Society of Self: The Emergence of Collective Properties in Self-Structure

Psychological Review

Volumn 107, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 39-61

  Nowak, Andrzej ^a   Tesser, Abraham ^b   Vallacher, Robin R ^a,c   Borkowski, Wojciech ^a,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WARSAW   (Poland)

^b UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA   (United States)

^c FLORIDA ATLANTIC UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; HUMAN; HUMAN RELATION; SELF CONCEPT; TIME;

HUMANS; INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS; SELF CONCEPT; TIME FACTORS;

EID: 0033630858     PISSN: 0033295X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.107.1.39     Document Type: Article

References (128)

1. Abelson, R. P., Aronson, E., McGuire, W. J., Newcomb, T. M., Rosenberg, M. J., & Tannenbaum, P. H. (1968). Theories of cognitive consistency: A sourcebook. Chicago: Rand McNally.
2. Amit, D. J. (1989). Modeling brain function: The world of attractor neural networks. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
3. Anderson, N. H. (1981). Foundations of information integration theory. New York: Academic Press.
4. Aronson, E. (1992). The return of the oppressed: Dissonance theory makes a comeback. Psychological Inquiry, 3, 303-311.
5. Axelrod, R. (1984). The evolution of cooperation. New York: Basic Books.
6. Bargh, J. A. (1997). The automaticity of everyday life. In R. S. Wyer (Ed.), The automaticity of everyday life: Advances in social cognition (Vol. 10, pp. 1-61). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
7. Baumeister, R. F. (Ed.). (1993). Self-esteem: The puzzle of low self-regard. New York: Plenum.
8. Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497-529.
9. Baumgardner, A. H. (1990). To know oneself is to like oneself: Self-certainty and self-affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 1062-1072.
10. Beach, S. R. H., & Tesser, A. (in press). Self-evaluation maintenance and evolution: Some speculative notes. In J. Suls & L. Wheeler (Eds.), The handbook of social comparison.
11. Biddle, B. S., & Thomas, E. J. (Eds.). (1966). Role theory: Concepts and research. New York: Wiley.
12. Bieri, J., Atkins, A. L., Briar, S., Leaman, R. L., Miller, H., & Tripodi, T. (1966). Clinical and social judgment. New York: Wiley.
13. Brewer, M. B., & Kramer, R. M. (1985). The psychology of intergroup attitudes and behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 36, 219-243.
14. Buss, D. M. (1995). Evolutionary psychology: A new paradigm for psychological science. Psychological Inquiry, 6, 1-30.
15. Cacioppo, J. T., Gardner, W. L., & Berntson, G. G. (1997). Beyond bipolar conceptualizations and measures: The case of attitudes and evaluative space. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 1, 3-25.
16. Campbell, J. D., Trapnell, P. D., Heine, S. J., Katz, I. M., Lavallee, L. F., & Lehman, D. R. (1996). Self-concept clarity: Measurement, personality correlates, and cultural boundaries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 141-156.
17. Cartwright, D., & Harary, F. (1956). Structural balance: A generalization of Heider's theory. Psychological Review, 63, 277-293.
18. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1981). Attention and self-regulation: A control-theory approach to human behavior. New York: Springer-Verlag.
19. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1990). Origins and functions of positive and negative affect: A control-process view. Psychological Review, 97, 19-35.
20. Cialdini, R. B., Trost, M. R., & Newsom, J. T. (1995). Preference for consistency: The development of a valid measure and the discovery of surprising behavioral implications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 318-328.
21. Clary, G., & Tesser, A. (1983). Reactions to unexpected events: The naïve scientist and interpretive activity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 9, 609-620.
22. Cooley, C. H. (1902). Human nature and the social order. New York: Scribner.
23. Coovert, M. D., & Reeder, G. D. (1990). Negativity effect in impression formation: The role of unit formation and schematic expectation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 26, 49-62.
24. Crocker, J., & Wolfe, J. (1998). Contingencies of worth. Unpublished manuscript, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
25. Duval, S., & Wicklund, R. A. (1972). A theory of objective self-awareness. New York: Academic Press.
26. Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
27. Eiser, J. R. (1994). Toward a dynamic conception of attitude consistency and change. In R. R. Vallacher & A. Nowak (Eds.), Dynamical systems in social psychology (pp. 197-218). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
28. Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117-140.
29. Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
30. Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (1991). Social cognition (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
31. Gergen, K. J. (1971). The concept of self. New York: Holt.
32. Gilbert, D. T. (1993). The ascent of man: Mental representation and the control of belief. In D. M. Wegner & J. W. Pennebaker (Eds.), Handbook of mental control (pp. 57-87). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
33. Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday/Anchor Books.
34. Greenwald, A. G., Banaji, M. R., Rudman, L. A., Farnham, S. D., Nosek, B. A., & Rosier, M. (in press). Prologue to a unified theory of attitudes, stereotypes, and self-concept. In J. P. Forgas (Ed.), Feeling and thinking: The role of affect in social cognition and behavior. New York: Cambridge University Press.
35. Greenwald, A. G., & Pratkanis, A. R. (1984). The self. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (pp. 129-178). Hills-dale, NJ: Erlbaum.
36. Gur, R. C., & Sackheim, H. A. (1979). Self-deception: A concept in search of a phenomenon. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 147-169.
37. Haken, H. (Ed.). (1982). Evolution of order and chaos in physics, chemistry, and biology: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Synergetics at Schloss Elmau, Bavaria, April 26-May 1, 1982. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
38. Hastie, R., & Kumar, P. (1979). Person memory: Personality traits as organizing principles in memory for behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 25-38.
39. Heider, F. (1944). Social perception and phenomenal causality. Psychological Review, 51, 358-374.
40. Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley.
41. Hertz, J., Krogh, A., & Palmer, G. (1991). Introduction to theory of neural computation. Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley.
42. Higgins, E. T. (1996). Ideals, oughts, and regulatory focus: Affect and motivation from distinct pains and pleasures. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. 91-114). New York: Guilford Press.
43. Hopfield, J. J. (1982). Neural networks and physical systems with emergent collective computational abilities. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 79, 2554-2558.
44. Hopfield, J. J. (1984). Neurons with graded response have collective computational properties like those of two-state neurons. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 81, 3088-3092.
45. James, W. (1950). The principles of psychology. New York: Dover. (Original work published 1890)
46. Jones, E. E., & Gerard, H. B. (1967). Foundations of social psychology. New York: Wiley.
47. Kanouse, D. E., & Hanson, L. R. (1971). Negativity in evaluations. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
48. Kelly, G. A. (1963). A theory of personality: The psychology of personal constructs. New York: Norton.
49. Kelso, J. A. W. (1995). Dynamic patterns. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
50. Kernis, M. H. (1993). The roles of stability and level of self-esteem in psychological functioning. In R. F. Baumeister (Ed.), Self-esteem: The puzzle of low self-regard (pp. 167-182). New York: Plenum.
51. Kihlstrom, J. F., & Cantor, N. (1984). Mental representations of the self. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 17, pp. 2-48). New York: Academic Press.
52. Latané, B., & Nowak, A. (1994). Attitudes as catastrophes: From dimensions to categories with increasing involvement. In R. R. Vallacher & A. Nowak (Eds.), Dynamical systems in social psychology (pp. 219-249). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
53. Latané, B., & Nowak, A. (1997). The causes of polarization and clustering in social groups. Progress in Communication Sciences, 13, 43-75.
54. Latané. B., Nowak, A., & Liu, J. (1994). Measuring emergent social phenomena: Dynamism, polarization and clustering as order parameters of social systems. Behavioral Science, 39, 1-24.
55. Le Bon, G. (1968). The crowd: A study of the popular mind. New York: Ballantine Books. (Original work published 1895)
56. Lewenstein, M., Nowak, A., & Latané, B. (1992). Statistical mechanics of social impact. Physics Review A, 45, 763-776.
57. Linville, P. W. (1985). Self-complexity and affective extremity: Don't put all your eggs in one cognitive basket. Social Cognition, 3, 94-120.
58. Loevinger, J. (1997). Stages of personality development. In R. Hogan, J. Johnson, & S. Briggs (Eds.), Handbook of personality psychology (pp. 199-208). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
59. Markus, H. (1980). The self in thought and memory. In D. M. Wegner & R. R. Vallacher (Eds.), The self in social psychology (pp. 102-130). New York: Oxford University Press.
60. Markus, H. (1983). Self-knowledge: An expanded view. Journal of Personality, 51, 543-565.
61. Markus, H., & Sentis, K. (1983). The self in information processing. In J. Suis (Ed.), Psychological perspectives on the self (Vol. 1, pp. 41-70). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
62. Markus, H., Smith, J., & Moreland, R. L. (1985). Role of the self-concept in the perception of others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 1494-1512.
63. Markus, H., & Wurf, E. (1987). The dynamic self-concept: A social psychological perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 38, 299-377.
64. McClelland, J. L., & Rumelhart, D. E. (1986). Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition (Vol. 2). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
65. Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self, and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
66. Messick, D. M., & Liebrand, V. B. G. (1995). Individual heuristics and the dynamics of cooperation in large groups. Psychological Review, 102, 131-145.
67. Minsky, M. (1985). The society of mind. New York: Simon & Schuster.
68. Moreno, J. L. (1953). Who shall survive? Beacon, NY: Beacon House.
69. Nowak, A., Lewenstein, M., & Szamrej, J. (1993). Bable modelem przemian spolecznych [Bubbles: A model of social transitions]. Scientific American, 12, 16-25.
70. Nowak, A., Szamrej, J., & Latané, B. (1990). From private attitude to public opinion: A dynamic theory of social impact. Psychological Review, 97, 362-376.
71. Nowak, A., Urbaniak, J., & Zienkowski, L. (1994). Clustering processes in economic transition. RECESS Research Bulletin, 3, 43-61.
72. Nowak, A., & Vallacher, R. R. (1998a). Dynamical social psychology. New York: Guilford Press.
73. Nowak, A., & Vallacher, R. R. (1998b). Toward computational social psychology: Cellular automata and neural network models of interpersonal dynamics. In S. J. Read & L. C. Miller (Eds.), Connectionist models of social reasoning and social behavior (pp. 277-311). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
74. Nowak, A., Vallacher, R. R., & Burnstein, E. (1998). Computational social psychology: A neural network approach to interpersonal dynamics. In W. Liebrand, A. Nowak, & R. Hegselman (Eds.), Computer modeling of social processes (pp. 97-125). New York: Sage.
75. Osgood, C. E., Suci, G. J., & Tannenbaum, P. H. (1957). The measurement of meaning. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
76. Paulhus, D. L., & Levitt, K. (1987). Desirable responding triggered by affect: Automatic egotism? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 245-259.
77. Peeters, G., & Czapinski, J. (1990). Positive-negative asymmetry in evaluations: The distinction between affective and informational negativity effects. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 33-60). London: Wiley.
78. Pelham, B. W., & Swann, W. B., Jr. (1989). From self-conceptions to self-worth: On the sources and structure of global self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 672-680.
79. Pratto, F., & John, O. P. (1991). Automatic vigilance: The attention grabbing power of negative information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 380-391.
80. Prigogine, I., & Stengers, I. (1984). Order out of chaos. New York: Bantam.
81. Read, S. J., & Miller, L. C. (Eds.). (1998). Connectionist models of social reasoning and social behavior. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
82. Rogers, C. R. (1961). On becoming a person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
83. Rokeach, M. (1968). Beliefs, attitudes, and values. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
84. Rosenberg, S., & Sedlak, A. (1972). Structural representations of implicit personality theories. In E. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 6, pp. 235-297). New York: Academic Press.
85. Ryle, G. (1949). The concept of mind. London: Hutchinson.
86. Sarbin, T. R., & Allen, V. L. (1968). Role theory. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (2nd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 488-567). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
87. Schachter, S. (1959). The psychology of affiliation. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
88. Schachter, S., & Singer, J. (1962). Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state. Psychological Review, 69, 379-399.
89. Schuster, H. G. (1984). Deterministic chaos. Vienna: Physik Verlag.
90. Scott, W. A., Osgood, D. W., & Peterson, C. (1979). Cognitive structure: Theory and measurement of individual differences. Washington, DC: Winston.
91. Sedikides, C., & Skowronski, J. J. (1997). The symbolic self in evolutionary context. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 1, 80-102.
92. Showers, C. J. (1995). The evaluative organization of self-knowledge. In M. H. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem (pp. 101-120). New York: Plenum.
93. Showers, C. J., Abramson, L. Y., & Hogan, M. E. (1998). The dynamic self: How the content and structure of the self-concept change with mood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 478-493.
94. Showers, C. J., & Kling, K. C. (1996). Organization of self-knowledge: Implications for recovery from sad mood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 578-590.
95. Skowronski, J. J., & Carlston, D. E. (1989). Negativity and extremity biases in impression formation: A review of explanations. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 131-142.
96. Steele, C. M. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. In E. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 261-302). New York: Academic Press.
97. Swann, W. B., Jr. (1990). To be adored or to be known? The interplay of self-enhancement and self-verification. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 408-448). New York: Guilford Press.
98. Swann, W. B., & Ely, R. J. (1984). A battle of wills: Self-verification versus behavioral confirmation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 1287-1302.
99. Swann, W. B., Hixon, J. G., Stein-Seroussi, A., & Gilbert, D. (1990). The fleeting gleam of praise: Cognitive processes underlying behavioral reactions to self-relevant feedback. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 17-26.
100. Szamrej, J. (1989). [Dynamics of social influence and relocation in social space: A simulation model]. Unpublished raw data.
101. Tangney, J. P., & Fischer, K. W. (Eds.). (1995). Self-conscious emotions. New York: Guilford Press.
102. Taylor, S. E. (1991). Asymmetrical effects of positive and negative events: The mobilization-minimization hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 67-85.
103. Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 193-210.
104. Tesser, A. (1978). Self-generated attitude change. Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 11, pp. 289-338). New York: Academic Press.
105. Tesser, A. (1988). Toward a self-evaluation maintenance model of social behavior. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 181-227). New York: Academic Press.
106. Tesser, A., & Campbell, J. (1983). Self-definition and self-evaluation maintenance. In J. Suls & A. G. Greenwald (Eds.), Psychological perspectives on the self (Vol. 2, pp. 1-31). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
107. Tesser, A., & Martin, L. (1996). The psychology of evaluation. In E. T. Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 400-432). New York: Guilford Press.
108. Tesser, A., Martin, L., & Cornell, D. (1996). On the substitutability of self-protective mechanisms. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking motivation and cognition to behavior (pp. 48-68). New York: Guilford Press.
109. Tesser, A., & Rosen, S. (1975). The reluctance to transmit bad news. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 8, pp. 194-232). New York: Academic Press.
110. Tetlock, P. E. (1986). A value pluralism model of ideological reasoning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 819-827.
111. Tetlock, P. E., Skitka, L., & Boettger, R. (1989). Social and cognitive strategies for coping with accountability: Conformity, complexity, and bolstering. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 632-640.
112. Treisman, A. M., & Schmidt, H. (1982). Illusory conjunction in the perception of objects. Cognitive Psychology, 14, 107-141.
113. Trope, Y. (1986). Self-enhancement and self-assessment in achievement behavior. In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition (Vol. 1, pp. 350-378). New York: Guilford Press.
114. Vallacher, R. R. (1978). Objective self awareness and the perception of others. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 4, 63-67.
115. Vallacher, R. R. (1980). An introduction to self theory. In D. M. Wegner & R. R. Vallacher (Eds.), The self in social psychology (pp. 3-30). New York: Oxford University Press.
116. Vallacher, R. R. (1993). Mental calibration: Forging a working relationship between mind and action. In D. M. Wegner & J. W. Pennebaker (Eds.), Handbook of mental control (pp. 443-472). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
117. Vallacher, R. R., & Nowak, A. (1994). The stream of social judgment. In R. R. Vallacher & A. Nowak (Eds.), Dynamical systems in social psychology (pp. 251-277). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
118. Vallacher, R. R., & Nowak, A. (1997). The emergence of dynamical social psychology. Psychological Inquiry, 4, 73-99.
119. Vallacher, R. R., Nowak, A., & Kaufman, J. (1994). Intrinsic dynamics of social judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 20-34.
120. Vallacher, R. R., & Wegner, D. M. (1987). What do people think they're doing? Action identification and human behavior. Psychological Review, 94, 3-15.
121. Wasserman, S., & Faust, K. (1994). Social network analysis: Methods and applications. New York: Cambridge University Press.
122. Wegner, D. M. (1986). Transactive memory: A contemporary analysis of the group mind. In B. Mullen & G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Theories of group behavior (pp. 185-208). New York: Springer-Verlag.
123. Wegner, D. M., & Vallacher, R. R. (1977). Implicit psychology: An introduction to social cognition. New York: Oxford University Press.
124. Weisbuch, G. (1991). Complex system dynamics. Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley.
125. Wicklund, R. A., & Frey, D. (1980). Self-awareness theory: When the self makes a difference. In D. M. Wegner & R. R. Vallacher (Eds.), The self in social psychology (pp. 31-54). New York: Oxford University Press.
126. Wolfram, S. (Ed.). (1986). Theory and applications of cellular automata. Singapore: World Scientific.
127. Zajonc, R. B. (1960). The process of cognitive tuning in communication. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 61, 159-167.
128. Zubek, J. P. (Ed.). (1969). Sensory deprivation: Fifteen years of research. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.