메뉴 건너뛰기




Volumn 284, Issue 5419, 1999, Pages 1495-1503

The global topography of Mars and implications for surface evolution

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

MARS; PLANETARY SURFACE; TOPOGRAPHY;

EID: 0033612138     PISSN: 00368075     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1126/science.284.5419.1495     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (774)

References (91)
  • 3
    • 0345569857 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The data set includes topographic profiles of the northern hemisphere collected during the capture orbit, aerobraking hiatus orbit, and Science Phasing Orbit phases of the Mars Global Surveyor mission during the period 15 September 1997 to 31 July 1998. and circum-Mars profiles spanning the latitude range 87°N to 87°S for the period 1 March to 15 April 1999
    • The data set includes topographic profiles of the northern hemisphere collected during the capture orbit, aerobraking hiatus orbit, and Science Phasing Orbit phases of the Mars Global Surveyor mission during the period 15 September 1997 to 31 July 1998. and circum-Mars profiles spanning the latitude range 87°N to 87°S for the period 1 March to 15 April 1999.
  • 4
    • 7144222761 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • D. E. Smith et al., Science 279, 1686 (1998).
    • (1998) Science , vol.279 , pp. 1686
    • Smith, D.E.1
  • 6
  • 9
    • 0000082458 scopus 로고
    • A. J. Kliore, D. L. Cain, G. Fjeldbo, B. L. Seidel, M. J. Sykes, Icarus 17, 484 (1972); G. F. Lindal et al., J. Geophys. Res. 84, 8443 (1979).
    • (1979) J. Geophys. Res. , vol.84 , pp. 8443
    • Lindal, G.F.1
  • 10
    • 0001282541 scopus 로고
    • L. A. Soderblom and D. B. Wenner, Icarus 34, 622 (1978); S. S. C. Wu, P. A. Garcia, R. Jordan, F. J. Schafer, Nature 309, 432 (1984).
    • (1978) Icarus , vol.34 , pp. 622
    • Soderblom, L.A.1    Wenner, D.B.2
  • 12
    • 0006809188 scopus 로고
    • C. W. Hord, Icarus 17, 443 (1972); B. Conrath et al., J. Geophys. Res. 78, 4267 (1973).
    • (1972) Icarus , vol.17 , pp. 443
    • Hord, C.W.1
  • 13
    • 0006809188 scopus 로고
    • C. W. Hord, Icarus 17, 443 (1972); B. Conrath et al., J. Geophys. Res. 78, 4267 (1973).
    • (1973) J. Geophys. Res. , vol.78 , pp. 4267
    • Conrath, B.1
  • 15
    • 0344707706 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • In the current topographic model, which combines elliptical and mapping orbit observations, ground shots with valid spacecraft-attitude knowledge, with pointing angle <6° except where off-nadir ranging was performed to cover the north pole, numbered 26.6 million. All ground shots were projected sinusoidally and binned on a 1° by 1° equal-area global grid, and the median topography and location coordinates were obtained. Planetary radii were projected and similarly binned. A 36th degree-and-order harmonic model was fit to the data by least squares. This harmonic model was used in the determination of the best-fit ellipsoid.
  • 16
    • 0345138275 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The MOLA instrument measures the round trip time of flight of individual laser pulses between the MGS spacecraft and the martian surface. Each measurement is tagged at the transmit time; the receive time of the pulse is derived from the time of flight and the transmit time. The spacecraft inertial positions are derived for both transmit and receive times, and the light path is traced from the transmit position to the surface (accounting for spacecraft attitude) and back to the spacecraft at the receive position and time. The martian radius is obtained for the coordinates of the "bounce point" of the laser pulse on the surface in a COM reference frame. In the MGS mapping orbit the instrument's 10-Hz sampling rate combined with the laser beam divergence of 400 μrad results in a surface spot size of ∼160 m and shot-to-shot spacings of ∼330 m. The precision of MOLA range measurements approaches the limiting resolution of 37.5 cm on smooth level surfaces and may increase up to ∼10 m on 30° slopes. The accuracy of the spot location in latitude and longitude is limited by the knowledge of the spacecraft pointing at 1 to 3 mrads (400 to 2000 m on the surface, depending on the spacecraft altitude) and spacecraft position uncertainties of a few hundred meters. The estimate of global topographic accuracy includes contributions from radial orbit error (7 m rms) (63), instrument error (3 m rms), and geoid error (±10 m rms) (40). The accuracy estimate for the shape of the planet is ±8 m. A comparison of the binned altimeter data set with the locations of the Viking 1 and 2 and Pathfinder landing sites shows good agreement (Table 1).
  • 18
    • 17044399425 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • W. M. Folkner, C. F. Yoder, D. N. Yuan, E. M. Standish, R. A. Preston, Science 278, 1749 (1997); M. T. Zuber and D. E. Smith, J. Geophys. Res. 102, 28673 (1997).
    • (1997) J. Geophys. Res. , vol.102 , pp. 28673
    • Zuber, M.T.1    Smith, D.E.2
  • 19
    • 0344275771 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • This analysis uses the geoid from the MGM890i gravitational field model of Mars, derived from MGS gravity calibration orbit Doppler tracking, MGS elliptical orbit tracking, and historical tracking data from the Viking 1 and 2 and Mariner 9 orbiters (40). Zero elevation is defined as the equipotential surface whose average value at the equator is equal to 3,396,00 m.
  • 21
    • 0344707705 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The best-fit ellipsoid, which includes an estimation of the COM-COF offsets and the directions of the principal axes, has an rms fit of 1.9 km. The new global shape parameters are in close agreement with values obtained in an earlier long-wavelength model based on reanalysis of Viking and Mariner occultation measurements (37). x,y,z are body-fixed coordinates in a right-handed COM system in which the z axis is the rotation axis and the x axis is the origin of longitude.
  • 23
    • 0003859766 scopus 로고
    • Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT
    • T. A. Mutch, R. E. Arvidson, J. W. Head, K. L. Jones, R. S. Saunders, The Geology of Mars (Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ, 1976); M. H. Carr, The Surface of Mars (Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT, 1981).
    • (1981) The Surface of Mars
    • Carr, M.H.1
  • 24
    • 0345569854 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • q, which is commonly divided by 0.673 (the IQS of a normal distribution), is a robust estimator in the sense that it is not sensitive to outliers in as much as half of the population or as little as a quarter.
  • 25
    • 0003822905 scopus 로고
    • D. H. Scott and K. L. Tanaka, U.S. Geol. Surv Misc. Inv. Series Map I-1802-A (1986); R. Greeley and J. E. Guest, U.S. Geol. Surv. Misc. Inv. Series Map I-180Z-B (1987); K. L. Tanaka and D. H. Scott, U.S. Geol. Surv. Misc. Inv. Series Map I-1802-C (1987). Mars is divided into three primary stratigraphic units. The Noachian system is the oldest and consists of ancient cratered terrain. The Hesperian overlies the Noachian and consists principally of ridged plains materials. The Amazonian system has the youngest relative age and is represented mainly by smooth plains.
    • (1986) U.S. Geol. Surv Misc. Inv. Series Map I-1802-A
    • Scott, D.H.1    Tanaka, K.L.2
  • 26
    • 0006005608 scopus 로고
    • D. H. Scott and K. L. Tanaka, U.S. Geol. Surv Misc. Inv. Series Map I-1802-A (1986); R. Greeley and J. E. Guest, U.S. Geol. Surv. Misc. Inv. Series Map I-180Z-B (1987); K. L. Tanaka and D. H. Scott, U.S. Geol. Surv. Misc. Inv. Series Map I-1802-C (1987). Mars is divided into three primary stratigraphic units. The Noachian system is the oldest and consists of ancient cratered terrain. The Hesperian overlies the Noachian and consists principally of ridged plains materials. The Amazonian system has the youngest relative age and is represented mainly by smooth plains.
    • (1987) U.S. Geol. Surv. Misc. Inv. Series Map I-180Z-B
    • Greeley, R.1    Guest, J.E.2
  • 27
    • 0004262991 scopus 로고
    • D. H. Scott and K. L. Tanaka, U.S. Geol. Surv Misc. Inv. Series Map I-1802-A (1986); R. Greeley and J. E. Guest, U.S. Geol. Surv. Misc. Inv. Series Map I-180Z-B (1987); K. L. Tanaka and D. H. Scott, U.S. Geol. Surv. Misc. Inv. Series Map I-1802-C (1987). Mars is divided into three primary stratigraphic units. The Noachian system is the oldest and consists of ancient cratered terrain. The Hesperian overlies the Noachian and consists principally of ridged plains materials. The Amazonian system has the youngest relative age and is represented mainly by smooth plains.
    • (1987) U.S. Geol. Surv. Misc. Inv. Series Map I-1802-C
    • Tanaka, K.L.1    Scott, D.H.2
  • 30
    • 0004516637 scopus 로고
    • R. P. Sharp et al., J. Geophys. Res. 76, 331 (1971). R. P. Sharp, ibid. 78, 4073 (1973).
    • (1971) J. Geophys. Res. , vol.76 , pp. 331
    • Sharp, R.P.1
  • 31
    • 0000428605 scopus 로고
    • R. P. Sharp et al., J. Geophys. Res. 76, 331 (1971). R. P. Sharp, ibid. 78, 4073 (1973).
    • (1973) J. Geophys. Res. , vol.78 , pp. 4073
    • Sharp, R.P.1
  • 33
    • 0002266237 scopus 로고
    • H. H. Kieffer, B. M. Jakosky, C. W. Snyder, M. S. Matthews, Eds. Univ. of Arizona Press, Tucson
    • W. B. Banerdt, M. P. Golombek, K. L. Tanaka, in Mars, H. H. Kieffer, B. M. Jakosky, C. W. Snyder, M. S. Matthews, Eds. (Univ. of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1992), pp. 249-297; P. B. Esposito et al., ibid., pp. 209-248.
    • (1992) Mars , pp. 249-297
    • Banerdt, W.B.1    Golombek, M.P.2    Tanaka, K.L.3
  • 34
    • 0002003378 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • W. B. Banerdt, M. P. Golombek, K. L. Tanaka, in Mars, H. H. Kieffer, B. M. Jakosky, C. W. Snyder, M. S. Matthews, Eds. (Univ. of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1992), pp. 249-297; P. B. Esposito et al., ibid., pp. 209-248.
    • Mars , pp. 209-248
    • Esposito, P.B.1
  • 36
    • 11544285187 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • R. A. Schultz and K. L. Tanaka, J. Geophys. Res. 99, 8371 (1994); J. Dohm and K. Tanaka, Planet. Space Sci. 47, 411 (1999).
    • (1999) Planet. Space Sci. , vol.47 , pp. 411
    • Dohm, J.1    Tanaka, K.2
  • 42
    • 0001130464 scopus 로고
    • R. E. Lingenfelter and G. Schubert, Moon 7, 172 (1973); D. U. Wise, M. P. Golombek, G. E. McGill, Icarus 35, 456 (1979); J. Geophys. Res. 84, 7934 (1979).
    • (1973) Moon , vol.7 , pp. 172
    • Lingenfelter, R.E.1    Schubert, G.2
  • 43
    • 0000939689 scopus 로고
    • R. E. Lingenfelter and G. Schubert, Moon 7, 172 (1973); D. U. Wise, M. P. Golombek, G. E. McGill, Icarus 35, 456 (1979); J. Geophys. Res. 84, 7934 (1979).
    • (1979) Icarus , vol.35 , pp. 456
    • Wise, D.U.1    Golombek, M.P.2    McGill, G.E.3
  • 44
    • 0001130464 scopus 로고
    • R. E. Lingenfelter and G. Schubert, Moon 7, 172 (1973); D. U. Wise, M. P. Golombek, G. E. McGill, Icarus 35, 456 (1979); J. Geophys. Res. 84, 7934 (1979).
    • (1979) J. Geophys. Res. , vol.84 , pp. 7934
  • 51
    • 0344707702 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Slopes were computed in the direction of maximum gradient on 100-km baselines from a global 0.25° grid, smoothed to 100 km. The histogram uses bins of width 0.035°
    • Slopes were computed in the direction of maximum gradient on 100-km baselines from a global 0.25° grid, smoothed to 100 km. The histogram uses bins of width 0.035°.
  • 55
    • 0029728852 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • H. Harder and U. R. Christensen, Nature 380, 507 (1996); H. Harder, J. Geophys. Res. 103, 16775 (1998); D. Breuer, D. A. Yuen, T. Spohn, S. Zhang, Geophys. Res. Lett. 25, 229 (1998).
    • (1996) Nature , vol.380 , pp. 507
    • Harder, H.1    Christensen, U.R.2
  • 56
    • 0032566146 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • H. Harder and U. R. Christensen, Nature 380, 507 (1996); H. Harder, J. Geophys. Res. 103, 16775 (1998); D. Breuer, D. A. Yuen, T. Spohn, S. Zhang, Geophys. Res. Lett. 25, 229 (1998).
    • (1998) J. Geophys. Res. , vol.103 , pp. 16775
    • Harder, H.1
  • 58
    • 17744416393 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • M. H. Acuña et al., Science 284, 790 (1999); J. E. P. Connerney et al., ibid., p. 794.
    • (1999) Science , vol.284 , pp. 790
    • Acuña, M.H.1
  • 59
    • 17744416393 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • M. H. Acuña et al., Science 284, 790 (1999); J. E. P. Connerney et al., ibid., p. 794.
    • Science , pp. 794
    • Connerney, J.E.P.1
  • 60
    • 0024923042 scopus 로고
    • R. Wichman and P. Schultz, J. Geophys. Res. 94, 17333 (1989); J. Kargel and R. Strom, Geology 20, 3 (1992); J. Moore and K. Edgett, Geophys. Res. Lett. 20, 1599 (1993); K. Tanaka and G. Leonard, J. Geophys. Res. 100, 5407 (1995).
    • (1989) J. Geophys. Res. , vol.94 , pp. 17333
    • Wichman, R.1    Schultz, P.2
  • 61
    • 84874993282 scopus 로고
    • R. Wichman and P. Schultz, J. Geophys. Res. 94, 17333 (1989); J. Kargel and R. Strom, Geology 20, 3 (1992); J. Moore and K. Edgett, Geophys. Res. Lett. 20, 1599 (1993); K. Tanaka and G. Leonard, J. Geophys. Res. 100, 5407 (1995).
    • (1992) Geology , vol.20 , pp. 3
    • Kargel, J.1    Strom, R.2
  • 62
    • 0027799489 scopus 로고
    • R. Wichman and P. Schultz, J. Geophys. Res. 94, 17333 (1989); J. Kargel and R. Strom, Geology 20, 3 (1992); J. Moore and K. Edgett, Geophys. Res. Lett. 20, 1599 (1993); K. Tanaka and G. Leonard, J. Geophys. Res. 100, 5407 (1995).
    • (1993) Geophys. Res. Lett. , vol.20 , pp. 1599
    • Moore, J.1    Edgett, K.2
  • 63
    • 0028885192 scopus 로고
    • R. Wichman and P. Schultz, J. Geophys. Res. 94, 17333 (1989); J. Kargel and R. Strom, Geology 20, 3 (1992); J. Moore and K. Edgett, Geophys. Res. Lett. 20, 1599 (1993); K. Tanaka and G. Leonard, J. Geophys. Res. 100, 5407 (1995).
    • (1995) J. Geophys. Res. , vol.100 , pp. 5407
    • Tanaka, K.1    Leonard, G.2
  • 66
    • 0018728240 scopus 로고
    • H. H. Kieffer, J. Geophys. Res. 84, 8263 (1979); D. A. Paige et al., ibid. 95, 1319 (1990).
    • (1979) J. Geophys. Res. , vol.84 , pp. 8263
    • Kieffer, H.H.1
  • 67
    • 0025247432 scopus 로고
    • H. H. Kieffer, J. Geophys. Res. 84, 8263 (1979); D. A. Paige et al., ibid. 95, 1319 (1990).
    • (1990) J. Geophys. Res. , vol.95 , pp. 1319
    • Paige, D.A.1
  • 71
    • 0032509436 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • M. T. Zuber et al., Science 282, 2053 (1998).
    • (1998) Science , vol.282 , pp. 2053
    • Zuber, M.T.1
  • 72
    • 0344707694 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • in preparation
    • C. L. Johnson et al., in preparation.
    • Johnson, C.L.1
  • 73
    • 0344275761 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 3 (49), The MOLA topographic surface is about two orders of magnitude more precise than that from the images, and in addition, individual elevations from MOLA are geodetically referenced and permit the topography of the cap to be related accurately to the surroundings. The stereo-based estimate did not consider the effect of flexure of the basal surface, which is responsible for the bulk of the uncertainty in our estimate of the south polar volume, and which may contribute as much as half of the volume. Error due to the presence of the Prometheus Rupes under part of the layered terrain is small in comparison to the uncertainty associated with flexure.
  • 75
    • 0003106773 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Camp Allen, TX, 18 to 22 October 1998; S. Clifford, D. Fisher, J. Rice, Eds. Lunar Planetary Institute, Houston
    • M. T. Zuber, L. Lim, H. J. Zwatly, in First International Conference on Mars Polar Science and Exploration, Camp Allen, TX, 18 to 22 October 1998; S. Clifford, D. Fisher, J. Rice, Eds. (Lunar Planetary Institute, Houston, 1998), pp. 45-46; W. B. Durham, ibid., pp. 8-9.
    • (1998) First International Conference on Mars Polar Science and Exploration , pp. 45-46
    • Zuber, M.T.1    Lim, L.2    Zwatly, H.J.3
  • 77
    • 0030438497 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Oxford Univ. Press, New York
    • M. H. Carr, Water on Mars (Oxford Univ. Press, New York, 1996).
    • (1996) Water on Mars
    • Carr, M.H.1
  • 79
    • 17144466084 scopus 로고
    • S. M. Clifford, J. Geophys. Res. 92, 9135 (1987); ibid. 98, 10973 (1993).
    • (1993) J. Geophys. Res. , vol.98 , pp. 10973
  • 80
    • 45249130651 scopus 로고
    • T. J. Parker et al., Icarus 82, 111 (1989); T. J. Parker, D. S. Gorsline, R. S. Saunders, D. C. Pieri, D. M. Schneeberger, J. Geophys. Res. 98, 11061 (1993); V. R. Baker et al., Nature 352, 589 (1991).
    • (1989) Icarus , vol.82 , pp. 111
    • Parker, T.J.1
  • 82
    • 0026289716 scopus 로고
    • T. J. Parker et al., Icarus 82, 111 (1989); T. J. Parker, D. S. Gorsline, R. S. Saunders, D. C. Pieri, D. M. Schneeberger, J. Geophys. Res. 98, 11061 (1993); V. R. Baker et al., Nature 352, 589 (1991).
    • (1991) Nature , vol.352 , pp. 589
    • Baker, V.R.1
  • 85
    • 0345569843 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • in (24)
    • B. K. Luchitta et al., in (24), pp. 453-492.
    • Luchitta, B.K.1
  • 87
    • 0006808090 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Precision orbit determination for Mars Global Surveyor during Hiatus and SPO
    • Breckenridge, CO, 7 to 10 February 1999; American Astronautics Society Publications Office, San Diego
    • F. G. Lemoine et al., "Precision orbit determination for Mars Global Surveyor during Hiatus and SPO," AIAA Space Flight Mechanics Meeting, Breckenridge, CO, 7 to 10 February 1999; (American Astronautics Society Publications Office, San Diego, 1999).
    • (1999) AIAA Space Flight Mechanics Meeting
    • Lemoine, F.G.1
  • 89
    • 0345569840 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The mean radius was obtained from a 36th degree and order spherical harmonic expansion of the binned data. The uncertainty is based on the rms fit of 554 m of the model to the data. The north and south polar radii are also determined from the harmonic model
    • The mean radius was obtained from a 36th degree and order spherical harmonic expansion of the binned data. The uncertainty is based on the rms fit of 554 m of the model to the data. The north and south polar radii are also determined from the harmonic model.
  • 90
    • 0344275756 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The mean equatorial radius was derived from the harmonic model (65) based on a 1° sampling of an equatorial profile. This value is 200 m larger than was estimated from earlier data (5) but is within the error estimate of the earlier value. The uncertainty corresponds to the standard error of the mean of the 360 equatorial samples
    • The mean equatorial radius was derived from the harmonic model (65) based on a 1° sampling of an equatorial profile. This value is 200 m larger than was estimated from earlier data (5) but is within the error estimate of the earlier value. The uncertainty corresponds to the standard error of the mean of the 360 equatorial samples.
  • 91
    • 0344275755 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • We acknowledge the MOLA instrument team and the MGS spacecraft and operation teams at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and Lockheed-Martin Astronautics for providing the engineering foundation that enabled this analysis. We also thank G. Elman, P. Jester, and J. Schott for assistance in altimetry processing, D. Rowlands and S. Fricke for help with orbit determination, S. Zhong for assistance with the Hellas relaxation calculation, and G. McGill for a constructive review. The MOLA investigation is supported by the NASA Mars Global Surveyor Project.


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.