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Volumn 29, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 177-203

Altered States: Explaining domestic institutional change

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EID: 0033481256     PISSN: 00071234     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007123499000083     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (160)

References (188)
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    • For an overview of schools of new institutionalism, see Peter A. Hall and Rosemary C. R. Taylor, 'Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms', Political Studies, 44 (1996), 936-57; Junko Kato, 'Review Article: Institutions and Rationality in Politics: Three Varieties of Neo-Institutionalists', British Journal of Political Science, 26 (1996), 553-82; James March and Johan Olsen, Rediscovering Institutions (New York: Free Press, 1989); and Kathleen Thelen and Sven Steinmo, 'Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Politics', in Sven Steinmo, Kathleen Thelen and Frank Longstreth, eds, Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
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    • For example, see Deborah D. Avant, Political Institutions and Military Change: Lessons from Peripheral Wars (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994); Cynthia Hody, The Politics of Trade: American Political Development and Foreign Economic Policy (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England for Dartmouth College, 1996); Jack Knight, Institutions and Social Conflict (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities 1877-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); Kathleen Thelen, Union of Parts: Labor Politics in Postwar Germany (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991); and Steinmo, Thelen and Longstreth, Structuring Politics.
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    • (1996) The Politics of Trade: American Political Development and Foreign Economic Policy
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    • (1992) Institutions and Social Conflict
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    • 0004070748 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
    • For example, see Deborah D. Avant, Political Institutions and Military Change: Lessons from Peripheral Wars (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994); Cynthia Hody, The Politics of Trade: American Political Development and Foreign Economic Policy (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England for Dartmouth College, 1996); Jack Knight, Institutions and Social Conflict (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities 1877-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); Kathleen Thelen, Union of Parts: Labor Politics in Postwar Germany (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991); and Steinmo, Thelen and Longstreth, Structuring Politics.
    • (1982) Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities 1877-1920
    • Skowronek, S.1
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    • Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press
    • For example, see Deborah D. Avant, Political Institutions and Military Change: Lessons from Peripheral Wars (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994); Cynthia Hody, The Politics of Trade: American Political Development and Foreign Economic Policy (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England for Dartmouth College, 1996); Jack Knight, Institutions and Social Conflict (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities 1877-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); Kathleen Thelen, Union of Parts: Labor Politics in Postwar Germany (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991); and Steinmo, Thelen and Longstreth, Structuring Politics.
    • (1991) Union of Parts: Labor Politics in Postwar Germany
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    • 0004157419 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For example, see Deborah D. Avant, Political Institutions and Military Change: Lessons from Peripheral Wars (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994); Cynthia Hody, The Politics of Trade: American Political Development and Foreign Economic Policy (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England for Dartmouth College, 1996); Jack Knight, Institutions and Social Conflict (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities 1877-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); Kathleen Thelen, Union of Parts: Labor Politics in Postwar Germany (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991); and Steinmo, Thelen and Longstreth, Structuring Politics.
    • Structuring Politics
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    • 223-44
    • 'Approaches to the State: Alternative Conceptions and Historical Dynamics', Comparative Politics, 16 (1984), 223-44, at p. 234.
    • (1984) Comparative Politics , vol.16 , pp. 234
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    • Conclusion: An institutional approach to American foreign economic policy
    • G. John Ikenberry, David A. Lake and Michael Mastanduno, eds, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press
    • 'Conclusion: An Institutional Approach to American Foreign Economic Policy', in G. John Ikenberry, David A. Lake and Michael Mastanduno, eds, The State and American Foreign Economic Policy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989), pp. 219-43, at pp. 223-4. Also see Scott C. Flanagan, 'Models and Methods of Analysis', in Gabriel Almond, Scott Flanagan and Robert Mundt, eds, Crisis, Choice and Change: Historical Studies of Political Development (Boston, Mass.: Little, Brown, 1973), pp. 43-102; and Sean Q. Kelly, 'Punctuated Change and the Era of Divided Government', in Lawrence C. Dodd and Calvin Jillson, eds, New Perspectives on American Politics (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1994), pp. 162-90.
    • (1989) The State and American Foreign Economic Policy , pp. 219-243
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    • Models and methods of analysis
    • Gabriel Almond, Scott Flanagan and Robert Mundt, eds, Boston, Mass.: Little, Brown
    • 'Conclusion: An Institutional Approach to American Foreign Economic Policy', in G. John Ikenberry, David A. Lake and Michael Mastanduno, eds, The State and American Foreign Economic Policy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989), pp. 219-43, at pp. 223-4. Also see Scott C. Flanagan, 'Models and Methods of Analysis', in Gabriel Almond, Scott Flanagan and Robert Mundt, eds, Crisis, Choice and Change: Historical Studies of Political Development (Boston, Mass.: Little, Brown, 1973), pp. 43-102; and Sean Q. Kelly, 'Punctuated Change and the Era of Divided Government', in Lawrence C. Dodd and Calvin Jillson, eds, New Perspectives on American Politics (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1994), pp. 162-90.
    • (1973) Crisis, Choice and Change: Historical Studies of Political Development , pp. 43-102
    • Flanagan, S.C.1
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    • Punctuated change and the era of divided government
    • Lawrence C. Dodd and Calvin Jillson, eds, Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press
    • 'Conclusion: An Institutional Approach to American Foreign Economic Policy', in G. John Ikenberry, David A. Lake and Michael Mastanduno, eds, The State and American Foreign Economic Policy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989), pp. 219-43, at pp. 223-4. Also see Scott C. Flanagan, 'Models and Methods of Analysis', in Gabriel Almond, Scott Flanagan and Robert Mundt, eds, Crisis, Choice and Change: Historical Studies of Political Development (Boston, Mass.: Little, Brown, 1973), pp. 43-102; and Sean Q. Kelly, 'Punctuated Change and the Era of Divided Government', in Lawrence C. Dodd and Calvin Jillson, eds, New Perspectives on American Politics (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1994), pp. 162-90.
    • (1994) New Perspectives on American Politics , pp. 162-190
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    • Five propositions about institutional change
    • Jack Knight and Itai Sened, eds, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press
    • For related criticisms of punctuated equilibrium, see Douglass C. North, 'Five Propositions about Institutional Change', in Jack Knight and Itai Sened, eds, Explaining Social Institutions (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995), pp. 15-26; Thelen, Union of Parts; and Thelen and Steinmo, 'Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Politics'.
    • (1995) Explaining Social Institutions , pp. 15-26
    • North, D.C.1
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    • 0004226125 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For related criticisms of punctuated equilibrium, see Douglass C. North, 'Five Propositions about Institutional Change', in Jack Knight and Itai Sened, eds, Explaining Social Institutions (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995), pp. 15-26; Thelen, Union of Parts; and Thelen and Steinmo, 'Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Politics'.
    • Union of Parts
    • Thelen1
  • 17
    • 0003498372 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For related criticisms of punctuated equilibrium, see Douglass C. North, 'Five Propositions about Institutional Change', in Jack Knight and Itai Sened, eds, Explaining Social Institutions (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995), pp. 15-26; Thelen, Union of Parts; and Thelen and Steinmo, 'Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Politics'.
    • Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Politics
    • Thelen1    Steinmo2
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    • Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
    • Douglass C. North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 89. Also see Ezra Suleiman, Private Power and Centralization in France: The Notaires and the State (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), p. 307.
    • (1990) Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance , pp. 89
    • North, D.C.1
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    • Douglass C. North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 89. Also see Ezra Suleiman, Private Power and Centralization in France: The Notaires and the State (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), p. 307.
    • (1987) Private Power and Centralization in France: The Notaires and the State , pp. 307
    • Suleiman, E.1
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    • Krasner, 'Approaches to the State', p. 234. Also see Peter A. Hall, Governing the Economy: The Politics of State Intervention in Britain and France (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), esp. p. 266; Desmond King, 'Political Centralization and State Interests in Britain: The 1986 Abolition of the GLC and MCCs', Comparative Political Studies, 21 (1989), 467-94; Theda Skocpol, 'Bringing the State Back In: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research', in Peter Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Theda Skocpol, eds, Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 3-37, at p. 14; Skowronek, Building a New American State, esp. p. 11; and Suleiman, Private Power and Centralization in France. For important exceptions, see fn. 2.
    • Approaches to the State , pp. 234
    • Krasner1
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    • Krasner, 'Approaches to the State', p. 234. Also see Peter A. Hall, Governing the Economy: The Politics of State Intervention in Britain and France (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), esp. p. 266; Desmond King, 'Political Centralization and State Interests in Britain: The 1986 Abolition of the GLC and MCCs', Comparative Political Studies, 21 (1989), 467-94; Theda Skocpol, 'Bringing the State Back In: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research', in Peter Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Theda Skocpol, eds, Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 3-37, at p. 14; Skowronek, Building a New American State, esp. p. 11; and Suleiman, Private Power and Centralization in France. For important exceptions, see fn. 2.
    • (1986) Governing the Economy: The Politics of State Intervention in Britain and France , pp. 266
    • Hall, P.A.1
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    • Political centralization and State interests in Britain: The 1986 abolition of the GLC and MCCs
    • Krasner, 'Approaches to the State', p. 234. Also see Peter A. Hall, Governing the Economy: The Politics of State Intervention in Britain and France (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), esp. p. 266; Desmond King, 'Political Centralization and State Interests in Britain: The 1986 Abolition of the GLC and MCCs', Comparative Political Studies, 21 (1989), 467-94; Theda Skocpol, 'Bringing the State Back In: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research', in Peter Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Theda Skocpol, eds, Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 3-37, at p. 14; Skowronek, Building a New American State, esp. p. 11; and Suleiman, Private Power and Centralization in France. For important exceptions, see fn. 2.
    • (1989) Comparative Political Studies , vol.21 , pp. 467-494
    • King, D.1
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    • Bringing the State back in: Strategies of analysis in current research
    • Peter Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Theda Skocpol, eds, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
    • Krasner, 'Approaches to the State', p. 234. Also see Peter A. Hall, Governing the Economy: The Politics of State Intervention in Britain and France (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), esp. p. 266; Desmond King, 'Political Centralization and State Interests in Britain: The 1986 Abolition of the GLC and MCCs', Comparative Political Studies, 21 (1989), 467-94; Theda Skocpol, 'Bringing the State Back In: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research', in Peter Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Theda Skocpol, eds, Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 3-37, at p. 14; Skowronek, Building a New American State, esp. p. 11; and Suleiman, Private Power and Centralization in France. For important exceptions, see fn. 2.
    • (1985) Bringing the State Back In , pp. 3-37
    • Skocpol, T.1
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    • Krasner, 'Approaches to the State', p. 234. Also see Peter A. Hall, Governing the Economy: The Politics of State Intervention in Britain and France (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), esp. p. 266; Desmond King, 'Political Centralization and State Interests in Britain: The 1986 Abolition of the GLC and MCCs', Comparative Political Studies, 21 (1989), 467-94; Theda Skocpol, 'Bringing the State Back In: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research', in Peter Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Theda Skocpol, eds, Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 3-37, at p. 14; Skowronek, Building a New American State, esp. p. 11; and Suleiman, Private Power and Centralization in France. For important exceptions, see fn. 2.
    • Building a New American State , pp. 11
    • Skowronek1
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    • For important exceptions, see fn. 2
    • Krasner, 'Approaches to the State', p. 234. Also see Peter A. Hall, Governing the Economy: The Politics of State Intervention in Britain and France (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), esp. p. 266; Desmond King, 'Political Centralization and State Interests in Britain: The 1986 Abolition of the GLC and MCCs', Comparative Political Studies, 21 (1989), 467-94; Theda Skocpol, 'Bringing the State Back In: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research', in Peter Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Theda Skocpol, eds, Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 3-37, at p. 14; Skowronek, Building a New American State, esp. p. 11; and Suleiman, Private Power and Centralization in France. For important exceptions, see fn. 2.
    • Private Power and Centralization in France
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    • State power, institutional change, and the politics of privatization in Russia
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    • Michael McFaul, 'State Power, Institutional Change, and the Politics of Privatization in Russia', World Politics, 47 (1995), 210-43, at p. 216.
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    • Thelen and Steinmo, 'Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Politics', p. 17. The authors are summarizing Thelen, Union of Parts.
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    • Structure and agency
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    • Colin Hay, 'Structure and Agency', in David Marsh and Gerry Stoker, eds, Theories and Methods in Political Science (London: Macmillan, 1995), pp. 189-206, at pp. 200-1. On the agency-structure problem, generally, also see Walter Carlsnaes, 'The Agency-Structure Problem in Foreign Policy Analysis', International Studies Quarterly, 36 (1992), 245-70; Philip Cerny, The Changing Architecture of Politics: Structure, Agency and the Future of the State (London: Sage, 1990); and David Dessler, 'What's at Stake in the Agent-Structure Debate?' International Organization, 43 (1989), 441-73.
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    • The agency-structure problem in foreign policy analysis
    • Colin Hay, 'Structure and Agency', in David Marsh and Gerry Stoker, eds, Theories and Methods in Political Science (London: Macmillan, 1995), pp. 189-206, at pp. 200-1. On the agency-structure problem, generally, also see Walter Carlsnaes, 'The Agency-Structure Problem in Foreign Policy Analysis', International Studies Quarterly, 36 (1992), 245-70; Philip Cerny, The Changing Architecture of Politics: Structure, Agency and the Future of the State (London: Sage, 1990); and David Dessler, 'What's at Stake in the Agent-Structure Debate?' International Organization, 43 (1989), 441-73.
    • (1992) International Studies Quarterly , vol.36 , pp. 245-270
    • Carlsnaes, W.1
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    • London: Sage
    • Colin Hay, 'Structure and Agency', in David Marsh and Gerry Stoker, eds, Theories and Methods in Political Science (London: Macmillan, 1995), pp. 189-206, at pp. 200-1. On the agency-structure problem, generally, also see Walter Carlsnaes, 'The Agency-Structure Problem in Foreign Policy Analysis', International Studies Quarterly, 36 (1992), 245-70; Philip Cerny, The Changing Architecture of Politics: Structure, Agency and the Future of the State (London: Sage, 1990); and David Dessler, 'What's at Stake in the Agent-Structure Debate?' International Organization, 43 (1989), 441-73.
    • (1990) The Changing Architecture of Politics: Structure, Agency and the Future of the State
    • Cerny, P.1
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    • What's at stake in the agent-structure debate?
    • Colin Hay, 'Structure and Agency', in David Marsh and Gerry Stoker, eds, Theories and Methods in Political Science (London: Macmillan, 1995), pp. 189-206, at pp. 200-1. On the agency-structure problem, generally, also see Walter Carlsnaes, 'The Agency-Structure Problem in Foreign Policy Analysis', International Studies Quarterly, 36 (1992), 245-70; Philip Cerny, The Changing Architecture of Politics: Structure, Agency and the Future of the State (London: Sage, 1990); and David Dessler, 'What's at Stake in the Agent-Structure Debate?' International Organization, 43 (1989), 441-73.
    • (1989) International Organization , vol.43 , pp. 441-473
    • Dessler, D.1
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    • Sovereignty: An institutional perspective
    • James Caporaso, ed., London: Sage
    • Stephen D. Krasner, 'Sovereignty: An Institutional Perspective', in James Caporaso, ed., The Elusive State (London: Sage, 1989), pp. 69-96, at p. 55. A similar point is made in the literature on democratic transitions. For example, see Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe C. Schmitter, 'Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America', Comparative Politics, 23 (1990), 1-21.
    • (1989) The Elusive State , pp. 69-96
    • Krasner, S.D.1
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    • Dilemmas of democratization in Latin America
    • Stephen D. Krasner, 'Sovereignty: An Institutional Perspective', in James Caporaso, ed., The Elusive State (London: Sage, 1989), pp. 69-96, at p. 55. A similar point is made in the literature on democratic transitions. For example, see Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe C. Schmitter, 'Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America', Comparative Politics, 23 (1990), 1-21.
    • (1990) Comparative Politics , vol.23 , pp. 1-21
    • Karl, T.L.1    Schmitter, P.C.2
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    • Order and change
    • 91-6
    • As Stephen Skowronek notes, for example, 'change in one institution is unlikely to run parallel to changes that all other institutions undergo' ('Order and Change', Polity, 28 (1994), 91-6, p. 94).
    • (1994) Polity , vol.28 , pp. 94
    • Skowronek, S.1
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    • Conclusion: Domestic structures and strategies of foreign economic policies
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    • Here, we draw on two elements of structure in Peter J. Katzenstein's path-breaking works ('Conclusion: Domestic Structures and Strategies of Foreign Economic Policies', in Peter J. Katzenstein, ed., Between Power and Plenty: Foreign Economic Policies of Advanced Industrial States (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978), pp. 295-336; 'International Relations and Domestic Structures: Foreign Policies of the Advanced Industrial States', International Organization, 30 (1976), 1-46). Since we are interested in the structure of the state, however, we omit Katzenstein's third structural element, the organization of society.
    • (1978) Between Power and Plenty: Foreign Economic Policies of Advanced Industrial States , pp. 295-336
    • Katzenstein, P.J.1
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    • International relations and domestic structures: Foreign policies of the advanced industrial states
    • Here, we draw on two elements of structure in Peter J. Katzenstein's path-breaking works ('Conclusion: Domestic Structures and Strategies of Foreign Economic Policies', in Peter J. Katzenstein, ed., Between Power and Plenty: Foreign Economic Policies of Advanced Industrial States (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978), pp. 295-336; 'International Relations and Domestic Structures: Foreign Policies of the Advanced Industrial States', International Organization, 30 (1976), 1-46). Since we are interested in the structure of the state, however, we omit Katzenstein's third structural element, the organization of society.
    • (1976) International Organization , vol.30 , pp. 1-46
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    • See especially the essays in Ikenberry, Lake and Mastanduno, The State and American Foreign Economic Policy; and R. Kent Weaver and Bert A. Rockman, eds, Do Institutions Matter? Government Capabilities in the United States and Abroad (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1993).
    • The State and American Foreign Economic Policy
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    • See Katzenstein, 'Conclusion'; Susan Peterson, Crisis Bargaining and the State: The Domestic Politics of International Conflict (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); Sven Steinmo, 'Political Institutions: Tax Policy in the United States, Sweden, and Britain', World Politics, 41 (1989), 500-35; Weaver and Rockman, Do Institutions Matter?; and John Zysman, Governments, Markets and Growth: Financial Systems and the Politics of Industrial Change (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983).
    • Conclusion
    • Katzenstein1
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    • Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press
    • See Katzenstein, 'Conclusion'; Susan Peterson, Crisis Bargaining and the State: The Domestic Politics of International Conflict (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); Sven Steinmo, 'Political Institutions: Tax Policy in the United States, Sweden, and Britain', World Politics, 41 (1989), 500-35; Weaver and Rockman, Do Institutions Matter?; and John Zysman, Governments, Markets and Growth: Financial Systems and the Politics of Industrial Change (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983).
    • (1996) Crisis Bargaining and the State: The Domestic Politics of International Conflict
    • Peterson, S.1
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    • See Katzenstein, 'Conclusion'; Susan Peterson, Crisis Bargaining and the State: The Domestic Politics of International Conflict (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); Sven Steinmo, 'Political Institutions: Tax Policy in the United States, Sweden, and Britain', World Politics, 41 (1989), 500-35; Weaver and Rockman, Do Institutions Matter?; and John Zysman, Governments, Markets and Growth: Financial Systems and the Politics of Industrial Change (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983).
    • (1989) World Politics , vol.41 , pp. 500-535
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    • See Katzenstein, 'Conclusion'; Susan Peterson, Crisis Bargaining and the State: The Domestic Politics of International Conflict (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); Sven Steinmo, 'Political Institutions: Tax Policy in the United States, Sweden, and Britain', World Politics, 41 (1989), 500-35; Weaver and Rockman, Do Institutions Matter?; and John Zysman, Governments, Markets and Growth: Financial Systems and the Politics of Industrial Change (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983).
    • Do Institutions Matter?
    • Weaver1    Rockman2
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    • See Katzenstein, 'Conclusion'; Susan Peterson, Crisis Bargaining and the State: The Domestic Politics of International Conflict (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); Sven Steinmo, 'Political Institutions: Tax Policy in the United States, Sweden, and Britain', World Politics, 41 (1989), 500-35; Weaver and Rockman, Do Institutions Matter?; and John Zysman, Governments, Markets and Growth: Financial Systems and the Politics of Industrial Change (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983).
    • (1983) Governments, Markets and Growth: Financial Systems and the Politics of Industrial Change
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    • Public opinion, domestic structure, and foreign policy in liberal democracies
    • Thomas Risse-Kappen, 'Public Opinion, Domestic Structure, and Foreign Policy in Liberal Democracies', World Politics, 43 (1991), 479-512. Also see Katzenstein, 'Conclusion'.
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    • Thomas Risse-Kappen, 'Public Opinion, Domestic Structure, and Foreign Policy in Liberal Democracies', World Politics, 43 (1991), 479-512. Also see Katzenstein, 'Conclusion'.
    • Conclusion
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    • The rules of the game: The logic of health policy-making in France, Switzerland, and Sweden
    • Steinmo, Thelen and Longstreth
    • On policy networks generally, see Ellen M. Immergut, 'The Rules of the Game: The Logic of Health Policy-Making in France, Switzerland, and Sweden', in Steinmo, Thelen and Longstreth, Structuring Politics, pp. 188-216; Daniel Okimoto, Between MITI and the Market: Japanese Industrial Policy for High Technology (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1989); and Martin Smith, Pressure, Power and Policy: State Autonomy and Policy Networks in Britain and the United States (Pittsburgh, Pa: The University of Pittsburgh Press, 1993).
    • Structuring Politics , pp. 188-216
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    • On policy networks generally, see Ellen M. Immergut, 'The Rules of the Game: The Logic of Health Policy-Making in France, Switzerland, and Sweden', in Steinmo, Thelen and Longstreth, Structuring Politics, pp. 188-216; Daniel Okimoto, Between MITI and the Market: Japanese Industrial Policy for High Technology (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1989); and Martin Smith, Pressure, Power and Policy: State Autonomy and Policy Networks in Britain and the United States (Pittsburgh, Pa: The University of Pittsburgh Press, 1993).
    • (1989) Between MITI and the Market: Japanese Industrial Policy for High Technology
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    • On policy networks generally, see Ellen M. Immergut, 'The Rules of the Game: The Logic of Health Policy-Making in France, Switzerland, and Sweden', in Steinmo, Thelen and Longstreth, Structuring Politics, pp. 188-216; Daniel Okimoto, Between MITI and the Market: Japanese Industrial Policy for High Technology (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1989); and Martin Smith, Pressure, Power and Policy: State Autonomy and Policy Networks in Britain and the United States (Pittsburgh, Pa: The University of Pittsburgh Press, 1993).
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    • See S. N. Eisenstadt, 'Institutionalization and Change', American Sociology Journal, 29 (1964), 235-47; John R. Hibbing, 'Legislative Institutionalization with Illustrations from the British House of Commons', American Journal of Political Science, 32 (1988), 681-712; Nelson Polsby, 'The Institutionalization of the US House of Representatives', American Political Science Review, 62 (1968), 144-68; and Samuel P. Huntington, 'Political Development and Political Decay', World Politics, 17 (1965), 386-430.
    • (1964) American Sociology Journal , vol.29 , pp. 235-247
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    • See S. N. Eisenstadt, 'Institutionalization and Change', American Sociology Journal, 29 (1964), 235-47; John R. Hibbing, 'Legislative Institutionalization with Illustrations from the British House of Commons', American Journal of Political Science, 32 (1988), 681-712; Nelson Polsby, 'The Institutionalization of the US House of Representatives', American Political Science Review, 62 (1968), 144-68; and Samuel P. Huntington, 'Political Development and Political Decay', World Politics, 17 (1965), 386-430.
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    • See S. N. Eisenstadt, 'Institutionalization and Change', American Sociology Journal, 29 (1964), 235-47; John R. Hibbing, 'Legislative Institutionalization with Illustrations from the British House of Commons', American Journal of Political Science, 32 (1988), 681-712; Nelson Polsby, 'The Institutionalization of the US House of Representatives', American Political Science Review, 62 (1968), 144-68; and Samuel P. Huntington, 'Political Development and Political Decay', World Politics, 17 (1965), 386-430.
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    • Clearly, politicians and civil servants differ markedly in terms of ability to make change and institutional capacity. Nevertheless, we maintain that both groups can be studied within a common framework that examines individuals' ability and willingness to act given their unique institutional contexts.
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    • 'Policy Communities and Issue Networks: Beyond Typology', in David Marsh and R. A. W. Rhodes, eds, Policy Networks in British Government (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), pp. 249-68, at p. 259.
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    • chap. 5
    • However, not all leaders of non-democratic states are fully autonomous. For example, Soviet leaders after Stalin enjoyed significant autonomy from public opinion and the national legislature, but they were constrained by elite politics within the Politburo. For this argument, see Peterson, Crisis Bargaining and the State, chap. 5.
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    • John T. S. Keeler, 'Opening the Window for Reform: Mandates, Crises and Extraordinary Policy-Making', Comparative Political Studies, 25 (1993), 433-86, at p. 440. Also see the works cited in fnn. 3 and 4.
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    • On war and threat, for example, see Daniel Deudney and G. John Ikenberry, 'The International Sources of Soviet Change', International Security, 16 (1991/92), 74-118; Jack Snyder, 'International Leverage on Soviet Domestic Change', World Politics, 42 (1989), 1-30; and Charles Tilly, The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975).
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    • On war and threat, for example, see Daniel Deudney and G. John Ikenberry, 'The International Sources of Soviet Change', International Security, 16 (1991/92), 74-118; Jack Snyder, 'International Leverage on Soviet Domestic Change', World Politics, 42 (1989), 1-30; and Charles Tilly, The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975).
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    • The politics of structural change: Swedish social democracy and thatcherism in comparative perspective
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    • See Geoffrey Garrett, 'The Politics of Structural Change: Swedish Social Democracy and Thatcherism in Comparative Perspective', Comparative Political Studies, 25 (1993), 521-47; Geoffrey Garrett and Peter Lange, 'Internationalization, Institutions, and Political Change', International Organization, 49 (1995), 627-55; Keeler, 'Opening the Window for Reform'; and John W. Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies (New York: Harper Collins, 1984), chap. 8.
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    • Garrett, G.1    Lange, P.2
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    • See Geoffrey Garrett, 'The Politics of Structural Change: Swedish Social Democracy and Thatcherism in Comparative Perspective', Comparative Political Studies, 25 (1993), 521-47; Geoffrey Garrett and Peter Lange, 'Internationalization, Institutions, and Political Change', International Organization, 49 (1995), 627-55; Keeler, 'Opening the Window for Reform'; and John W. Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies (New York: Harper Collins, 1984), chap. 8.
    • Opening the Window for Reform
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    • New York: Harper Collins, chap. 8
    • See Geoffrey Garrett, 'The Politics of Structural Change: Swedish Social Democracy and Thatcherism in Comparative Perspective', Comparative Political Studies, 25 (1993), 521-47; Geoffrey Garrett and Peter Lange, 'Internationalization, Institutions, and Political Change', International Organization, 49 (1995), 627-55; Keeler, 'Opening the Window for Reform'; and John W. Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies (New York: Harper Collins, 1984), chap. 8.
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    • International organizations as teachers of norms: The United Nations educational, scientific, and cultural organization and science policy
    • Martha Finnemore, 'International Organizations as Teachers of Norms: The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization and Science Policy', International Organization, 47 (1993), 565-97.
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    • New York: Wiley
    • On the 'rally round the flag' phenomenon, see John E. Mueller, War, Presidents, and Public Opinion (New York: Wiley, 1973). For the argument that foreign threat has led historically to executive dominance on foreign policy, see especially Daniel S. Cheever and H. Field Haviland Jr, American Foreign Policy and the Separation of Powers (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1952), esp. p. 39; and Marc E. Smyrl, Conflict or Codetermination? Congress, the President, and the Power to Make War (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 1988).
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    • Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger
    • On the 'rally round the flag' phenomenon, see John E. Mueller, War, Presidents, and Public Opinion (New York: Wiley, 1973). For the argument that foreign threat has led historically to executive dominance on foreign policy, see especially Daniel S. Cheever and H. Field Haviland Jr, American Foreign Policy and the Separation of Powers (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1952), esp. p. 39; and Marc E. Smyrl, Conflict or Codetermination? Congress, the President, and the Power to Make War (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 1988).
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    • According to Keeler, an electoral victory authorizes the government to implement its programme and may empower it to do so by creating a legislative majority ('Opening the Window for Reform', pp. 437-8).
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    • Kingdon uses the term 'focusing event' to describe how an environmental stimulus can open windows of opportunity for advocates of solutions to specific problems (Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies), p. 177.
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    • For the argument that extra-ordinary policy making is rare in twentieth-century democracies because of the number of veto points, see Keeler, 'Opening the Window for Reform'.
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    • Michel Oksenberg and Bruce J. Dickson, 'The Origins, Processes, and Outcomes of Great Political Reform', in Dankwart A. Rustow and Kenneth Paul Erikson, eds, Comparative Political Dynamics: Global Research Perspectives (New York: Harper Collins, 1991), pp. 235-61, at p. 242. Also see Miriam Fendius Elman, 'The Foreign Policies of Small States: Challenging Neorealism in Its Own Backyard', British Journal of Political Science, 25 (1995), 171-217, p. 189; and Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies, pp. 179-80. The importance of elites and political leadership is also suggested by the literature on transitions, especially democratization. For example, see Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds, Politics in Developing Countries: Comparing Experiences with Democracy (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1995); and Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, eds, The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes, 4 vols. (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978).
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    • Kingdon1
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    • Michel Oksenberg and Bruce J. Dickson, 'The Origins, Processes, and Outcomes of Great Political Reform', in Dankwart A. Rustow and Kenneth Paul Erikson, eds, Comparative Political Dynamics: Global Research Perspectives (New York: Harper Collins, 1991), pp. 235-61, at p. 242. Also see Miriam Fendius Elman, 'The Foreign Policies of Small States: Challenging Neorealism in Its Own Backyard', British Journal of Political Science, 25 (1995), 171-217, p. 189; and Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies, pp. 179-80. The importance of elites and political leadership is also suggested by the literature on transitions, especially democratization. For example, see Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds, Politics in Developing Countries: Comparing Experiences with Democracy (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1995); and Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, eds, The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes, 4 vols. (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978).
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    • The strategy of political liberalization: A comparative view of Gorbachev's reforms
    • 'The Strategy of Political Liberalization: A Comparative View of Gorbachev's Reforms', World Politics, 45 (1992), 47-65.
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    • See Peter A. Hall, 'Policy Paradigms, Social Learning, and the State: The Case of Economic Policymaking in Britain', Comparative Politics, 25 (1993), 275-98; Allen D. Hertzke and Ronald M. Peters Jr, 'Introduction: Interpreting the Atomistic Congress', in Hertzke and Peters, eds, The Atomistic Congress: An Interpretation of Congressional Change (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1992), pp. 3-45, esp. p. 21; and Joel Wolfe, 'State Power and Ideology in Britain: Mrs Thatcher's Privatization Programme', Political Studies, 39 (1991), 237-52.
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    • See Peter A. Hall, 'Policy Paradigms, Social Learning, and the State: The Case of Economic Policymaking in Britain', Comparative Politics, 25 (1993), 275-98; Allen D. Hertzke and Ronald M. Peters Jr, 'Introduction: Interpreting the Atomistic Congress', in Hertzke and Peters, eds, The Atomistic Congress: An Interpretation of Congressional Change (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1992), pp. 3-45, esp. p. 21; and Joel Wolfe, 'State Power and Ideology in Britain: Mrs Thatcher's Privatization Programme', Political Studies, 39 (1991), 237-52.
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    • Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
    • On a related note, Daniel Verdier argues that only issues with high salience and high divisiveness lead to decisive mandates (Democracy and International Trade: Britain, France, and the United States, 1860-1990 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), esp. p. 24).
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    • chap. 10
    • 'State Structures and the Possibilities for "Keynesian" Responses', in Evans, Rueschemeyer and Skocpol, Bringing the State Back In, pp. 107-63, at p. 118. Also see Hall, Governing the Economy, chap. 10.
    • Governing the Economy
    • Hall1
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    • See Hall, Governing the Economy; Skowronek, Building a New American State; and Steinmo, Thelen and Longstreth, Structuring Politics. In the agency-structure literature, also see Cerny, Changing Architecture of Politics; and Hay, 'Structure and Agency'.
    • Structuring Politics
    • Steinmo1    Thelen2    Longstreth3
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    • See Hall, Governing the Economy; Skowronek, Building a New American State; and Steinmo, Thelen and Longstreth, Structuring Politics. In the agency-structure literature, also see Cerny, Changing Architecture of Politics; and Hay, 'Structure and Agency'.
    • Changing Architecture of Politics
    • Cerny1
  • 97
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    • See Hall, Governing the Economy; Skowronek, Building a New American State; and Steinmo, Thelen and Longstreth, Structuring Politics. In the agency-structure literature, also see Cerny, Changing Architecture of Politics; and Hay, 'Structure and Agency'.
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    • See Rockman and Weaver, Do Institutions Matter?; Skowronek, Building a New American State; and George Tsebelis, 'Decision Making in Political Systems: Veto Players in Presidentialism, Parliamentarism, Multicameralism, and Multipartyism', British Journal of Political Science, 25 (1995), 289-325.
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    • See Rockman and Weaver, Do Institutions Matter?; Skowronek, Building a New American State; and George Tsebelis, 'Decision Making in Political Systems: Veto Players in Presidentialism, Parliamentarism, Multicameralism, and Multipartyism', British Journal of Political Science, 25 (1995), 289-325.
    • Building a New American State
    • Skowronek1
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    • Decision making in political systems: Veto players in presidentialism, parliamentarism, multicameralism, and multipartyism
    • See Rockman and Weaver, Do Institutions Matter?; Skowronek, Building a New American State; and George Tsebelis, 'Decision Making in Political Systems: Veto Players in Presidentialism, Parliamentarism, Multicameralism, and Multipartyism', British Journal of Political Science, 25 (1995), 289-325.
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    • On heuristic case studies, see Alexander L. George, 'Case Studies and Theory Development: The Method of Structured Focused Comparison', in Paul Lauren, ed., Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory, and Policy (New York: Free Press, 1979), pp. 43-68, esp. pp. 51-2.
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    • Comparative politics and the comparative method
    • See Gary King, Robert O. Keohane and Sidney Verba, Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), chap. 6; and Arend Ljiphart, 'Comparative Politics and the Comparative Method', American Political Science Review, 65 (1971), 682-93.
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    • New York: David McKay, reprinted by Harper & Row
    • See Asa Briggs, The Making of Modern England 1783-1867: The Age of Improvement (New York: David McKay, 1959; reprinted by Harper & Row, 1965), pp. 207-8; G. Bingham Powell Jr, 'Incremental Democratization: The British Reform Act of 1832', in Almond, Flanagan and Mundt, Crisis, Choice, and Change, pp. 103-51, at pp. 110-23; David Thomson, England in the Nineteenth Century 1815-1914 (Baltimore: Penguin, 1950), pp. 11-19; and George Woodbridge, The Reform Bill of 1832 (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1970), pp. 12-14.
    • (1959) The Making of Modern England 1783-1867: The Age of Improvement , pp. 207-208
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    • Incremental democratization: The British Reform Act of 1832
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    • See Asa Briggs, The Making of Modern England 1783-1867: The Age of Improvement (New York: David McKay, 1959; reprinted by Harper & Row, 1965), pp. 207-8; G. Bingham Powell Jr, 'Incremental Democratization: The British Reform Act of 1832', in Almond, Flanagan and Mundt, Crisis, Choice, and Change, pp. 103-51, at pp. 110-23; David Thomson, England in the Nineteenth Century 1815-1914 (Baltimore: Penguin, 1950), pp. 11-19; and George Woodbridge, The Reform Bill of 1832 (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1970), pp. 12-14.
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    • See Asa Briggs, The Making of Modern England 1783-1867: The Age of Improvement (New York: David McKay, 1959; reprinted by Harper & Row, 1965), pp. 207-8; G. Bingham Powell Jr, 'Incremental Democratization: The British Reform Act of 1832', in Almond, Flanagan and Mundt, Crisis, Choice, and Change, pp. 103-51, at pp. 110-23; David Thomson, England in the Nineteenth Century 1815-1914 (Baltimore: Penguin, 1950), pp. 11-19; and George Woodbridge, The Reform Bill of 1832 (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1970), pp. 12-14.
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    • New York: Thomas Y. Crowell
    • See Asa Briggs, The Making of Modern England 1783-1867: The Age of Improvement (New York: David McKay, 1959; reprinted by Harper & Row, 1965), pp. 207-8; G. Bingham Powell Jr, 'Incremental Democratization: The British Reform Act of 1832', in Almond, Flanagan and Mundt, Crisis, Choice, and Change, pp. 103-51, at pp. 110-23; David Thomson, England in the Nineteenth Century 1815-1914 (Baltimore: Penguin, 1950), pp. 11-19; and George Woodbridge, The Reform Bill of 1832 (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1970), pp. 12-14.
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    • Woodbridge, G.1
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    • Briggs, Making of Modern England, pp. 207-11; Powell, 'Incremental Democratization', pp. 131-2; Woodbridge, Reform Bill, pp. 13-14.
    • Making of Modern England , pp. 207-211
    • Briggs1
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    • Briggs, Making of Modern England, pp. 207-11; Powell, 'Incremental Democratization', pp. 131-2; Woodbridge, Reform Bill, pp. 13-14.
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    • Powell1
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    • Briggs, Making of Modern England, pp. 207-11; Powell, 'Incremental Democratization', pp. 131-2; Woodbridge, Reform Bill, pp. 13-14.
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    • Woodbridge1
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  • 116
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    • England in the Nineteenth Century, pp. 57-8. Also see Asa Briggs, 'The Background of the Parliamentary Reform Movement in Three English Cities (1830-2)', Cambridge Historical Journal, 10 (1952), 293-317; and Woodbridge, Reform Bill, pp. 14-16.
    • England in the Nineteenth Century , pp. 57-58
  • 117
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    • The background of the parliamentary reform movement in three English cities (1830-2)
    • England in the Nineteenth Century, pp. 57-8. Also see Asa Briggs, 'The Background of the Parliamentary Reform Movement in Three English Cities (1830-2)', Cambridge Historical Journal, 10 (1952), 293-317; and Woodbridge, Reform Bill, pp. 14-16.
    • (1952) Cambridge Historical Journal , vol.10 , pp. 293-317
    • Briggs, A.1
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    • England in the Nineteenth Century, pp. 57-8. Also see Asa Briggs, 'The Background of the Parliamentary Reform Movement in Three English Cities (1830-2)', Cambridge Historical Journal, 10 (1952), 293-317; and Woodbridge, Reform Bill, pp. 14-16.
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    • Woodbridge1
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    • London: Frank Cass
    • On political corruption, see J. R. M. Butler, The Passing of the Great Reform Bill (London: Frank Cass, 1964), p. 16; D. F. Christie, The Transition from Aristocracy 1832-1867 (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1928), pp. 18-27; and Woodbridge, The Reform Bill of 1832.
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    • On political corruption, see J. R. M. Butler, The Passing of the Great Reform Bill (London: Frank Cass, 1964), p. 16; D. F. Christie, The Transition from Aristocracy 1832-1867 (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1928), pp. 18-27; and Woodbridge, The Reform Bill of 1832.
    • The Reform Bill of 1832
    • Woodbridge1
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    • Powell, 'Incremental Democratization', p. 127. On the representation of industrial towns, see Craig, Europe, p. 101.
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    • Powell1
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    • Powell, 'Incremental Democratization', p. 127. On the representation of industrial towns, see Craig, Europe, p. 101.
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    • Craig1
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    • On Grey's beliefs, see Butler, Passing of the Great Reform Bill, p. 54; Woodbridge, Reform Bill, p. 32; and D. G. Wright, Democracy and Reform 1815-1885 (London: Longman, 1970), p. 32.
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    • Butler1
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    • On Grey's beliefs, see Butler, Passing of the Great Reform Bill, p. 54; Woodbridge, Reform Bill, p. 32; and D. G. Wright, Democracy and Reform 1815-1885 (London: Longman, 1970), p. 32.
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    • Woodbridge1
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    • On Grey's beliefs, see Butler, Passing of the Great Reform Bill, p. 54; Woodbridge, Reform Bill, p. 32; and D. G. Wright, Democracy and Reform 1815-1885 (London: Longman, 1970), p. 32.
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    • Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
    • On British political institutions, see H. J. Hanham, The Nineteenth Century Constitution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969); John P. Mackintosh, The British Cabinet (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1962), chap. 2; Powell, 'Incremental Democratization', pp. 109-10; and Thomson, England in the Nineteenth Century, pp. 20-5.
    • (1969) The Nineteenth Century Constitution
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    • On British political institutions, see H. J. Hanham, The Nineteenth Century Constitution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969); John P. Mackintosh, The British Cabinet (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1962), chap. 2; Powell, 'Incremental Democratization', pp. 109-10; and Thomson, England in the Nineteenth Century, pp. 20-5.
    • (1962) The British Cabinet
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    • On British political institutions, see H. J. Hanham, The Nineteenth Century Constitution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969); John P. Mackintosh, The British Cabinet (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1962), chap. 2; Powell, 'Incremental Democratization', pp. 109-10; and Thomson, England in the Nineteenth Century, pp. 20-5.
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    • Powell1
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    • On British political institutions, see H. J. Hanham, The Nineteenth Century Constitution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969); John P. Mackintosh, The British Cabinet (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1962), chap. 2; Powell, 'Incremental Democratization', pp. 109-10; and Thomson, England in the Nineteenth Century, pp. 20-5.
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    • Thomson1
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    • This is Sir James Graham's record of Grey's instructions, as quoted in Woodbridge, Reform Bill, p. 34.
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    • Woodbridge1
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    • Briggs, Making of Modern England, p. 244. Also see Powell, 'Incremental Democratization', p. 141; and Woodbridge, Reform Bill, p. 50.
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    • Briggs1
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    • Powell1
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    • Woodbridge1
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    • The term comes from Powell, 'Incremental Democratization'. The quote is from Almond, 'Approaches to Developmental Causation', p. 23.
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    • Powell1
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    • 'Other Face of Reform', p. 32. On the content of the bill, also see Briggs, Making of Modern England, pp. 261-8; Thomson, England in the Nineteenth Century, pp. 74-5.
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    • 'Other Face of Reform', p. 32. On the content of the bill, also see Briggs, Making of Modern England, pp. 261-8; Thomson, England in the Nineteenth Century, pp. 74-5.
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    • Briggs1
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    • 'Other Face of Reform', p. 32. On the content of the bill, also see Briggs, Making of Modern England, pp. 261-8; Thomson, England in the Nineteenth Century, pp. 74-5.
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    • Thomson1
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    • On the role of congressional pressure as the catalyst for this action, see I. M. Destler and C. Randall Henning, 'From Neglect to Activism: American Politics and the 1985 Plaza Accord', Journal of Public Policy, 8 (1988), 317-34.
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    • For information on these actions, see Peter Evans, 'Declining Hegemony and Assertive Industrialization: US-Brazil Conflicts in the Computer Industry', International Organization, 43 (1989), 207-38, p. 220; and David Yoffie, 'American Trade Policy: An Obsolete Bargain?' in John Chubb and Paul Peterson, eds, Can the Government Govern? (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1989), pp. 100-38, at p. 128.
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    • For information on these actions, see Peter Evans, 'Declining Hegemony and Assertive Industrialization: US-Brazil Conflicts in the Computer Industry', International Organization, 43 (1989), 207-38, p. 220; and David Yoffie, 'American Trade Policy: An Obsolete Bargain?' in John Chubb and Paul Peterson, eds, Can the Government Govern? (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1989), pp. 100-38, at p. 128.
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    • Steven Pressman, 'Coming to Grips with the Volatile Dollar', Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, 44 (1986), pp. 460-4; Paula Stern, 'Commentary', in Jagdish Bhagwati and Hugh Patrick, eds, Aggressive Unilateralism: America's 301 Trade Policy and the World Trading System (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1990), pp. 191-201, at p. 196.
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    • Cohen1
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    • Cohen, The Making of United States International Economic Policy, p. 218; Bruce Stokes, 'Hot and Cold on New Trade Bill', National Journal, 18 (1986), pp. 709-10; Steven Pressman, 'Senators Pressing for Action: Reagan Stance, Time Crunch Pose Hurdles to Trade Bill', Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, 44 (1986), pp. 2147-48.
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    • For the legislative history of what would become the 1988 Trade Act, see Judith Hippler Bello and Alan Holmer, 'The Heart of the 1988 Trade Act: A Legislative History of the Amendments to Section 301', in Bhagwati and Patrick, Aggressive Unilateralism, pp. 49-89.
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    • The statute did contain some exceptions to when retaliation must occur. On this point, see Bello and Holmer, 'Heart of the 1988 Trade Act', p. 64; and Helen Milner, 'The Political Economy of US Trade Policy: A Study of the Section 301 Provision', in Bhagwati and Patrick, Aggressive Unilateralism, pp. 163-80, at p. 168.
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    • Bello1    Holmer2
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    • The statute did contain some exceptions to when retaliation must occur. On this point, see Bello and Holmer, 'Heart of the 1988 Trade Act', p. 64; and Helen Milner, 'The Political Economy of US Trade Policy: A Study of the Section 301 Provision', in Bhagwati and Patrick, Aggressive Unilateralism, pp. 163-80, at p. 168.
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