Effects of health and nutrition on cognitive and behavioural development in children in the first three years of life Part 1: Low birthweight, breastfeeding, and proteinenergy malnutrition

Food and Nutrition Bulletin

Volumn 20, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 53-75

  Grantham McGregor, Sally M ^a   Fernald, Lia C ^a   Sethuraman, Kavita ^a  

^a ROYAL FREE AND UNIVERSITY COLLEGE MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CHILD DEVELOPMENT; COGNITION; HEALTH STATUS; NUTRITION;

EID: 0033501861     PISSN: 03795721     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/156482659902000107     Document Type: Article

References (173)

1. Grantham-McGregor S. Social background in childhood malnutrition. In: Brozeck J, Schüren B, eds. Malnutrition and behaviour: critical assessments and key issues. Lausanne, Switzerland: Nestlé Foundation, 1984:358-74.
2. Richardson S. The background histories of schoolchildren severely malnourished in infancy. Adv Pediatr 1974:21:167-95.
3. Salt P, Galler JR, Ramsey FC. The influence of early malnutrition on subsequent behavioral development. VII. The effects on maternal depressive symptoms. J Dev Behav Pediatr 1988;9:l-5.
4. World Health Organization. The incidence of low birth weight an update. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 1984;59:205-12.
5. Villar J, Belizan JM. The relative contribution of prematurity and fetal growth retardation to low birth weight in developing and developed societies. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1982;143:793-8.
6. Aylward GP, Pfeiffer SI, Wright A, Verhulst SJ. Outcome studies of low birth weight infants published in the last decade: a metaanalysis. J Pediatr 1989;! 15:515-20.
7. de Onis M, Habicht JP. Anthropométrie reference data for international use: recommendations from a World Health Organization Expert Committee. Am J Clin Nutr 1996:64:650-8.
8. Kramer MS, Olivier M, McLean FH, Willis DM, Usher RH. Impact of intrauterine growth retardation and body proportionality on fetal and neonatal outcome. Pediatrics 1990:86:707-13.
9. Scott KE, Usher R. Fetal malnutrition: its incidence, causes and effects. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1966;94:951-63.
10. Low JA, Galbraith RS, Muir DW, Broekhoven LH, Wilkinson JW, Karchmar EJ. The contribution of fetal-newborn complications to motor and cognitive deficits. Dev Med Child Neurol 1985;27:578-87.
11. Pryor JE. Physical and developmental status of preschool small-for-gestational-age children: a comparative study. J Pediatr Child Health 1992;28:162-7.
12. WestwoodM, Kramer MS, Münz D, Lovett JM, Watters GV. Growth and development of full-term nonasphyxiated small-for-gestational-age newborns: followup through adolescence. Pediatrics 1983;71:376-82.
13. Wariyar UK, Richards S. Morbidity and preterm delivery: importance of 100% follow-up. Lancet 1989; 1:387-8.
14. Scrimshaw NS, Schürch B, eds. Causes and consequences of intrauterine growth retardation. International Dietary Energy Consultative Group. Proceedings of an IDECG Workshop held in Baton Rouge, La, USA, November 11-15,1996. EurJ Clin Nutr 1998;52(suppl 1).
15. Grantham-McGregor SM. Small for gestational age, term babies, in the first six years of life. Eur J Clin Nutr 1998; 52:559-64.
16. Hack M. Effects of intrauterine growth retardation on mental performance and behavior: outcomes during adolescence and adulthood. Eur J Clin Nutr 1998;52: S65-71.
17. Goldenberg RL, Hoffman HJ, Cliver SP. Neurodevelopmental outcome of small-for gestational-age infants. Eur J Clin Nutr 1998;52:S54-8.
18. Ashworth A. Effects of intrauterine growth retardation on mortality and morbidity in infants and young children. Eur J Clin Nutr 1998;52:S34-42.
19. Rubin RA, Rosenblatt C, Balow B. Psychological and educational sequelae of prematurity. Pediatrics 1973;52: 352-63.
20. Villar J, Smeriglio V, Martorell R, Brown CH, Klein RE. Heterogeneous growth and mental development of intrauterine growth-retarded infants during the first 3 years of life. Pediatrics 1984;74:783-91.
21. Low JA, Galbraith RS, Muir D, Killen HL, Karchmar J, Campbell D. Intrauterine growth retardation: a preliminary report of long-term morbidity. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1978;130:534-45.
22. Parmelee AH, Schulte FJ. Developmental testing of preterm and small-for-date infants. Pediatrics 1970;45: 21-35.
23. Nelson KG, Goldenberg RL, Hoffinan H, Cliver S. Growth and development during the first year in a cohort of low income term-born American children. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand Suppl 1997:165:87-92.
24. Tenovuo A, Kero P, Korvenranta H, Piekkala P, Sillanpaa M, Erkkola R. Developmental outcome of 519 smallfor-gestational age children at the age of two years. Hippokrates Verlag GmbH 1988;19:41-5.
25. Grantham-McGregor SM, Lira PIC, Ashworth A, Morriss SS, Assunçao AMS. The development of low birthweight term infants and the effects of the environment in Northeast Brazil. J Pediatr 1998;4:661-6.
26. Gorman KS, Pollitt E. Relationship between weight and body proportionality at birth, growth during the first year of life and cognitive development at 36,48, and 60 months. Inf Behav Dev 1992;15:279-96.
27. Walther FJ, Ramaekers LHJ. Language development at the age of 3 years of infants malnourished in utero. Neuropediatrics 1982:13:77-81.
28. Babson S, Kangas J. Preschool intelligence of undersized term infants. Am J Dis Child 1969;! 17:553-7.
29. Fancourt R, Campbell S, Harvey D, Norman AP. Followup study of small-for-dates babies. BMJ 1976:1:1435-37.
30. Harvey D, Prince J, Bunton J, Parkinson C, Campbell S. Abilities of children who were small-for-gestational-age babies. Pediatrics 1982:69:296-300.
31. Fitzhardinge PM, Steven EM. The small-for-date infant. II. Neurological and intellectual sequelae. Pediatrics 1972:50:50-7.
32. Goldenberg RL, DuBard MB, Cliver SP, Nelson KG, Blankson K, Ramey SL, Herman A. Pregnancy outcome and intelligence at age five years. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996:175:1511-5.
33. Agarwal KN, Agarwal DK.Upadhyay SK. Impact of chronic undernutrition on higher mental functions in Indian boys aged 10-12 years. Acta Paediatr 1995:84:1357-61.
34. Paz I, Gale R, Laor A, Danon YL, Stevenson DK, Seidman DS. The cognitive outcome of full-term small for gestational age infants at late adolescence. Obstet Gynecol 1995:85:452-6.
35. Pryor J, Silva PA, Brooke M. Growth, development and behaviour in adolescents born small-for-gestational-age. J Paediatr Child Health 1995;31:403-7.
36. Drillien CM, Thomson AJM, Burgoyne K. Low birthweight children at early school-age: a longitudinal study. Dev Med Child Neurol 1980:22:26-47.
37. Rantakillio P. The longitudinal study of the Norhern Finland birth cohort of 1966. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 1966:2:59-88.
38. Low JA, Handley-Derry MH, Burke SO, Peters RD, Pater EA, Killen HL, Derrick EJ. Association of intrauterine fetal growth retardation and learning deficits at age 9 to 11 years. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;167:1499-1505.
39. Hawdon J, Hey E, Kolvin I, Fundudis T. Born too small-is outcome still affected? Dev Med Child Neurol 1990; 32:943-53.
40. Perez-Escamilla R, Pollitt E. Causes and consequences of intrauterine growth retardation in Latin America. Bull Pan Am Health Org 1992;26:128-46.
41. Parkinson CE, Wallis S, Harvey D. School achievement and behaviour of children who were small-for-dates at birth. Dev Med Child Neurol 1981:23:41-50.
42. Brooks-Gunn J, Klebanov PK, Liaw F, Spiker D. Enhancing the development of low-birthweight, premature infants: changes in cognition and behaviour over the first three years. Child Dev 1993;64:736-53.
43. Achenbach TM, Howell CT, Aoki MF, Rauh VA. Nineyear outcome of the Vermont Intervention Program for low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 1993;91:45-55.
44. UNICEF. The State of the World's Children 1997. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
45. Rodgers B. Feeding in infancy and later ability and attainment: a longitudinal study. Dev Med Child Neurol 1978;20:421-6.
46. Hoefer C, Hardy MC. Later development of breast fed and artificially fed infants: comparison of physical and mental growth. JAMA 1929;92:615-9.
47. Malloy MH, Berendes H. Does breast-feeding influence intelligence quotients at 9 and 10 years of age? Early Hum Dev 1998:50:209-17.
48. Niemela A, Jarvenpaa AL. Is breastfeeding beneficial and maternal smoking harmful to the cognitive development of children? Acta Paediatr 1996:85:1202-6.
49. Florey CD, Leech AM, Blackball A. Infant feeding and mental and motor development at 18 months of age in first born singletons. Int J Epidemiol 1995;24:S21-6.
50. Taylor B, Wadsworth J. Breast feeding and child development at five years. Dev Med Child Neurol 1984;26: 73-80.
51. Gale CR, Martyn CN. Breastfeeding, dummy use, and adult intelligence. Lancet 1996:347:1072-5.
52. Temboury MC, Otero A, Polanco I, Arribas E. Influence of breast-feeding on the infant's intellectual development. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1994;18:32-6.
53. Lucas A, Morley R, Cole TJ, Lister G, Leeson Payne C. Breast milk and subsequent intelligence quotient in children born preterm. Lancet 1992:339:261-4.
54. Ounsted M, Moar VA, Scott A. Neurological development of small-for-gestational age babies during the first year of life. Early Hum Dev 1988:16:163-72.
55. Ounsted M, Moar VA, Cockburn J, Redman CVV. Factors associated with the intellectual ability of children born to women with high risk pregnancies. Br Med J Clin Res Ed 1984:288:1038-41.
56. Young HB, Buckley AE, Hamza B, Mandarano C. Milk and lactation: some social and developmental correlates among 1,000 infants. Pediatrics 1982:69:169-75.
57. Nordberg L, Rydelius P-A, Nylander I, Aurielius G, Zetterström R. Psychomotor and mental development during infancy: relation to psychosocial conditions and health. Part IV of a longitudinal study of children in a new Stockholm suburb. Acta Paediatr Scand 1989;suppl 353:3-35.
58. Morrow-Tlucak M, Haude RH, Ernhart CB. Breastfeeding and cognitive development in the first 2 years of life. Soc SciMed 1988;26:635-9.
59. Rogan WJ, Gladen BC. Breast-feeding and cognitive development. Early Hum Dev 1993;31:181-93.
60. Morley R, Cole TJ, Powell R, Lucas A. Mother's choice to provide breast milk and developmental outcome. Arch Dis Child 1988;63:1382-5.
61. Pollitt E, Oh S-Y. Early supplementary feeding, child development, and health policy. Food Nutr Bull 1994;15:208-14.
62. Fergusson DM, Beautrais AL, Suva PA. Breast-feeding and cognitive development in the first seven years of life. Soc SciMed 1982;16:1705-8.
63. Jacobson SW, Jacobson JL Breastfeeding and intelligence. Lancet 1992;339:926.
64. Broad FE. Early feeding history of children with learning disorders (Letter). Dev Med Child Neurol 1979; 21:822.
65. Pollock JI. Long-term associations with infant feeding in a clinically advantaged population of babies. Dev Med Child Neurol 1994;36:429-40.
66. Fergusson DM, Honvood LJ, Shannon FT. Breastfeeding and subsequent social adjustment in six- to eight-yearold children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1987;28:379-86.
67. Lanting CI, Fidler V, Huisman M, Touwen BC, Boersma ER. Neurological differences between 9-year-old children fed breast-milk or formula-milk as babies. Lancet 1994:344:1319-22.
68. Honvood LJ, Fergusson DM. Breastfeeding and later cognitive and academic outcomes. Pediatrics 1998;101:E9.
69. Innis SM. Essential fatty acid requirements in human nutrition. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1993:71:699-706.
70. Clandinin MT, Chappell JE, Leong S, Heim T, Swyer PR, Chance GW. Extrauterine fatty acid accretion in infant brain: implications for fatty acid requirements. Early Hum Dev 1980;4:131-8.
71. Crawford MA. The role of essential fatty acids in neural development: implications for perinatal nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr 1993;57:703S-9S.
72. Farquharson J, Cockburn F, Patrick WA, Jamieson EC, Logan RW. Infant cerebral cortex phospholipid fattyacid composition and diet. Lancet 1992:340:810-13.
73. Koletzko B, Mrotzek M, Bremer HJ. Trans-fatty acids in human milk and infant plasma and tissues. In: Goldman AS, Atkinson SA, Hanson LA, eds. Human Lactation 3: the effects of human milk on the recipient infant. New York: Plenum Press, 1987:325-35.
74. Makrides M, Simmer K, Goggin M, Gibson RA. Erythrocyte docosahexaenoic acid correlates with the visual response of healthy, term infants. Pediatr Res 1993; 33:425-7.
75. Uauy R, Birch E, Birch D, Peirano P. Visual and brain function measurements in studies of n-3 fatty acid requirements of infants. J Pediatr 1992:120:5168-80.
76. Birch EE, Birch DG, Huffman DR, Uauy R. Dietary essential fatty acid supply and visual acuity development. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci1992;33:3242-53.
77. Carlson SE, Salem N Jr. Essentiality of omega 3 fatty acids in growth and development of infants. In: Simopoulos AP, Kifer RR, Martin RE, Barlow SM, eds. Health effects of omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in seafoods. Basel, Switzerland: Karger, 1991:74-86.
78. Janowsky JS, Scott DT, Wheeler RE, Auestad N. Fatty acids affect early language development. Pediatr Res 1995;37:1847.
79. Castillo C, Atalah E, Riumallo J, Castro R. Breast-feeding and the nutritional status of nursing children in Chile. Bull Pan Am Health Org 1996;30:125-33.
80. Cousens S, Nacro B, Curtis V, Kanki B, Tall F, Traore E, Diallo I, Mertens T. Prolonged breast-feeding: no association with increased risk of clinical malnutrition in young children in Burkina Faso. Bull WHO 1993;71:713-22.
81. Adair L, Popkin BM, VanDerslice J, Akin J, Guilkey D, Black R, Briscoe J, Flieger W. Growth dynamics during the first two years of life: a prospective study in the Philippines. Eur J Clin Nutr 1993;47:42-51.
82. Taren D, Chen J. A positive association between extended breast-feeding and nutritional status in rural Hubei Province, People's Republic of China. Am J Clin Nutr 1993;58:862-7.
83. Greiner T, Latham MC. Infant feeding practices in St. Vincent and factors which affect them. West Indian Med J 1981:30:8-16.
84. Briend A, Wojtyniak B, Rowland MG. Breast feeding, nutritional state, and child survival in rural Bangladesh. Br Med J Clin Res Ed 1988;296:879-82.
85. Victora CG, Morris SS, Barros FC, Horta BL, Weiderpass E, Tomasi E. Breast-feeding and growth in Brazilian infants. Am J Clin Nutr 1998;67:452-8.
86. Victora CG, Huttly SR, Barros FC, Vaughan JP. Breast feeding duration in consecutive offspring: a prospective study from southern Brazil. Acta Paediatr 1992;81:12-14.
87. Brakohiapa LA, Yartey J, Bille A, Harrison E, Quansah E, Armar MA, Kishi K, Yamamoto S. Does prolonged breastfeeding adversely affect a child's nutritional status? Lancet 1988;2:416-8.
88. Anonymous. Value of prolonged breastfeeding [letter]. Lancet 1988;2:788-9.
89. Jansen GR. The nutritional status of preschool children in Egypt. World Rev Nutr Diet 1985:45:42-67.
90. Victora CG, Vaughan JP, Marlines JC, Barcelos LB. Is prolonged breast-feeding associated with malnutrition? Am J Clin Nutr 1984:39:307-14.
91. Marquis GS, Habicht JP, Lanata CF, Black RE, Rasmussen KM. Association of breastfeeding and stunting in Peruvian toddlers: an example of reverse causality. Int J Epidemiol 1997:26:349-56.
92. Pabst HF, Spady DW, Pilarski LM, Carson MM, Beeler JA, Krezolek MP. Differential modulation of immune response by breast- or formula-feeding of infants. Acta Paediatr 1997:86:1291-7.
93. Howie PW, Forsyth JS, Ogston SA, Clark A, Florey CD. Protective effect of breast feeding against infection. BMJ 1990:300:11-16.
94. Duffy LC, Faden H, Wasielewski R, Wolf J, Krystofik D. Exclusive breastfeeding protects against bacterial colonization and day care exposure to otitis media. Pediatrics 1997;100:E7.
95. Scariati PD, Grummer-Strawn LM, Fein SB. A longitudinal analysis of infant morbidity and the extent of breastfeeding in the United States. Pediatrics 1997;99:E5.
96. Victora CG, Vaughan JP, Lombardi C, Fuchs SM, Gigante LP, Smith PG, Nobre LC, Teixeira AMB, Moreira LB, Barros FC. Evidence for protection by breast-feeding against infant deaths from infectious diseases in Brazil. Lancet 1987;2:319-22.
97. Pullan CR, Toms GL, Martin AJ, Gardner PS, Webb JK, Appleton DR. Breast-feeding and respiratory syncytial virus infection. BMJ 1980;281:1034-6.
98. Cunningham AS. Morbidity in breast-fed and artificially fed infants. II. J Pediatr 1979;95:685-9.
99. Clemens JD, Rao MR, Chakraborty J, Yunus M, Ali M, Kay B, van Loon FPL, Naficy A, Sack DA. Breastfeeding and the risk of life-threatening enterotoxigenic Escherichia colt diarrhea in Bangladeshi infants and children. Pediatrics 1997;100:E2.
100. VanDerslice I, Popkin B, Briscoe J. Drinking-water quality, sanitation, and breast-feeding: their interactive effects on infant health. Bull WHO 1994;72:589-601.
101. Brown KH, Black RE, Lopez de Romana G, Creed de Kanashiro H. Infant-feeding practices and their relationship with diarrheal and other diseases in Huascar (Lima), Peru [published erratum appears in Pediatrics 1989; 83:678]. Pediatrics 1989;83:31-40.
102. Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Shannon FT, Lawton JM. The Christchurch Child Development Study: a review of epidemiological findings. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 1989;3:302-25.
103. World Health Organization, UNICEF. Protecting, promoting and supporting breast-feeding: the special role of maternity services. New Yorkr UNICEF, 1989.
104. Waterlow JC, Rutishauser I. Malnutrition in man. In: Cravioto J, Hambraeus L, Vahlquist B, eds. Early malnutrition and mental development. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell, 1972:13-26.
105. Anonymous. Classification of infantile malnutrition. Lancet 1970;2:302.
106. Grantham McGregor S. A review of studies of the effect of severe malnutrition on mental development. J Nutr 1995;125:2233S-8S.
107. Hamill PV, Drizd TA, Johnson CL, Reed RB, Roche AF. NCHS grovth curves for children birth-18 years. United States. Vital Health Stat 11 1977;i-iv:l-74.
108. Martorell R, Mendoza F, Castillo R. Poverty and stature in children. In: Waterlow JC, ed. Linear growth retardation in less developed countries. Nestle Nutrition workshop Series Vol. 14. New York: Raven Press, 1988:57-73.
109. Ulijaszek SJ. Between-population variation in pre-adolescent growth. Eur J Clin Nutr 1994;48(suppl 1):S1-14.
110. Lynn R. A nutrition theory of the secular increases in intelligence; positive correlations between height, head size and IQ. Br J Educ Psychol 1989;59:372-7.
111. Waterlow JC. Observations on the natural history of stunting. In: Waterlow JC, ed. Linear gro\vth retardation in less developed countries. New York: Raven Press, 1988:1-16.
112. Keller W. The epidemiology of stunting. In: Waterlow JC, ed. Linear growth retardation in less developed countries. New York: Raven Press, 1988:17-40.
113. Waterlow JC. Introduction. Causes and mechanisms of linear growth retardation (stunting). Eur J Clin Nutr 1994;48(suppl l):Sl-4.
114. Allen LH. Nutritional influences on linear growth: a general review. Eur J Clin Nutr 1994;48(suppl l):S75-9.
115. Prentice A, Bates CJ. Adequacy of dietary mineral supply for human bone growth and mineralisation. Eur J Clin Nutr 1994;48(suppl l):S161-77.
116. Golden MHN. The role of individual nutrient deficiencies in growth retardation of children as exemplified by zinc and protein. In: Waterlow JC, ed. Linear growth retardation in less developed countries. New Yorlc Raven Press, 1988:143-64.
117. Golden MH. Is complete catch-up possible for stunted malnourished children? Eur J Clin Nutr 1994;48(suppl 1):S58-70.
118. Powell CA, Grantham McGregor S. The ecology of nutritional status and development in young children in Kingston, Jamaica. Am J Clin Nutr 1985;41:1322-31.
119. Walker SP, Grantham McGregor SM, Hirnes JH, Powell CA, Chang SM. Early childhood supplementation does not benefit the long-term growth of stunted children in Jamaica. J Nutr 1996:126:3017-24.
120. Costello AM. Growth velocity and stunting in rural Nepal. Arch Dis Child 1989;64:1478-82.
121. Martorell R, Khan LK, Schroeder DG. Reversibility of stunting: epidemiological findings in children from developing countries. Eur J Clin Nutr 1994;48(suppl l):S45-57.
122. Jamison D. Child malnutrition and school performance in China. J Dev Econ 1986;20:299-309.
123. Powell C, Grantham McGregor SM. The associations between nutritional status, school achievement and school attendance in twelve-year-old children at a Jamaican school. West Indian Med J 1980;29:247-53.
124. Chun FY. Nutrition and education-a study. J Singapore PediatrSoc 1971:13:91-6.
125. Florencio C. Nutrition, health and other determinants of academic achievement and school-related behavior of grades one to six pupils. Quezon City, Philippines: University of the Philippines, 1988.
126. Grantham-McGregor SM, Walker SP, Chang SM, Powell CA. Effects of early childhood supplementation with and without stimulation on later development in stunted Jamaican children. Am J Clin Nutr 1997:66:247-53.
127. Clarke N, Grantham-McGregor SM, Powell C. Nutrition and health predictors of school failure in Jamaican children. Ecol Food Nutr 1991;26:1-11.
128. Johnston FE, Low SM, de Baessa Y, MacVean RB. Interaction of nutritional and socioeconomic status as determinants of cognitive development in disadvantaged urban Guatemalan children. Am J Phys Anthropol 1987:73:501-6.
129. Moock PR, Leslie J. Childhood malnutrition and schooling in the Teri region of Nepal. J Dev Econ 1986:20:33-52.
130. Sigman M, Neumann C, Jansen AA, Bwibo N. Cognitive abilities of Kenyan children in relation to nutrition, family characteristics, and education. Child Dev 1989:60:1463-74.
131. Huda SN. Iodine deficiency, cognition, and school achievement in Bangladeshi school children. Trans R Soc Med Hyg 1996;September:5(abstract).
132. Agarwal DK, Upadhyay SK, Tripathi AM, Agarwal KN. Nutritional status, physical work capacity and mental function in school children. Scientific Report No. 6. New Delhi: Nutrition Foundation of India, 1987.
133. Lasky RE, Klein RE, Yarbrough C, Engle PL, Lechtig A, Martorell R. The relationship between physical growth and infant behavioral development in rural Guatemala. Child Dev 1981:52:219-26.
134. Mönckeberg F. Malnutrition and mental capacity. In: Nutrition, the nervous system and behaviour. Scientific Publication No. 251. Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization, 1972:48-54.
135. Sigman M, Neumann C, Baksh M, Bwibo N, McDonald MA. Relationship between nutrition and development in Kenyan toddlers. J Pediatr 1989;! 15:357-64.
136. Colombo M, de Andraca I, Lopez I. Mental development and stunting. In: Waterlow J, ed. Linear growth retardation in less developed countries. New York: Raven Press, 1988:201-14.
137. Wachs TD, Sigman M, Bishry Z, Moussa W, Jerome N, Neumann C, Bweibo N, McDonald M. Caregiver child interaction patterns in two cultures in relation to nutritional intake. Int J Behav Dev 1992;15:1-18.
138. Bogin B, MacVean RB. The relationship of socioeconomic status and sex to body size, skeletal maturation, and cognitive status of Guatemala City schoolchildren. Child Dev 1983;51:115-28.
139. Church AT, Katigbak MS. Home environment, nutritional status, and maternal intelligence as determinants of intellectual development in rural Philippine preschool children. Intelligence 1991;15:49-78.
140. Popkin B, Lim-Ybanez M. Nutrition and school achievement. Soc SciMed 1982;16:53-61.
141. Chavez A, Martinez C. Consequences of insufficient nutrition on child character and behavior. In: Levitsky DA, ed. Malnutrition, environment, and behavior: new perspectives. Ithaca, NY, USA: Cornell University Press, 1979:238-55.
142. Barrett DE, Radke-Yarrow M. Effects of nutritional supplementation on children's responses to novel, frustrating and competitive situations. Am J Clin Nutr 1985:42:102-20.
143. Meeks-Gardner JM, Grantham-McGregor SM. Physical activity, undernutrition and child development. Proc Nutr Soc 1994:53:241-8.
144. Fernald LC, Grantham-McGregor SM. Effects of early childhood under-nutrition on stress response. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1997;91:500.
145. Cravioto J, DeLicardie E, Birch H. Nutrition, growth, and neuro-integrative development: an experimental and écologie study. Pediatrics 1966;38:319-72.
146. Simeon DT, Grantham-McGregor S. Effects of missing breakfast on the cognitive functions of school children of different nutritional status. Am J Clin Nutr 1989;49: 646-53.
147. Grantham-McGregor S. The relationship between developmental level and different types of malnutrition in children. Hum Nutr Clin Nutr 1982:36:319-20.
148. Hoorweg J. Protein-energy malnutrition and intellectual abilities: a study of teen-age Ugandan children. Paris: Mouton S. Gravenhage, 1976.
149. Powell CA, Walker SP, Himes JH, Fletcher PD, Grantham McGregor SM. Relationships between physical growth, mental development and nutritional supplementation in stunted children: the Jamaican study. Acta Paediatr 1995:84:22-9.
150. Freeman HE, Klein RE, Townsend JVV, Lechtig A. Nutrition and cognitive development among rural Guatemalan children. Am J Public Health 1980;70:1277-85.
151. Waber DP, Vuori-Christiansen L, Ortiz N, Clement JR, Christiansen NE, Mora JO, Reed RB, Herrera MG. Nutritional supplementation, maternal education, and cognitive development of infants at risk of malnutrition. Am J Clin Nutr 1981:34:807-13.
152. Chavez A, Martinez C. Growing up in a developing community. Guatemala City: Institute of Nutrition of Central America and Panama, 1982.
153. Chavez A, Martinez C, Soberanes B, Dominguez L, Avila A. Early nutrition and physical and mental development in Mexican rural adolescent families. Washington, DC: International Center for Research on Women, 1994.
154. Pollitt E, Gorman KS, Engle PL, Martorell R, Rivera J. Early supplementary feeding and cognition. Monogr Soc Child Dev 1993;58.
155. Grantham McGregor SM, Powell CA, Walker SP, Himes JH. Nutritional supplementation, psychosocial stimulation, and mental development of stunted children: the Jamaican Study. Lancet 1991;338:l-5.
156. Husaini MA, Karyadi L, Husaini YK, Sandjaja, Karyadi D, Pollitt E. Developmental effects of short-term supplementary feeding in nutritionally-at-risk Indonesian infants. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;54:799-804.
157. McKay H, Sinisterra L, McKay A, Gomez H, Lloreda P. Improving cognitive ability in chronically deprived children. Science 1978:200:270-8.
158. Pollitt E, Watkins WE, Husaini MA. Three-month nutritional supplementation in Indonesian infants and toddlers benefits memory function 8 y later. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;66:1357-63.
159. Martorell R, Rivera J, Kaplowitz J, Pollitt E. Long term consequences of growth retardation during early childhood. In: Hernandez M, Argenta J, eds. Human growth: basic and clinical aspects. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1992: 143-9.
160. Sigman M, McDonald MA, Neumann C, Bwibo N. Prediction of cognitive competence in Kenyan children from toddler nutrition, family characteristics and abilities. J Child Psychol Psychiatr 1991;32:307-20.
161. Richardson SA. Severity of malnutrition in infancy and its relation to later intelligence. In: Brozek J, ed. Behavioral effects of energy and protein deficits. Washington, DC: National Institute of Arthritis, Metabolism, and Digestive Diseases, US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1979:172-84.
162. Levitsky DA. Malnutrition and hunger to learn. In: Levitsky DA, ed. Malnutrition, environment and behavior. Ithaca, NY, USA: Cornell University Press, 1979:161-79.
163. Lozoff B, Wolf AW, Urrutia JJ, Viteri FE. Abnormal behavior and low developmental test scores in iron-deficient anemic infants. J Dev Behav Pediatr 1985;6:69-75.
164. Sazawal S, Bentley M, Black RE, Dhingra P, George S, Bhan MK. Effect of zinc supplementation on observed activity in low socioeconomic Indian preschool children. Pediatrics 1996;98:1132-7.
165. Bentley ME, Caulfield LE, Ram M, Santizo MC, Hurtado E, Rivera JA, Ruel MT, Brown KH. Zinc supplementation affects the activity patterns of rural Guatemalan infants. J Nutr 1997:127:1333-8.
166. Torun B, Viteri FE. Energy requirements of pre-school children and the effects of varying energy intakes on protein metabolism. In: Torun B, Young VR, Rand WM, eds. Protein-energy requirements of developing countries: evaluation of new data. Tokyo: United Nations University, 1981:229-41.
167. Viteri FE, Torun B. Nutrition, physical activity and growth. In: Ritzen M, Aperia A, Hall K, Larson A, Zetterberg A, Zetterstrom R, eds. The biology of normal human growth. New York: Raven Press, 1981:265-73.
168. Levitsky DA, Barnes RH. Effect of early malnutrition on the reaction of adult rats to aversive stimuli. Nature 1970;225:468-9.
169. Lewn K, Little A, Coldough C. Adapting for the 1980s: Taking stock of educational expenditure. Proceedings on an international seminar. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 1982:13-38.
170. Schiefelbein E. Educational financing in developing countries. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 1983.
171. Levine R. Influences of women's schooling on maternal behaviour in the third world. Compar Educ Rev 1980;24:78-105.
172. Wagner DA. The development of short term and incidental memory: a cross cultural study. Child Dev 1974; 45:389-35.
173. Caldwell JC. Education as a factor in mortality decline: an examination of Nigerian data. Population Studies 1979:33:395-413.