
50. - symporter by harmaline and TRP-P2 in thyroid cells and membrane vesicles. Eur J Biochem 200: 203-207, 1991.
51. - transporting cultured thyroid cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91: 3789-3793, 1994.
52. KATAYAMA Y, AND WIDDICOMBE JH. Halide transport in Xenopus oocytes. J Physiol (Lond) 443: 587-599, 1991.
53. KOGAI T, ENDO T, SAITO T, MIYAZAH A, KAWAGUCHI A, AND ONAYA T. Regulation by thyroid-stimulating hormone of sodium/ iodide symporter gene expression and protein levels in FRTL-5 cells. Endocrinology 138: 2227-2232, 1997.
54. KOSUGI S, INOUE S, MATSUDA A, AND JHIANG S. Novel, missense and loss-of-function mutations in the sodium/iodide symporter gene causing iodide transport defect in three Japanese patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83: 3373-3376, 1998.
55. KOSUGI S, SATO Y, MATSUDA A, OHYAMA Y, FUJIEDA K, INOMATA H, KAMEYA T, ISOZAKI O, AND JHIANG S. High prevalence of T354P sodium/iodide symporter gene mutation in Japanese patients with iodide transport defect who have heterogeneous clinical pictures. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83: 4123-4129, 1998.
56. - symporter of the rat Clin. Immunol Immunopathol 89: 271-278, 1998.
57. LAMAS L, ANDERSON PC, FOX JW, AND DUNN JT. Consensus sequences for early iodination and hormonogenesis in human thyroglobulin. J Biol Chem 264: 13541-13545, 1989.
58. LAMAS L, SANTISTEBAN P, TURMO C, AND SEGUIDO AM. Evidence, by in vitro enzymatic iodination of thyroglobulin, that the efficiency of coupling is determined by the initial iodide concentration. Endocrinology 118: 2131-2136, 1986.
59. LAZZARO D, PRICE M, FELICE D, AND DI LAURO R. The transcription factor TTF-1 is expressed at the onset of thyroid and lung morphogenesis and in restricted regions of the fetal brain. Development 113: 1093-1104, 1991.
60. LEIRI T, COCHAUX P, TARGOVNIK HM, SUZUKI M, SHIMODA SI, AND FERRET J. A 3′ splice site mutation in the thyroglobulin gene responsible for congenital goiter with hypothyroidism. J Clin Invest 88: 1901-1905, 1991.
61. LEW O AND CARRASCO N. Structure and function of the thyroid iodide transporter and its implications for thyroid disease. Curr Opin Endocr Diabetes 4: 364-370, 1997.
62. - symporter with an anti-COOH terminus antibody. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94: 5568-5573, 1997.
63. - symporter (NIS): recent advances. J Bioenerg Biomembr 30: 195-206, 1998.
64. - symporter (NIS): implications for its secondary structure model. J Biol Chem 273: 22657-22663, 1998.
65. - symporter (NIS) function from analysis of a mutation that causes human congenital hypothyroidism. FEBS Lett 429: 36-40, 1998.
66. LUDGATE M, CRISP M, LANE C, COSTAGLIOLA S, VASSART G, WEETMAN A, DAUNERIE C, AND MANY MC. The thyrotropin receptor in thyroid eye disease. Thyroid 8: 411-413, 1998.
67. MANDELL RB, MANDEL LZ, AND LINK CJ. Radioisotope concentrator gene therapy using the sodium/iodide symporter gene. Cancer Res 59: 661-668, 1999.
68. MARINE D AND FEISS HO. The absorption of potassium iodide by perfused thyroid glands and some of the factors modifying it. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 7: 557-576, 1915.
69. +/glucose cotransporter (SGLT1) trafficking and function caused glucose galactose malabsorption. Nature Genet 12: 216-220, 1996.
70. MATSUDA A AND KOSUGI S. A homozygous missense mutation of the sodium/iodide symporter gene causing iodide transport defect. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82: 3966-3971, 1997.
71. MATSURA M, NISHIHATA N, KONDO M, ZENSAK N, AND SUWA S. An infant case of goitrous hypothyroidism due to iodide concentration disorders, Clin Endorrinol 23: 2383-2388, 1975.
72. MEDEIROS-NETO G, TARGOVNIK HM, AND VASSART G. Defective thyroglobulin synthesis and secretion causing goiter and hypothyroidism. Endocr Rev 14: 165-183, 1993.
73. MISSERO C, COBELLIS G, DE FELICE M, AND DI LAURO R. Molecular events involved in differentiation of thyroid follicular cells. Mol Cell Endorrinol 141: 37-43, 1998.
74. MORRIS JC, BERGERT ER, AND BRYANT WP. Binding of immunoglobulin G from patients with autoimmune thyroid disease to rat sodium-iodide symporter peptides: evidence for the iodide transporter as an autoantigen. Thyroid 4: 527-534, 1997.
75. MORTON ME, CHAIKOFF IL, AND ROSENFELD S. Inhibiting effect of inorganic iodide on the formation in vitro of thyroxine and diiodotyrosine by surviving thyroid tissue. J Biol Chem 154: 381, 1944.
76. - symporter gene expression. Mol Endocrinol 12: 727-736, 1998.
77. OHMORI M, SHIMURA H, SHIMURA Y, IKUYAMA S, AND KOHN LD. Characterization of an up-stream thyroid transcription factor-1-binding site in the thyrotropin receptor promoter. Endocrinology 136: 269-282, 1995.
78. OHNO M, ZANNINI M, LEVY O, CARRASCO N, AND DI LAURO R. The paired-domain transcription factor Pax8 binds to the upstream enhancer of the rat sodium/iodide symporter gene and participates in both thyroid-specific and cyclic-AMP-dependent transcription. Mol Cell Biol 19: 2051-2060, 1999.
79. - transport system in plasma membrane vesicles from thyroid glands. Biochim Biophys Acta 896: 263-274, 1987.
80. ORTIZ L, ZANNINI M, DI LAURO R, AND SANTISTEBAN P. Transcriptional control of the forkhead transcription factor TTF-2 by thyrotropin, insulin, and insulin-like factor 1. J Biol Chem 272: 23334-23339, 1997.
81. PAIRE A, BERNIER-VALENTIN F, SELMI-RUBY S, AND ROUSSET B. Characterization of the rat thyroid iodide transporter using anti-peptide antibodies. Relationship between its expression and activity. J Biol Chem 272: 18245-18249, 1997.
82. PANG XP, YOSHIMURE M, AND HERSHMEN JM. Suppression of rat thyrotroph and thyroid cell function by tumor necrosis factor α. Thyroid 3: 325-330, 1993.
83. PASSLER CA, DUNN JT, ANDERSON PC, FOX JW, DUNN AD, HITE LA, MOORE RC, AND KIM PS. Thyrotropin alters utilization of thyroglobulin's hormonogenic sites. J Biol Chem 263: 17366, 1988.
84. PIACHOW D, CHOWDHORY R, WALTHER C, SIMON D, GROOT JL, AND CRUSE P. Pax8 a murine paired box gene expressed in the developing excretory system an thyroid gland. Development 110: 643-651, 1990.
85. POHLENZ J, MEDEIROS-NETO G, GROSS JL, SILVEIRO SP, KNOBEL M, AND REFETOFF S. Hypothyroidism in a Brazilian kindred due to iodide trapping defect caused by a homozygous mutation in the sodium/iodide symporter gene. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 240: 488-491, 1997.
86. POHLENZ J, ROSENTHAL IM, WEISS RE, JHIANG SM, BURANT C, AND REFETOFF S. Congenital hypothyroidism due to mutations in the sodium/iodide symporter. Identification of a nonsense mutation producing a downstream cryptic 3′ splice site. J Clin Invest 101: 1028-1035, 1998.
87. RASMUSSEN AK, KAYSER L, RASMUSSEN UF, AND BENDTZEN K. Influence of tumor necrosis factor-β and interferon-γ, separately and added together with interleukin-1β, on the function of cultured human thyroid cells. J Endocrinol 143: 359-365, 1994.
88. - cotransporter as a potential autoantigen in thyroid autoimmune disease. Eur J Endocrinol 132: 399-405, 1995.
89. ROBBINS. Pathological Basis of Disease. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, 1994, p. 1133-1142.
90. - symporter. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83: 3247-3251, 1998.
91. SAITO K, YAMAMOTO K, YOSHIDA S, MANABE S, SUZUKI M, TAKAI T, SAITO T, KUZUYA T, AND MORIYAMA S. Goitrous hypothyroidism due to iodide-trapping defect. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 53: 1267-1272, 1981.
92. SAITO T, ENDO T, KAWAGUCHI A, IKEDA M, KATOH R, KAAOI A MURAMATSU A, AND ONAYA T. Increased expression of the sodium/iodide symporter in papillary thyroid carcinomas J Clin Invest 101: 1296-1300, 1998.
93. SAJI M, AKAMIZU T, SANCHEZ M, OBICI S, AWEDIMENTO E, GOTTESMAN ME, AND KOHN LD. Regulation of thyrotropin receptor gene expression in rat FRTL-5 thyroid cells. Endocrinology 130: 520-533, 1992.
94. SANTISTEBAN P, ACEBRON A, POLYCARPOU-SCHWARZ M, AND DI LAURO R. Insulin and insulin-like factor regulated a thyroid-specific nuclear protein that binds to the thyroglobulin promoter. Mol Cell Biol 5: 1310-1317, 1992.
95. SATO K AND DI LAURO R. Hepatocyte nuclear factor 3β participated in the transcriptional regulation of the thyroperoxidase promoter. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 220: 86-93, 1996.
96. - symporter gene. Endocrinology 138: 4493-4496, 1997.
97. SCHLUMBERGER MJ. Papillary and follicular thyroid carcinoma. N Engl J Med 338: 297-306, 1998.
98. SCHMUTZLER C AND KÖHRLE J. Implications of the molecular characterizations on the sodium-iodide symporter (NIS). Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 106 Suppl 3: S1-S10, 1998.
99. SHIMURA H, MIYAZAKI A, HARAGUCHI K, ENDO T, AND ONAYA T. Analysis of differentiation-induced expression mechanisms of thyrotropin receptor gene in adipocytes. Mol Endocrinol 12: 1473-1486, 1998.
100. SHIMURA H, HARAGUCHI K, ENDO T, AND ONAYA T. Regulation of thyrotropin receptor gene expression in 3T3-L1 adipose cells is distinct from its regulation in FRTL-5 thyroid cells. Endocrinology 138: 1483-1490, 1997.
101. SHIMURA H, OKAJIMA F, IKUYAMA S, SHIMURA Y, KIMURA S, SAJI M, AND KOHN LD. Thyroid-specific expression and cyclic adenosine 3′,5′-monophosphate autoregulation of the thyrotropin receptor gene involves thyroid transcription factor-1. Mol Endocrinol 8: 1049-1069, 1994.
102. SHIMURA H, SHIMURA Y, OHMORI M, IKUYAMA S, AND KOHN LD. Single strand DNA-binding proteins and thyroid transcription factor-1 conjointly regulate thyrotropin receptor gene expression. Mol Endocrinol 9: 527-539, 1995.
103. SHIMURA Y, SHIMURA H, OHMORI M, IKUYAMA S, AND KOHN LD. Identification of a novel insulin-responsive element in the rat thyrotropin receptor promoter. J Biol Chem. 269: 31908-31914, 1994.
104. SILVERBERG E AND LUBERA JA. Cancer statistics. CA cancer. J Clin Cancel-Statistics 39: 3-20, 1989.
105. SMANIK PA, LJU Q, FURMINGER TL, RYU K, XING S, MAZZAFERRI EL, AND JHIANG SM. Cloning of the human sodium iodide symporter. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 226: 339-345, 1996.
106. SMANIK PA, RYU K, THEIL KS, MAZZAFERRI EL, AND JHIANG SM. Expression, exon-intron organization and chromosome mapping of the human sodium iodide symporter. Endocrinology 138: 3555-3558, 1997.
107. SPITZWEG C AND HEUFELDER AE. The sodium iodide symporter: its emerging relevance to clinical thyroidology. Eur J Endocrinol 138: 374-375, 1998.
108. SPITZWEG C, JOBA W, EISENMENGER W, AND HEUFELDER AE. Analysis of human sodium iodide symporter gene expression in extrathyroidal tissues and cloning of its complementary DNA from salivary gland, mammary gland, and gastric mucosa J. Clin Endocrinol Metab 83: 1746-1751, 1998.
109. STANBURY JB AND DUMONT JE. Familial goiter and related disorders. In: The Metabolic Basis of Inherited Disease, edited by J. B. Stanbury, J. B. Wyngaarden, D. S. Fredrickson, J. L. Goldstein, and M. S. Brown. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983, p. 231-269.
110. SUNTHORNTHEPVARUKUI T, GOTTSCHALK ME, HAYASHI Y, AND REFETTOF S. Brief report: resistance to thyrotropin caused by mutations in the thyrotropin receptor gene. N Engl J Med 332: 155-160, 1995.
111. SWANSON DJ, ZELLMER E, AND LEWIS EJ. The homeodomain protein Arix interacts synergistically with cAMP to regulate expression of neurotransmitter biosynthetic genes. J Biol Chem 272: 27382-27392, 1997.
112. - symporter (mgNIS) (Abstract). In: Proceedings of the AAPS Frontier Symposium: Membrane Transporters and Drug Therapy. Bethesda, MD: NIH, 1999, p. 45.
113. - symporter gene. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 239: 34-41, 1997.
114. TOUBLANC J. Comparison of epidemiological data on congenital hypothyroidism in Europe with those of other parts of the world. Horm Res 38: 230-235, 1992.
115. TURK E AND WRIGHT EM. Membrane topology motifs in the SGLT cotransporter family. J Membr Biol 159: 1-20, 1997.
116. TYLER P. China confronts retardation of millions who lack iodine. New York Times June 4, 1996.
117. - symporter mRNAs in dog thyroid. Mol Cell Endocrinol 131: 195-203, 1997.
118. VAN HEUVERSWYN B, LERICHE A, VAN SANDE J, DUMONT J, AND VASSART G. Transcriptional control of thyroglobulin gene expression by cyclic AMP. FEBS Lett 188: 192-196, 1985.
119. VASSART G, DESARNAUD F, DUPREZ L, EGGERICKX D, LABBE F LIBERT O, MOLLEREAU C, PARMA J, PASCHKE R, AND TONACCHERA M. The G protein-coupled receptor family and one of its members, the TSH receptor. Ann NY Acad Sci 766: 23-30, 1995.
120. VENKATARAMAN MG, YATIN M, AND AIN KB. Cloning of the human sodium-iodide symporter promoter and characterization in a differentiated human thyroid cell line, KAT-50. Thyroid 8: 63-69, 1998.
121. WARTOFSKY L, SHERMAN SI, GOPAL J, SCHLUMBERGER M, AND HAY ID. The use of radioactive iodine in patients with papillary and follicular cancer. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83: 4195-4203, 1998.
122. - cotransporter: a thyroid autoantigen? Eur J Endocrinol 132: 397-398, 1995.
123. WEETMAN AP. New aspects of thyroid immunity. Horm Res 48: 51-54, 1997.
124. WEISS SJ, PHILIP NJ, AMBESI-IMPIOMBATO FS, AND GROLLMAN EF. Thyrotropin-stimulated iodide transport mediated by adenosine 3′,5′-monophosphate and dependent on protein synthesis. Endocrinology 114: 1099-1107, 1984.
125. WEISS SJ, PHILIP NJ, AND GROLLMANN EF. Iodide transport in a continuous line of cultured cells from rat thyroid. Endocrinology 114: 1090-1098, 1984.
126. WERNER SC AND INGBAR S. The Thyroid: A Fundamental and Clinical Text, edited by L. E. Braverman and R. D. Utiger. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, 1991, p. 1-1362.
127. WOLFF J. Transport of iodide and other anions in the thyroid gland. Physiol Rev 44: 45-90, 1964.
128. WOLFF J. Congenital goiter with defective iodide transport. Endoer Rev 4: 240-254, 1983.
129. WOLFF J. Perchlorate and the thyroid gland. Pharmacol Rev 50: 89-105, 1998.
130. WOLFF J AND CHAIKOFF IL. Plasma inorganic iodide as a homeostatic regulator of thyroid function. J Biol Chem 174: 555-560, 1948.
131. WOLFF J, CHAIKOFF IL, GOLDBERG RC, AND MEIER JR. The temporary nature of the inhibitory action of excess iodide on organic synthesis in the normal thyroid. Endocrinology 45: 504-513, 1949.
132. - symporter. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 231: 731-734, 1997.
133. 4, studied in FRTL-5 cells. Biochim Biophys Acta 11: 231-237, 1998.
134. ZANINI M, AZA-BLANZ P, DI LAURO R, AND SANTISTEBAN P. Identification of a cis-regulatory element and a thyroid-specific factor mediating the hormonal regulation of rat thyroid peroxidase promoter activity. Mol Endocrinol 7: 1297-1306, 1993.