The evolution of dinosaurs

Science

Volumn 284, Issue 5423, 1999, Pages 2137-2147

  Sereno, Paul C ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADAPTIVE RADIATION; BIOGEOGRAPHY; DINOSAUR; EVOLUTION;

BIODIVERSITY; BIRD; BODY SIZE; EVOLUTION; GEOGRAPHY; GEOLOGY; NONHUMAN; PHYLOGENY; PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY; PREDATOR; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REPTILE; REVIEW; SKELETON; TAXONOMY;

ANIMALS; BIRDS; BODY CONSTITUTION; EVOLUTION; FEATHERS; FLIGHT, ANIMAL; FOSSILS; LOCOMOTION; PALEONTOLOGY; PHYLOGENY; REPTILES;

AMPHIBIA; AVES; DINOSAURIA; MAGNOLIOPHYTA; MAMMALIA; REPTILIA; THERIA;

EID: 0033603503     PISSN: 00368075     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1126/science.284.5423.2137     Document Type: Review

References (190)

1. P. Dodson and S. D. Dawson, Mod. Geol. 16, 3 (1991); T. Holmes and P. Dodson, in Dinofest International: A Symposium held at Arizona State University, D. L. Wolberg, E. Stump, G. Rosenberg, Eds. (Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA, 1997), pp. 125-128.
2. P. Dodson and S. D. Dawson, Mod. Geol. 16, 3 (1991); T. Holmes and P. Dodson, in Dinofest International: A Symposium held at Arizona State University, D. L. Wolberg, E. Stump, G. Rosenberg, Eds. (Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA, 1997), pp. 125-128.
3. E. M. Brouwers et al., Science 237, 1608 (1987); R. A. Gangloff, in 1992 International Conference on Arctic Margins, Proceedings (U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, DC, 1994), pp. 399-404; P. Vickers-Rich and T. H. Rich, in Dinofest International: A Symposium held at Arizona State University, D. L. Wolberg, E. Stump, G. Rosenberg, Eds. (Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA, 1997), pp. 253-257.
4. E. M. Brouwers et al., Science 237, 1608 (1987); R. A. Gangloff, in 1992 International Conference on Arctic Margins, Proceedings (U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, DC, 1994), pp. 399-404; P. Vickers-Rich and T. H. Rich, in Dinofest International: A Symposium held at Arizona State University, D. L. Wolberg, E. Stump, G. Rosenberg, Eds. (Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA, 1997), pp. 253-257.
5. E. M. Brouwers et al., Science 237, 1608 (1987); R. A. Gangloff, in 1992 International Conference on Arctic Margins, Proceedings (U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, DC, 1994), pp. 399-404; P. Vickers-Rich and T. H. Rich, in Dinofest International: A Symposium held at Arizona State University, D. L. Wolberg, E. Stump, G. Rosenberg, Eds. (Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA, 1997), pp. 253-257.
6. Z. Zhao, in Dinosaur Eggs and Babies, K. Carpenter, K. F. Hirsch, J. R. Homer, Eds. (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1994), pp. 184-203; K. E. Mikhailov, E. S. Bray, K. F. Hirsch, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 16, 763 (1996).
7. Z. Zhao, in Dinosaur Eggs and Babies, K. Carpenter, K. F. Hirsch, J. R. Homer, Eds. (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1994), pp. 184-203; K. E. Mikhailov, E. S. Bray, K. F. Hirsch, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 16, 763 (1996).
8. M. A. Norell, J. M. Clark, L. M. Chiappe, D. Dashzeveg, Nature 378, 774 (1995); Z. Dong and P. J. Currie, Can. J. Earth Sci. 33, 631 (1996); D. J. Varricchio, F. Jackson, J. J. Borkowski, J. R. Horner, Nature 385, 247 (1997).
9. M. A. Norell, J. M. Clark, L. M. Chiappe, D. Dashzeveg, Nature 378, 774 (1995); Z. Dong and P. J. Currie, Can. J. Earth Sci. 33, 631 (1996); D. J. Varricchio, F. Jackson, J. J. Borkowski, J. R. Horner, Nature 385, 247 (1997).
10. M. A. Norell, J. M. Clark, L. M. Chiappe, D. Dashzeveg, Nature 378, 774 (1995); Z. Dong and P. J. Currie, Can. J. Earth Sci. 33, 631 (1996); D. J. Varricchio, F. Jackson, J. J. Borkowski, J. R. Horner, Nature 385, 247 (1997).
11. P. Chen, Z. Dong, S. Zhen, Nature 391, 147 (1998).
12. Q. Ji, P. J. Currie, M. A. Norell, S. Ji, ibid. 393, 753 (1998).
13. A. Chinsamy, Palaeontol. Afr. 27, 77 (1990); D. J. Varricchio, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 13, 99 (1993); R. E. Barrick and W. J. Showers, Science 265, 222 (1994); R. E. Barrick, W. J. Showers, A. G. Fischer, Palaios 11, 295 (1996).
14. A. Chinsamy, Palaeontol. Afr. 27, 77 (1990); D. J. Varricchio, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 13, 99 (1993); R. E. Barrick and W. J. Showers, Science 265, 222 (1994); R. E. Barrick, W. J. Showers, A. G. Fischer, Palaios 11, 295 (1996).
15. A. Chinsamy, Palaeontol. Afr. 27, 77 (1990); D. J. Varricchio, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 13, 99 (1993); R. E. Barrick and W. J. Showers, Science 265, 222 (1994); R. E. Barrick, W. J. Showers, A. G. Fischer, Palaios 11, 295 (1996).
16. A. Chinsamy, Palaeontol. Afr. 27, 77 (1990); D. J. Varricchio, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 13, 99 (1993); R. E. Barrick and W. J. Showers, Science 265, 222 (1994); R. E. Barrick, W. J. Showers, A. G. Fischer, Palaios 11, 295 (1996).
17. J. A. Wilson and M. T. Carrano, Paleobiology 25, 252 (1999).
18. S. M. Gatesy, K. M. Middleton, F. A. Jenkins Jr., N. H. Shubin, Nature 399, 141 (1999).
19. J. H. Ostrom, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 11, 287 (1972); P. J. Currie and P. Dodson, in Third Symposium on Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems, E. E. Reif and F. Westphal, Eds. (Attempto Verlag, Tübingen, Germany, 1984), pp. 61-66; R. A. Thulborn, Dinosaur Tracks (Chapman & Hall, London, 1990); M. G. Lockley, Nature 396, 429 (1998).
20. J. H. Ostrom, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 11, 287 (1972); P. J. Currie and P. Dodson, in Third Symposium on Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems, E. E. Reif and F. Westphal, Eds. (Attempto Verlag, Tübingen, Germany, 1984), pp. 61-66; R. A. Thulborn, Dinosaur Tracks (Chapman & Hall, London, 1990); M. G. Lockley, Nature 396, 429 (1998).
21. J. H. Ostrom, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 11, 287 (1972); P. J. Currie and P. Dodson, in Third Symposium on Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems, E. E. Reif and F. Westphal, Eds. (Attempto Verlag, Tübingen, Germany, 1984), pp. 61-66; R. A. Thulborn, Dinosaur Tracks (Chapman & Hall, London, 1990); M. G. Lockley, Nature 396, 429 (1998).
22. J. H. Ostrom, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 11, 287 (1972); P. J. Currie and P. Dodson, in Third Symposium on Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems, E. E. Reif and F. Westphal, Eds. (Attempto Verlag, Tübingen, Germany, 1984), pp. 61-66; R. A. Thulborn, Dinosaur Tracks (Chapman & Hall, London, 1990); M. G. Lockley, Nature 396, 429 (1998).
23. For supplementary references, see P. C. Sereno, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 25, 435 (1997).
24. P. C. Sereno and F. E. Novas, Science 258, 1137 (1992); F. E. Novas, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 13, 400 (1993); P. C. Sereno and F. E. Novas, ibid., p. 451; P. C. Sereno, ibid., p. 425; _, C. A. Forster, R. R. Rogers, A. M. Monetta, Nature 361, 64 (1993).
25. P. C. Sereno and F. E. Novas, Science 258, 1137 (1992); F. E. Novas, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 13, 400 (1993); P. C. Sereno and F. E. Novas, ibid., p. 451; P. C. Sereno, ibid., p. 425; _, C. A. Forster, R. R. Rogers, A. M. Monetta, Nature 361, 64 (1993).
26. P. C. Sereno and F. E. Novas, Science 258, 1137 (1992); F. E. Novas, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 13, 400 (1993); P. C. Sereno and F. E. Novas, ibid., p. 451; P. C. Sereno, ibid., p. 425; _, C. A. Forster, R. R. Rogers, A. M. Monetta, Nature 361, 64 (1993).
27. P. C. Sereno and F. E. Novas, Science 258, 1137 (1992); F. E. Novas, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 13, 400 (1993); P. C. Sereno and F. E. Novas, ibid., p. 451; P. C. Sereno, ibid., p. 425; _, C. A. Forster, R. R. Rogers, A. M. Monetta, Nature 361, 64 (1993).
28. P. C. Sereno and F. E. Novas, Science 258, 1137 (1992); F. E. Novas, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 13, 400 (1993); P. C. Sereno and F. E. Novas, ibid., p. 451; P. C. Sereno, ibid., p. 425; _, C. A. Forster, R. R. Rogers, A. M. Monetta, Nature 361, 64 (1993).
29. A. J. Charig, Zool. Soc. London Symp. 57, 597 (1984).
30. R. R. Rogers, C. C. Swisher III, P. C. Sereno, C. A. Forster, Science 260, 794 (1993).
31. M. J. Benton, Mod. Geol. 13, 41 (1988).
32. J. T. Parrish, A. M. Zeigler, C. R. Scotese, Paleogeogr. Paleoclimatol. Paleoecol. 40, 67 (1982); T. J. Crowley, W. T. Hyde, D. A. Short, Geology 17, 457 (1989); S. L. Wing et al., in Terrestrial Ecosystems Through Time, Evolutionary Paleoecology of Terrestrial Plants and Animals, A. K. Behrensmeyer et al., Eds. (Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 1992), pp. 327-416.
33. J. T. Parrish, A. M. Zeigler, C. R. Scotese, Paleogeogr. Paleoclimatol. Paleoecol. 40, 67 (1982); T. J. Crowley, W. T. Hyde, D. A. Short, Geology 17, 457 (1989); S. L. Wing et al., in Terrestrial Ecosystems Through Time, Evolutionary Paleoecology of Terrestrial Plants and Animals, A. K. Behrensmeyer et al., Eds. (Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 1992), pp. 327-416.
34. J. T. Parrish, A. M. Zeigler, C. R. Scotese, Paleogeogr. Paleoclimatol. Paleoecol. 40, 67 (1982); T. J. Crowley, W. T. Hyde, D. A. Short, Geology 17, 457 (1989); S. L. Wing et al., in Terrestrial Ecosystems Through Time, Evolutionary Paleoecology of Terrestrial Plants and Animals, A. K. Behrensmeyer et al., Eds. (Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 1992), pp. 327-416.
35. J. G. Spray, S. P. Kelly, D. B. Rowley, Nature 392, 171 (1998); A. Marzoli et al., Science 284, 616 (1999); P. E. Olsen, ibid., p. 604.
36. J. G. Spray, S. P. Kelly, D. B. Rowley, Nature 392, 171 (1998); A. Marzoli et al., Science 284, 616 (1999); P. E. Olsen, ibid., p. 604.
37. J. G. Spray, S. P. Kelly, D. B. Rowley, Nature 392, 171 (1998); A. Marzoli et al., Science 284, 616 (1999); P. E. Olsen, ibid., p. 604.
38. M. J. Benton, Nature 321, 857 (1986); A. Hallam and P. B. Wignall, Mass Extinctions and their Aftermath (Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, 1997).
39. M. J. Benton, Nature 321, 857 (1986); A. Hallam and P. B. Wignall, Mass Extinctions and their Aftermath (Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, 1997).
40. M. J. Benton, in Major Evolutionary Radiations, P. D. Taylor and G. P. Larwood, Eds. (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1990), pp. 409-430; D. H. Erwin, Hist. Biol. 6, 133 (1992); G. J. Vermeij, Evolution and Escalation: An Ecological History of Life (Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ, 1987).
41. M. J. Benton, in Major Evolutionary Radiations, P. D. Taylor and G. P. Larwood, Eds. (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1990), pp. 409-430; D. H. Erwin, Hist. Biol. 6, 133 (1992); G. J. Vermeij, Evolution and Escalation: An Ecological History of Life (Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ, 1987).
42. M. J. Benton, in Major Evolutionary Radiations, P. D. Taylor and G. P. Larwood, Eds. (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1990), pp. 409-430; D. H. Erwin, Hist. Biol. 6, 133 (1992); G. J. Vermeij, Evolution and Escalation: An Ecological History of Life (Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ, 1987).
43. D. B. Weishampel, Adv. Anat. Embryol. Cell Biol. 87, 1 (1984); A. W. Crompton and J. Attridge, in The Beginning of the Age of Dinosaurs, K. Padian, Ed. (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1986), pp. 223-236; P. C. Sereno, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 11, 168 (1991).
44. D. B. Weishampel, Adv. Anat. Embryol. Cell Biol. 87, 1 (1984); A. W. Crompton and J. Attridge, in The Beginning of the Age of Dinosaurs, K. Padian, Ed. (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1986), pp. 223-236; P. C. Sereno, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 11, 168 (1991).
45. D. B. Weishampel, Adv. Anat. Embryol. Cell Biol. 87, 1 (1984); A. W. Crompton and J. Attridge, in The Beginning of the Age of Dinosaurs, K. Padian, Ed. (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1986), pp. 223-236; P. C. Sereno, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 11, 168 (1991).
46. P. M. Galton, Lethaia 6, 67 (1973).
47. R. A. Thulborn, Palaeontology 15, 29 (1972).
48. E. H. Colbert, Mus. North Ariz. Bull. 53, 1 (1981).
49. H. Haubold, Rev. Paleobiol. 9, 149 (1990).
50. R. Owen, Palaeontogr. Soc. Monogr. 13, 1 (1861).
51. S. Zhou, in The Middle Jurassic Dinosaur Faunas from Dashanpu, Zigong, Sichuan, Vol. II, Stegosaurs (Sichuan Science and Technology Publishing House, Chengdu, China, 1984).
52. P. C. Sereno and Z. Dong, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 12, 318 (1991).
53. P. M. Galton, in The Dinosauria, D. B. Weishampel, P. Dodson, H. Osmólska, Eds. (Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1990), pp. 435-455.
54. K. Carpenter, C. Miles, K. Cloward, Nature 393, 782 (1998).
55. P. C. Sereno, Nat. Ceogr. Res. 2, 234 (1986).
56. W. P. Coombs Jr., Palaeontology 21, 143 (1978); _ and T. Maryańska, in (28), pp. 456-483.
57. W. P. Coombs Jr., Palaeontology 21, 143 (1978); _ and T. Maryańska, in (28), pp. 456-483.
58. Y. Lee, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 16, 232 (1996); K. Carpenter, in Dinosaur Systematics: Perspectives and Approaches, K. Carpenter and P. J. Currie, Eds. (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1990), pp. 281-298.
59. Y. Lee, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 16, 232 (1996); K. Carpenter, in Dinosaur Systematics: Perspectives and Approaches, K. Carpenter and P. J. Currie, Eds. (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1990), pp. 281-298.
60. J. I. Kirkland, N.M. Mus. Nat. Hist. Sci. Bull. 14, 271 (1998).
61. A. P. Santa Luca, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 79, 159 (1980); R. A. Thulborn, Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 55, 151 (1974).
62. A. P. Santa Luca, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 79, 159 (1980); R. A. Thulborn, Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 55, 151 (1974).
63. P. M. Galton, Bull. Br. Mus. Nat. Hist. Geol. 25, 1 (1974); X. He and K. Cai, The Middle Jurassic Dinosaur Faunas from Dashanpu, Zigong, Sichuan, Vol. I, The Omithopod Dinosaurs (Sichuan Science and Technology Publishing House, Chengdu, China, 1984).
64. P. M. Galton, Bull. Br. Mus. Nat. Hist. Geol. 25, 1 (1974); X. He and K. Cai, The Middle Jurassic Dinosaur Faunas from Dashanpu, Zigong, Sichuan, Vol. I, The Omithopod Dinosaurs (Sichuan Science and Technology Publishing House, Chengdu, China, 1984).
65. D. B. Weishampel and R. E. Heinrich, Hist. Biol. 6, 159 (1992).
66. A. Bartholomai and R. E. Molnar, Mem. Queensland Mus. 20, 319 (1980); C. A. Forster, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 10, 273 (1990); D. B. Norman, Bull. Inst. R. Sci. Nat. Belg. Sci. Terre 56, 281 (1980).
67. A. Bartholomai and R. E. Molnar, Mem. Queensland Mus. 20, 319 (1980); C. A. Forster, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 10, 273 (1990); D. B. Norman, Bull. Inst. R. Sci. Nat. Belg. Sci. Terre 56, 281 (1980).
68. A. Bartholomai and R. E. Molnar, Mem. Queensland Mus. 20, 319 (1980); C. A. Forster, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 10, 273 (1990); D. B. Norman, Bull. Inst. R. Sci. Nat. Belg. Sci. Terre 56, 281 (1980).
69. D. B. Weishampel and J. H. Horner, in The Dinosauria, D. B. Weishampel, P. Dodson, H. Osmólska, Eds. (Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1990), pp. 534-561; J. J. Head, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 18, 718 (1998); J. I. Kirkland, N.M. Mus. Nat. Hist. Sci. Bull. 14, 283 (1998).
70. D. B. Weishampel and J. H. Horner, in The Dinosauria, D. B. Weishampel, P. Dodson, H. Osmólska, Eds. (Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1990), pp. 534-561; J. J. Head, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 18, 718 (1998); J. I. Kirkland, N.M. Mus. Nat. Hist. Sci. Bull. 14, 283 (1998).
71. D. B. Weishampel and J. H. Horner, in The Dinosauria, D. B. Weishampel, P. Dodson, H. Osmólska, Eds. (Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1990), pp. 534-561; J. J. Head, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 18, 718 (1998); J. I. Kirkland, N.M. Mus. Nat. Hist. Sci. Bull. 14, 283 (1998).
72. T. Maryańska and H. Osmólska, Palaeontol. Pol. 30, 45 (1974); P. C. Sereno, in The Age of Dinosaurs in Russia and Mongolia, M. Benton, E. Kurochkin, M. Shishkin, D. Unwin, Eds. (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, in press).
73. T. Maryańska and H. Osmólska, Palaeontol. Pol. 30, 45 (1974); P. C. Sereno, in The Age of Dinosaurs in Russia and Mongolia, M. Benton, E. Kurochkin, M. Shishkin, D. Unwin, Eds. (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, in press).
74. E. B. Giffin, D. L. Gabriel, R. E. Johnson, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 7, 398 (1987); M. B. Goodwin, E. A. Buchholtz, R. E. Johnson, ibid., p. 363.
75. E. B. Giffin, D. L. Gabriel, R. E. Johnson, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 7, 398 (1987); M. B. Goodwin, E. A. Buchholtz, R. E. Johnson, ibid., p. 363.
76. P. C. Sereno, in (28), pp. 579-592; B. Brown and E. M. Schlaikjer, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 40, 133 (1940); B. J. Chinnery and D. B. Weishampel, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 18, 569 (1998); T. M. Lehman, in Dinosaur Systematics: Approaches and Perspectives, K. Carpenter and P. J. Currle, Eds. (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1990), pp. 211-229; S. D. Sampson, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 15, 743 (1995).
77. P. C. Sereno, in (28), pp. 579-592; B. Brown and E. M. Schlaikjer, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 40, 133 (1940); B. J. Chinnery and D. B. Weishampel, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 18, 569 (1998); T. M. Lehman, in Dinosaur Systematics: Approaches and Perspectives, K. Carpenter and P. J. Currle, Eds. (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1990), pp. 211-229; S. D. Sampson, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 15, 743 (1995).
78. P. C. Sereno, in (28), pp. 579-592; B. Brown and E. M. Schlaikjer, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 40, 133 (1940); B. J. Chinnery and D. B. Weishampel, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 18, 569 (1998); T. M. Lehman, in Dinosaur Systematics: Approaches and Perspectives, K. Carpenter and P. J. Currle, Eds. (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1990), pp. 211-229; S. D. Sampson, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 15, 743 (1995).
79. P. C. Sereno, in (28), pp. 579-592; B. Brown and E. M. Schlaikjer, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 40, 133 (1940); B. J. Chinnery and D. B. Weishampel, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 18, 569 (1998); T. M. Lehman, in Dinosaur Systematics: Approaches and Perspectives, K. Carpenter and P. J. Currle, Eds. (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1990), pp. 211-229; S. D. Sampson, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 15, 743 (1995).
80. P. C. Sereno, in (28), pp. 579-592; B. Brown and E. M. Schlaikjer, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 40, 133 (1940); B. J. Chinnery and D. B. Weishampel, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 18, 569 (1998); T. M. Lehman, in Dinosaur Systematics: Approaches and Perspectives, K. Carpenter and P. J. Currle, Eds. (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1990), pp. 211-229; S. D. Sampson, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 15, 743 (1995).
81. Z. Dong and Y. Azuma, in Sino-Japanese Silk Road Dinosaur Expedition, Z. Dong, Ed. (China Ocean Press, Beijing, 1997), pp. 68-89; S. Zhao, Z. Cheng, X. Xu, J. Vertebr. Paleontol., in press.
82. Z. Dong and Y. Azuma, in Sino-Japanese Silk Road Dinosaur Expedition, Z. Dong, Ed. (China Ocean Press, Beijing, 1997), pp. 68-89; S. Zhao, Z. Cheng, X. Xu, J. Vertebr. Paleontol., in press.
83. H. Sues and P. M. Galton, Palaeontographica A 198, 1 (1987); T. Maryańska, in (28), pp. 564-577.
84. H. Sues and P. M. Galton, Palaeontographica A 198, 1 (1987); T. Maryańska, in (28), pp. 564-577.
85. J. A. Wilson and P. C. Sereno, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. (suppl.) 18, 1 (1998).
86. L. Salgado, R. Coria, J. O. Calvo, Ameghiniana 34, 3 (1997); P. Upchurch, Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 124, 43 (1998).
87. L. Salgado, R. Coria, J. O. Calvo, Ameghiniana 34, 3 (1997); P. Upchurch, Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 124, 43 (1998).
88. P. M. Galton, in (28), pp. 320-344.
89. J. F. Bonaparte and J. A. Pumares, Ameghiniana 32, 341 (1995); P. M. Galton, Geol. Paleontol. 18, 139 (1984).
90. J. F. Bonaparte and J. A. Pumares, Ameghiniana 32, 341 (1995); P. M. Galton, Geol. Paleontol. 18, 139 (1984).
91. M. R. Cooper, Palaeontol. Afr. 25, 203 (1984).
92. Y. Zhang, The Middle Jurassic Dinosaur Faunas from Dashanpu, Zigong, Sichuan, Vol. III, Sauropod Dinosaurs (I) (Sichuan Science and Technology Publishing House, Chengdu, China, 1988); X. He, K. Li, K. Cai, The Middle Jurassic Dinosaur Faunas from Dashanpu, Zigong, Sichuan, Vol. III, Sauropod Dinosaurs (II) (Sichuan Science and Technology Publishing House, Chengdu, China, 1988).
93. Y. Zhang, The Middle Jurassic Dinosaur Faunas from Dashanpu, Zigong, Sichuan, Vol. III, Sauropod Dinosaurs (I) (Sichuan Science and Technology Publishing House, Chengdu, China, 1988); X. He, K. Li, K. Cai, The Middle Jurassic Dinosaur Faunas from Dashanpu, Zigong, Sichuan, Vol. III, Sauropod Dinosaurs (II) (Sichuan Science and Technology Publishing House, Chengdu, China, 1988).
94. J. O. Calvo, Gaia 10, 183 (1994).
95. J. H. Madsen Jr., J. H. McIntosh, D. S. Berman, Bull. Carnegie Mus. Nat Hist. 31, 1 (1995); W. Janensch, Palaeontographica 3, 27 (1950).
96. J. H. Madsen Jr., J. H. McIntosh, D. S. Berman, Bull. Carnegie Mus. Nat Hist. 31, 1 (1995); W. Janensch, Palaeontographica 3, 27 (1950).
97. J. E. Powell, in Los Dinosaurios y su Entorno Biotico, J. L. Sanz and A. D. Buscalioni, Eds. (Instituto Juan de Vlades, Cuenca, 1992), pp. 165-230; L. L. Jacobs, D. A. Winkler, W. R. Downs, E. M. Gomani, Palaeontology 36, 523; S. L. Jain and S. Bandyopadhyay, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 17, 114 (1997).
98. J. E. Powell, in Los Dinosaurios y su Entorno Biotico, J. L. Sanz and A. D. Buscalioni, Eds. (Instituto Juan de Vlades, Cuenca, 1992), pp. 165-230; L. L. Jacobs, D. A. Winkler, W. R. Downs, E. M. Gomani, Palaeontology 36, 523; S. L. Jain and S. Bandyopadhyay, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 17, 114 (1997).
99. J. E. Powell, in Los Dinosaurios y su Entorno Biotico, J. L. Sanz and A. D. Buscalioni, Eds. (Instituto Juan de Vlades, Cuenca, 1992), pp. 165-230; L. L. Jacobs, D. A. Winkler, W. R. Downs, E. M. Gomani, Palaeontology 36, 523; S. L. Jain and S. Bandyopadhyay, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 17, 114 (1997).
100. J. S. McIntosh, Mus. North Ariz. Bull. 53, 345 (1981).
101. W. Janensch, Palaeontographica 2, 1 (1929); A. S. Romer, Osteology of the Reptiles (Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 1956); P. Upchurch, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B 349, 365 (1995).
102. W. Janensch, Palaeontographica 2, 1 (1929); A. S. Romer, Osteology of the Reptiles (Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 1956); P. Upchurch, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B 349, 365 (1995).
103. W. Janensch, Palaeontographica 2, 1 (1929); A. S. Romer, Osteology of the Reptiles (Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 1956); P. Upchurch, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B 349, 365 (1995).
104. J. A. Gauthier, Mem. Calif. Acad. Sci. 8, 1 (1986).
105. T. R. Holtz Jr., J. Paleontol. 68, 1100 (1994).
106. P. C. Sereno et al., Science 272, 921 (1996).
107. C. W. Gilmore, Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 110, 1 (1920); W. Janensch, Palaeontographica 7, 1 (1925); J. F. Bonaparte, F. E. Novas, R. A. Coria, Contrib. Sci. Nat. Hist. Mus. Los Angeles Cty. 416, 1 (1990); S. Chatterjee, D. K. Rudra, Mem. Queensland Mus. 39, 489 (1996); S. D. Sampson et al., Science 280, 969 (1998).
108. C. W. Gilmore, Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 110, 1 (1920); W. Janensch, Palaeontographica 7, 1 (1925); J. F. Bonaparte, F. E. Novas, R. A. Coria, Contrib. Sci. Nat. Hist. Mus. Los Angeles Cty. 416, 1 (1990); S. Chatterjee, D. K. Rudra, Mem. Queensland Mus. 39, 489 (1996); S. D. Sampson et al., Science 280, 969 (1998).
109. C. W. Gilmore, Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 110, 1 (1920); W. Janensch, Palaeontographica 7, 1 (1925); J. F. Bonaparte, F. E. Novas, R. A. Coria, Contrib. Sci. Nat. Hist. Mus. Los Angeles Cty. 416, 1 (1990); S. Chatterjee, D. K. Rudra, Mem. Queensland Mus. 39, 489 (1996); S. D. Sampson et al., Science 280, 969 (1998).
110. C. W. Gilmore, Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 110, 1 (1920); W. Janensch, Palaeontographica 7, 1 (1925); J. F. Bonaparte, F. E. Novas, R. A. Coria, Contrib. Sci. Nat. Hist. Mus. Los Angeles Cty. 416, 1 (1990); S. Chatterjee, D. K. Rudra, Mem. Queensland Mus. 39, 489 (1996); S. D. Sampson et al., Science 280, 969 (1998).
111. C. W. Gilmore, Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 110, 1 (1920); W. Janensch, Palaeontographica 7, 1 (1925); J. F. Bonaparte, F. E. Novas, R. A. Coria, Contrib. Sci. Nat. Hist. Mus. Los Angeles Cty. 416, 1 (1990); S. Chatterjee, D. K. Rudra, Mem. Queensland Mus. 39, 489 (1996); S. D. Sampson et al., Science 280, 969 (1998).
112. F. von Huene, Palaeontol. Z. 16, 145 (1934); S. P. Welles, Palaeontographica A 185, 85 (1984); T. Rowe, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 9, 125 (1989); E. H. Colbert, Mus. North Ariz. Bull. Sci. 57, 1 (1989); P. C. Sereno and R. Wild, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 12, 435 (1992).
113. F. von Huene, Palaeontol. Z. 16, 145 (1934); S. P. Welles, Palaeontographica A 185, 85 (1984); T. Rowe, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 9, 125 (1989); E. H. Colbert, Mus. North Ariz. Bull. Sci. 57, 1 (1989); P. C. Sereno and R. Wild, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 12, 435 (1992).
114. F. von Huene, Palaeontol. Z. 16, 145 (1934); S. P. Welles, Palaeontographica A 185, 85 (1984); T. Rowe, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 9, 125 (1989); E. H. Colbert, Mus. North Ariz. Bull. Sci. 57, 1 (1989); P. C. Sereno and R. Wild, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 12, 435 (1992).
115. F. von Huene, Palaeontol. Z. 16, 145 (1934); S. P. Welles, Palaeontographica A 185, 85 (1984); T. Rowe, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 9, 125 (1989); E. H. Colbert, Mus. North Ariz. Bull. Sci. 57, 1 (1989); P. C. Sereno and R. Wild, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 12, 435 (1992).
116. F. von Huene, Palaeontol. Z. 16, 145 (1934); S. P. Welles, Palaeontographica A 185, 85 (1984); T. Rowe, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 9, 125 (1989); E. H. Colbert, Mus. North Ariz. Bull. Sci. 57, 1 (1989); P. C. Sereno and R. Wild, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 12, 435 (1992).
117. B. B. Britt, Brigham Young Univ. Geol. Stud. 37, 1 (1991); A. J. Charig and A. C. Milner, Bull. Nat. Hist. Mus. Geol. 53, 11 (1997); P. C. Sereno et al., Science 282, 1217 (1998).
118. B. B. Britt, Brigham Young Univ. Geol. Stud. 37, 1 (1991); A. J. Charig and A. C. Milner, Bull. Nat. Hist. Mus. Geol. 53, 11 (1997); P. C. Sereno et al., Science 282, 1217 (1998).
119. B. B. Britt, Brigham Young Univ. Geol. Stud. 37, 1 (1991); A. J. Charig and A. C. Milner, Bull. Nat. Hist. Mus. Geol. 53, 11 (1997); P. C. Sereno et al., Science 282, 1217 (1998).
120. J. H. Madsen Jr., Bull. Utah Geol. Min. Surv. 109, 1 (1976); W. R. Hammer and W. J. Hickerson, Science 264, 828 (1994); P. C. Sereno, J. A. Wilson, H. C. E. Larsson, D. B. Dutheil, H.-D. Sues, ibid. 266, 267 (1994).
121. J. H. Madsen Jr., Bull. Utah Geol. Min. Surv. 109, 1 (1976); W. R. Hammer and W. J. Hickerson, Science 264, 828 (1994); P. C. Sereno, J. A. Wilson, H. C. E. Larsson, D. B. Dutheil, H.-D. Sues, ibid. 266, 267 (1994).
122. J. H. Madsen Jr., Bull. Utah Geol. Min. Surv. 109, 1 (1976); W. R. Hammer and W. J. Hickerson, Science 264, 828 (1994); P. C. Sereno, J. A. Wilson, H. C. E. Larsson, D. B. Dutheil, H.-D. Sues, ibid. 266, 267 (1994).
123. R. A. Coria and L. Salgado, Nature 377, 224 (1995); J. D. Harris, N.M. Mus. Nat. Hist. Sci. Bull. 14, 1 (1998).
124. R. A. Coria and L. Salgado, Nature 377, 224 (1995); J. D. Harris, N.M. Mus. Nat. Hist. Sci. Bull. 14, 1 (1998).
125. J. H. Ostrom, Bull. Yale Peabody Mus. Nat. Hist. 30, 1 (1969); H. Osmólska, E. Roniewicz, R. Barsbold, Palaeontol. Pol. 27, 96 (1972); R. Barsbold, T. Maryańska, H. Osmólska, in (28), pp. 249-258; D. A. Russell and Z. Dong, Can. J. Earth Sci. 30, 2163 (1993); P. J. Currie, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 15, 576 (1995); M. A. Norell and P. J. Makovicky, Am. Mus. Novitates 3215, 1 (1997).
126. J. H. Ostrom, Bull. Yale Peabody Mus. Nat. Hist. 30, 1 (1969); H. Osmólska, E. Roniewicz, R. Barsbold, Palaeontol. Pol. 27, 96 (1972); R. Barsbold, T. Maryańska, H. Osmólska, in (28), pp. 249-258; D. A. Russell and Z. Dong, Can. J. Earth Sci. 30, 2163 (1993); P. J. Currie, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 15, 576 (1995); M. A. Norell and P. J. Makovicky, Am. Mus. Novitates 3215, 1 (1997).
127. J. H. Ostrom, Bull. Yale Peabody Mus. Nat. Hist. 30, 1 (1969); H. Osmólska, E. Roniewicz, R. Barsbold, Palaeontol. Pol. 27, 96 (1972); R. Barsbold, T. Maryańska, H. Osmólska, in (28), pp. 249-258; D. A. Russell and Z. Dong, Can. J. Earth Sci. 30, 2163 (1993); P. J. Currie, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 15, 576 (1995); M. A. Norell and P. J. Makovicky, Am. Mus. Novitates 3215, 1 (1997).
128. J. H. Ostrom, Bull. Yale Peabody Mus. Nat. Hist. 30, 1 (1969); H. Osmólska, E. Roniewicz, R. Barsbold, Palaeontol. Pol. 27, 96 (1972); R. Barsbold, T. Maryańska, H. Osmólska, in (28), pp. 249-258; D. A. Russell and Z. Dong, Can. J. Earth Sci. 30, 2163 (1993); P. J. Currie, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 15, 576 (1995); M. A. Norell and P. J. Makovicky, Am. Mus. Novitates 3215, 1 (1997).
129. J. H. Ostrom, Bull. Yale Peabody Mus. Nat. Hist. 30, 1 (1969); H. Osmólska, E. Roniewicz, R. Barsbold, Palaeontol. Pol. 27, 96 (1972); R. Barsbold, T. Maryańska, H. Osmólska, in (28), pp. 249-258; D. A. Russell and Z. Dong, Can. J. Earth Sci. 30, 2163 (1993); P. J. Currie, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 15, 576 (1995); M. A. Norell and P. J. Makovicky, Am. Mus. Novitates 3215, 1 (1997).
130. J. H. Ostrom, Bull. Yale Peabody Mus. Nat. Hist. 30, 1 (1969); H. Osmólska, E. Roniewicz, R. Barsbold, Palaeontol. Pol. 27, 96 (1972); R. Barsbold, T. Maryańska, H. Osmólska, in (28), pp. 249-258; D. A. Russell and Z. Dong, Can. J. Earth Sci. 30, 2163 (1993); P. J. Currie, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 15, 576 (1995); M. A. Norell and P. J. Makovicky, Am. Mus. Novitates 3215, 1 (1997).
131. R. Barsbold and T. Maryańska, in (28), pp. 408-415; D. A. Russell and Z. Dong, Can. J. Earth Sci. 30, 2107 (1993); J. M. Clark, A. Perle, M. A. Norell, Am. Mus. Novitates 3115, 1 (1994); X. Xu, Z. Tang, X. Wang, Nature 399, 350 (1999); L. M. Lambe, Mem. Geol. Surv. Can. 100, 1 (1917); R. E. Molnar, Palaeontographica A 217, 137 (1991).
132. R. Barsbold and T. Maryańska, in (28), pp. 408-415; D. A. Russell and Z. Dong, Can. J. Earth Sci. 30, 2107 (1993); J. M. Clark, A. Perle, M. A. Norell, Am. Mus. Novitates 3115, 1 (1994); X. Xu, Z. Tang, X. Wang, Nature 399, 350 (1999); L. M. Lambe, Mem. Geol. Surv. Can. 100, 1 (1917); R. E. Molnar, Palaeontographica A 217, 137 (1991).
133. R. Barsbold and T. Maryańska, in (28), pp. 408-415; D. A. Russell and Z. Dong, Can. J. Earth Sci. 30, 2107 (1993); J. M. Clark, A. Perle, M. A. Norell, Am. Mus. Novitates 3115, 1 (1994); X. Xu, Z. Tang, X. Wang, Nature 399, 350 (1999); L. M. Lambe, Mem. Geol. Surv. Can. 100, 1 (1917); R. E. Molnar, Palaeontographica A 217, 137 (1991).
134. R. Barsbold and T. Maryańska, in (28), pp. 408-415; D. A. Russell and Z. Dong, Can. J. Earth Sci. 30, 2107 (1993); J. M. Clark, A. Perle, M. A. Norell, Am. Mus. Novitates 3115, 1 (1994); X. Xu, Z. Tang, X. Wang, Nature 399, 350 (1999); L. M. Lambe, Mem. Geol. Surv. Can. 100, 1 (1917); R. E. Molnar, Palaeontographica A 217, 137 (1991).
135. R. Barsbold and T. Maryańska, in (28), pp. 408-415; D. A. Russell and Z. Dong, Can. J. Earth Sci. 30, 2107 (1993); J. M. Clark, A. Perle, M. A. Norell, Am. Mus. Novitates 3115, 1 (1994); X. Xu, Z. Tang, X. Wang, Nature 399, 350 (1999); L. M. Lambe, Mem. Geol. Surv. Can. 100, 1 (1917); R. E. Molnar, Palaeontographica A 217, 137 (1991).
136. R. Barsbold and T. Maryańska, in (28), pp. 408-415; D. A. Russell and Z. Dong, Can. J. Earth Sci. 30, 2107 (1993); J. M. Clark, A. Perle, M. A. Norell, Am. Mus. Novitates 3115, 1 (1994); X. Xu, Z. Tang, X. Wang, Nature 399, 350 (1999); L. M. Lambe, Mem. Geol. Surv. Can. 100, 1 (1917); R. E. Molnar, Palaeontographica A 217, 137 (1991).
137. L. M. Chiappe, M. A. Norell, J. M. Clark, Mem. Queensland Mus. 39, 557 (1996); F. E. Novas, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 17, 137 (1997); L. M. Chiappe, M. A. Norell, J. M. Clark, Nature 392, 275 (1998).
138. L. M. Chiappe, M. A. Norell, J. M. Clark, Mem. Queensland Mus. 39, 557 (1996); F. E. Novas, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 17, 137 (1997); L. M. Chiappe, M. A. Norell, J. M. Clark, Nature 392, 275 (1998).
139. L. M. Chiappe, M. A. Norell, J. M. Clark, Mem. Queensland Mus. 39, 557 (1996); F. E. Novas, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 17, 137 (1997); L. M. Chiappe, M. A. Norell, J. M. Clark, Nature 392, 275 (1998).
140. L. Hou, Z. Zhou, L. D. Martin, A. Feduccia, Nature 377, 616 (1995); L. Hou, L. D. Martin, Z. Zhou, A. Feduccia, Science 274, 1164 (1996); L. M. Chiappe, S. Ji, Q. Ji, M. A. Norell, Am. Mus. Novitates, in press.
141. L. Hou, Z. Zhou, L. D. Martin, A. Feduccia, Nature 377, 616 (1995); L. Hou, L. D. Martin, Z. Zhou, A. Feduccia, Science 274, 1164 (1996); L. M. Chiappe, S. Ji, Q. Ji, M. A. Norell, Am. Mus. Novitates, in press.
142. L. Hou, Z. Zhou, L. D. Martin, A. Feduccia, Nature 377, 616 (1995); L. Hou, L. D. Martin, Z. Zhou, A. Feduccia, Science 274, 1164 (1996); L. M. Chiappe, S. Ji, Q. Ji, M. A. Norell, Am. Mus. Novitates, in press.
143. C. A. Forster, S. D. Sampson, L. M. Chiappe, D. W. Krause, Science 279, 1915 (1998).
144. P. C. Sereno and C. Rao, ibid. 255, 845 (1992); Z. Zhou, Cour. Forschung. Senckenb. 181, 9 (1995).
145. P. C. Sereno and C. Rao, ibid. 255, 845 (1992); Z. Zhou, Cour. Forschung. Senckenb. 181, 9 (1995).
146. F. E. Novas and P. F. Puerta, Nature 387, 390 (1997).
147. J. H. Ostrom, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 3, 55 (1975); Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 8, 91 (1976).
148. J. H. Ostrom, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 3, 55 (1975); Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 8, 91 (1976).
149. A. Feduccia, The Origin and Early Evolution of Birds (Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT, 1996); A. Feduccia and L. D. Martin, Nature 391, 754 (1998).
150. A. Feduccia, The Origin and Early Evolution of Birds (Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT, 1996); A. Feduccia and L. D. Martin, Nature 391, 754 (1998).
151. L. M. Witmer, in Origins of the Higher Groups of Tetrapods, H.-P. Schultze and L. Trueb, Eds. (Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, NY. 1991), pp. 427-466; M. A. Norell, P. Makovicky, J. A. Clark, Nature 391, 754 (1998).
152. L. M. Witmer, in Origins of the Higher Groups of Tetrapods, H.-P. Schultze and L. Trueb, Eds. (Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, NY. 1991), pp. 427-466; M. A. Norell, P. Makovicky, J. A. Clark, Nature 391, 754 (1998).
153. S. J. Gould and E. S. Vrba, Paleobiology 8, 4 (1982).
154. The earliest record of downy filiments is impressions from a dinosaur track from the Early Jurassic [G. Gierlinski, Prz. Geol. 45, 419 (1997)].
155. H. C. E. Larsson, P. C. Sereno, J. A. Wilson, in preparation.
156. P. C. Sereno, N. Jahr. Geol. Palaeontol. Abh., in press.
157. L. M. Chiappe, Münchner Geowiss. Abh. 30, 203 (1996).
158. S. Chatterjee, Archaeopteryx 13, 15 (1995).
159. I accept paleontological (radiometric) estimates of a mid-Cretaceous age (about 100 Ma) for the most recent therian common ancestor [R. L. Cifelli, J. I. Kirkland, A. Weil, A. L. Deino, B. J. Kowallis, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94, 11163 (1997)], as opposed to recent molecular estimates that vary between 100 and 176 Ma [S. Kumar and S. B. Hedges, Nature 392, 917 (1998); P. Waddell, N. Okada, M. Hasegawa, Syst. Biol. 48, 1 (1999); D. Penny, M. Hasegawa, P. J. Waddell, M. D. Hendy, ibid., p. 76].
160. I accept paleontological (radiometric) estimates of a mid-Cretaceous age (about 100 Ma) for the most recent therian common ancestor [R. L. Cifelli, J. I. Kirkland, A. Weil, A. L. Deino, B. J. Kowallis, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94, 11163 (1997)], as opposed to recent molecular estimates that vary between 100 and 176 Ma [S. Kumar and S. B. Hedges, Nature 392, 917 (1998); P. Waddell, N. Okada, M. Hasegawa, Syst. Biol. 48, 1 (1999); D. Penny, M. Hasegawa, P. J. Waddell, M. D. Hendy, ibid., p. 76].
161. I accept paleontological (radiometric) estimates of a mid-Cretaceous age (about 100 Ma) for the most recent therian common ancestor [R. L. Cifelli, J. I. Kirkland, A. Weil, A. L. Deino, B. J. Kowallis, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94, 11163 (1997)], as opposed to recent molecular estimates that vary between 100 and 176 Ma [S. Kumar and S. B. Hedges, Nature 392, 917 (1998); P. Waddell, N. Okada, M. Hasegawa, Syst. Biol. 48, 1 (1999); D. Penny, M. Hasegawa, P. J. Waddell, M. D. Hendy, ibid., p. 76].
162. I accept paleontological (radiometric) estimates of a mid-Cretaceous age (about 100 Ma) for the most recent therian common ancestor [R. L. Cifelli, J. I. Kirkland, A. Weil, A. L. Deino, B. J. Kowallis, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94, 11163 (1997)], as opposed to recent molecular estimates that vary between 100 and 176 Ma [S. Kumar and S. B. Hedges, Nature 392, 917 (1998); P. Waddell, N. Okada, M. Hasegawa, Syst. Biol. 48, 1 (1999); D. Penny, M. Hasegawa, P. J. Waddell, M. D. Hendy, ibid., p. 76].
163. J. Alroy, Syst. Biol. 48, 107 (1999).
164. _, Science 280, 731 (1998).
165. C. M. Janis and J. Damuth, in Evolutionary Trends, K. J. McNamara, Ed. (Belhaven Press, London, 1990), pp. 301-345; M. J. Novacek, Syst. Biol. 41, 58 (1992); J. Mammal. Evol. 1, 3 (1993).
166. C. M. Janis and J. Damuth, in Evolutionary Trends, K. J. McNamara, Ed. (Belhaven Press, London, 1990), pp. 301-345; M. J. Novacek, Syst. Biol. 41, 58 (1992); J. Mammal. Evol. 1, 3 (1993).
167. C. M. Janis and J. Damuth, in Evolutionary Trends, K. J. McNamara, Ed. (Belhaven Press, London, 1990), pp. 301-345; M. J. Novacek, Syst. Biol. 41, 58 (1992); J. Mammal. Evol. 1, 3 (1993).
168. J. T. Bonner, J. Paleontol. 42, 1 (1968); S. M. Stanley, Evolution 27, 1 (1973); L. Van Valen, Evolution 27, 27 (1973); W. A. Calder III, Size, Function, and Life History (Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, MA, 1984); M. LaBarbara, in Patterns and Processes in the History of Life, D. M. Raup and D. Jablonski, Eds. (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1986), pp. 69-98.
169. J. T. Bonner, J. Paleontol. 42, 1 (1968); S. M. Stanley, Evolution 27, 1 (1973); L. Van Valen, Evolution 27, 27 (1973); W. A. Calder III, Size, Function, and Life History (Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, MA, 1984); M. LaBarbara, in Patterns and Processes in the History of Life, D. M. Raup and D. Jablonski, Eds. (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1986), pp. 69-98.
170. J. T. Bonner, J. Paleontol. 42, 1 (1968); S. M. Stanley, Evolution 27, 1 (1973); L. Van Valen, Evolution 27, 27 (1973); W. A. Calder III, Size, Function, and Life History (Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, MA, 1984); M. LaBarbara, in Patterns and Processes in the History of Life, D. M. Raup and D. Jablonski, Eds. (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1986), pp. 69-98.
171. J. T. Bonner, J. Paleontol. 42, 1 (1968); S. M. Stanley, Evolution 27, 1 (1973); L. Van Valen, Evolution 27, 27 (1973); W. A. Calder III, Size, Function, and Life History (Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, MA, 1984); M. LaBarbara, in Patterns and Processes in the History of Life, D. M. Raup and D. Jablonski, Eds. (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1986), pp. 69-98.
172. J. T. Bonner, J. Paleontol. 42, 1 (1968); S. M. Stanley, Evolution 27, 1 (1973); L. Van Valen, Evolution 27, 27 (1973); W. A. Calder III, Size, Function, and Life History (Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, MA, 1984); M. LaBarbara, in Patterns and Processes in the History of Life, D. M. Raup and D. Jablonski, Eds. (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1986), pp. 69-98.
173. M. L. McKinney, in Evolutionary Trends, K. J. Mcnamara, Ed. (Univ. of Arizona Press, Tuscon, AZ, 1990), pp. 28-58.
174. C. M. Janis and P. B. Wilhelm, J. Mammal. Evol. 1, 103 (1993); M. T. Carrano, J. Zool. London 247, 29 (1999).
175. C. M. Janis and P. B. Wilhelm, J. Mammal. Evol. 1, 103 (1993); M. T. Carrano, J. Zool. London 247, 29 (1999).
176. M. K. Brett-Surman, Nature 277, 560 (1979); P. C. Sereno et al., Science 282, 1217 (1998).
177. M. K. Brett-Surman, Nature 277, 560 (1979); P. C. Sereno et al., Science 282, 1217 (1998).
178. P. Dodson, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 87, 7608 (1990).
179. P. C. Sereno, N. Jahrb. Geol. Palaeontol. 210, 41 (1998). Modifications and additions include Ornithomimidae (all ornithomimosaurs closer to Ornithomimus than to Shuvuuia); Ornithomimoidea (Shuvuuia, Ornithomimus, their most recent common ancestor, and all descendants); Alvarezsauridae (all ornithomimosaurs closer to Shuvuuia than to Ornithomimus); Therizinosauridae (all maniraptoriforms closer to Erlikosaurus than to Ornithomimus, Oviraptor, or Neornithes); Tyrannoraptora (Tyrannosaurus, Neornithes, their most recent common ancestor, and all descendants; and Oviraptoroidea (Oviraptor, Caenagnathus, their most recent common ancestor, and all descendants) (P. C. Sereno, J. Vertebr. Paleontol., in press).
180. P. C. Sereno, N. Jahrb. Geol. Palaeontol. 210, 41 (1998). Modifications and additions include Ornithomimidae (all ornithomimosaurs closer to Ornithomimus than to Shuvuuia); Ornithomimoidea (Shuvuuia, Ornithomimus, their most recent common ancestor, and all descendants); Alvarezsauridae (all ornithomimosaurs closer to Shuvuuia than to Ornithomimus); Therizinosauridae (all maniraptoriforms closer to Erlikosaurus than to Ornithomimus, Oviraptor, or Neornithes); Tyrannoraptora (Tyrannosaurus, Neornithes, their most recent common ancestor, and all descendants; and Oviraptoroidea (Oviraptor, Caenagnathus, their most recent common ancestor, and all descendants) (P. C. Sereno, J. Vertebr. Paleontol., in press).
181. B. P. Pérez-Moreno et al., Nature 370, 363 (1994); M. A. Norell and P. J. Makovicky, Am. Mus. Novitates 3215, 1 (1997); J. M. Clark and M. A. Norell, ibid. 3265, 1 (1999).
182. B. P. Pérez-Moreno et al., Nature 370, 363 (1994); M. A. Norell and P. J. Makovicky, Am. Mus. Novitates 3215, 1 (1997); J. M. Clark and M. A. Norell, ibid. 3265, 1 (1999).
183. B. P. Pérez-Moreno et al., Nature 370, 363 (1994); M. A. Norell and P. J. Makovicky, Am. Mus. Novitates 3215, 1 (1997); J. M. Clark and M. A. Norell, ibid. 3265, 1 (1999).
184. F. A. Jenkins Jr., K. P. Dial. G. E. Goslow Jr., Science 241, 1495 (1988); J. L. Sanz et al., Nature 382, 442 (1996); S. M. Gatsey and K. P. Dial, Evolution 50, 331 (1996); S. O. Poore, A. Sanchez-Haiman, G. E. Goslow Jr., Nature, 387, 799 (1997).
185. F. A. Jenkins Jr., K. P. Dial. G. E. Goslow Jr., Science 241, 1495 (1988); J. L. Sanz et al., Nature 382, 442 (1996); S. M. Gatsey and K. P. Dial, Evolution 50, 331 (1996); S. O. Poore, A. Sanchez-Haiman, G. E. Goslow Jr., Nature, 387, 799 (1997).
186. F. A. Jenkins Jr., K. P. Dial. G. E. Goslow Jr., Science 241, 1495 (1988); J. L. Sanz et al., Nature 382, 442 (1996); S. M. Gatsey and K. P. Dial, Evolution 50, 331 (1996); S. O. Poore, A. Sanchez-Haiman, G. E. Goslow Jr., Nature, 387, 799 (1997).
187. F. A. Jenkins Jr., K. P. Dial. G. E. Goslow Jr., Science 241, 1495 (1988); J. L. Sanz et al., Nature 382, 442 (1996); S. M. Gatsey and K. P. Dial, Evolution 50, 331 (1996); S. O. Poore, A. Sanchez-Haiman, G. E. Goslow Jr., Nature, 387, 799 (1997).
188. A. M. Zeigler, C. R. Scotese, S. F. Barrett, in Tidal Friction and the Earth's Rotation, J. Brosche and J. Sündermann, Eds. (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1983), pp. 240-252; A. G. Smith, D. G. Smith, B. M. Funnell, Atlas of Mesozoic and Cenozoic Coastlines (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1994).
189. A. M. Zeigler, C. R. Scotese, S. F. Barrett, in Tidal Friction and the Earth's Rotation, J. Brosche and J. Sündermann, Eds. (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1983), pp. 240-252; A. G. Smith, D. G. Smith, B. M. Funnell, Atlas of Mesozoic and Cenozoic Coastlines (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1994).
190. Supported by the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, National Geographic Society, Pritzker Foundation, and NSF. I thank C. Abraczinskas for her contribution to the design of the figures and for executing the final drafts; A. Beck, J. Conrad, J. Hopson, D. Jablonski, H. Larsson, R. Sadleir, and J. Wilson for critical review of the paper; and D. Rowley and A. Zeigler of the Paleogeographic Atlas Project (University of Chicago) for paleogeographic reconstructions.