Women, bargaining and change in seven structures of world political economy

Review of International Studies

Volumn 25, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 453-474

  Allen, Michael ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0033439832     PISSN: 02602105     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0260210599004532     Document Type: Article

References (138)

1. See Sandra Whitworth, 'Theory as Exclusion: Gender and International Political Economy', in Richard Stubbs and Geoffrey Underhill (eds.) Political Economy and the Changing Global Order (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994). Other feminist critics of International Studies reinforce this point, such as Jill Steans Gender and International Relations: An Introduction (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1998), particularly ch. 7.
2. See Sandra Whitworth, 'Theory as Exclusion: Gender and International Political Economy', in Richard Stubbs and Geoffrey Underhill (eds.) Political Economy and the Changing Global Order (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994). Other feminist critics of International Studies reinforce this point, such as Jill Steans Gender and International Relations: An Introduction (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1998), particularly ch. 7.
3. The essays in Nicolas I. Rizopaulos (ed.) Sea Change (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1991), speak on this point. In particular, see Susan Strange's 'The Name of the Game'.
4. An important contribution to the integrated analysis of peace, development and ecology in gendered terms is Jennifer Turpin and Ann Lovrentzen (eds.), The Gendered New World Order: Militarism Development and the Environment (New York and London: Routledge, 1996). See their 'Introduction'.
5. Essentially, bargaining is one technique of political encounter among others that include coercion, willing submission, incoherent conflict, and altruistic co-operation. Bargaining is an exacting exchange between agencies that are connected to the same problems, and is touched-off by changes in power or awareness. It is needed in political economy to construct and rearrange social networks. It is the archetype at work in coherent argumentation. I have used bargaining as an organising concept in IPE in previous work. See Michael H. Allen 'Rival Workers: Bargaining Power and Justice in Global Systems', in Roger Morgan et al. (eds.) New Diplomacy in the Post-Cold War World: Essays for Susan Strange (London: Macmillan, 1993).
6. It has been suggested that previous rounds of debate in IR since that between Liberal Internationalism (Idealism) and Realism had been permutations of the latter, until critical questions about agencies other than states were raised. See Michael Banks 'The Evolution of International Relations Theory', in Michael Banks (ed.) Conflict in World Society: A New Perspective on International Relations (Sussex, UK: Wheatsheaf, 1984). Even then, gender was left out as Marilyn Myerson and Susan Stoudinger Northcutt show in 'The Question of Gender: An Examination of Selected Textbooks in International Relations' International Studies Notes, 19:1 (1994), pp. 19-25.
7. It has been suggested that previous rounds of debate in IR since that between Liberal Internationalism (Idealism) and Realism had been permutations of the latter, until critical questions about agencies other than states were raised. See Michael Banks 'The Evolution of International Relations Theory', in Michael Banks (ed.) Conflict in World Society: A New Perspective on International Relations (Sussex, UK: Wheatsheaf, 1984). Even then, gender was left out as Marilyn Myerson and Susan Stoudinger Northcutt show in 'The Question of Gender: An Examination of Selected Textbooks in International Relations' International Studies Notes, 19:1 (1994), pp. 19-25.
8. An example of the initial stance of IPE scholars is found in Craig Murphy and Roger Tooze (eds.) The New International Political Economy (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1991). The femininst impact is surveyed in Adam Jones 'Does "Gender" Make the World Go Round? Feminist Critiques of International Relations', Review of International Studies, 22:4 (1996). See also Jill Steans Gender and International Relations, 1998 (cited in fn. 1).
9. An example of the initial stance of IPE scholars is found in Craig Murphy and Roger Tooze (eds.) The New International Political Economy (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1991). The femininst impact is surveyed in Adam Jones 'Does "Gender" Make the World Go Round? Feminist Critiques of International Relations', Review of International Studies, 22:4 (1996). See also Jill Steans Gender and International Relations, 1998 (cited in fn. 1).
10. An example of the initial stance of IPE scholars is found in Craig Murphy and Roger Tooze (eds.) The New International Political Economy (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1991). The femininst impact is surveyed in Adam Jones 'Does "Gender" Make the World Go Round? Feminist Critiques of International Relations', Review of International Studies, 22:4 (1996). See also Jill Steans Gender and International Relations, 1998 (cited in fn. 1).
11. The traditional concerns of IR have been primarily war and peace issues and secondarily wealth and poverty, and how these two axes intersect from the perspectives of states. IPE scholars like Susan Strange have redrawn IR boundaries to include the agencies that create intersecting dynamics of security, production, finance and knowledge. See Strange States and Markets: An Introduction to International Political Economy (New York: Blackwell, 1988). Feminist scholars like Turpin and Lorentzen include ecological issues with military and developmental issues within their purview. See Turpin and Lorentzen (eds.) The Gendered New World Order, 1996.
12. The traditional concerns of IR have been primarily war and peace issues and secondarily wealth and poverty, and how these two axes intersect from the perspectives of states. IPE scholars like Susan Strange have redrawn IR boundaries to include the agencies that create intersecting dynamics of security, production, finance and knowledge. See Strange States and Markets: An Introduction to International Political Economy (New York: Blackwell, 1988). Feminist scholars like Turpin and Lorentzen include ecological issues with military and developmental issues within their purview. See Turpin and Lorentzen (eds.) The Gendered New World Order, 1996.
13. Surveys of debates in IPE speak of a Realist/ Mercantilist, Liberal and Radical spectrum. See Roger Tooze 'Perspectives and Theory: A Consumer's Guide', in Susan Strange (ed.), Paths to International Political Economy (London: Allen and Unwin, 1984); or Geoffrey Underhill 'Introduction; Conceptualizing the Unchanging Global Order', in R. Stubbs and G. Underhill (eds.), Political Economy and the Changing Global Order (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994). The spectrum of perspectives among feminists includes Liberals, Radicals, Essentialists and Standpoint theorists and feminist critical theorists. See ch. 7 of Steans Gender and International Relations (cited in fn. 1).
14. Surveys of debates in IPE speak of a Realist/ Mercantilist, Liberal and Radical spectrum. See Roger Tooze 'Perspectives and Theory: A Consumer's Guide', in Susan Strange (ed.), Paths to International Political Economy (London: Allen and Unwin, 1984); or Geoffrey Underhill 'Introduction; Conceptualizing the Unchanging Global Order', in R. Stubbs and G. Underhill (eds.), Political Economy and the Changing Global Order (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994). The spectrum of perspectives among feminists includes Liberals, Radicals, Essentialists and Standpoint theorists and feminist critical theorists. See ch. 7 of Steans Gender and International Relations (cited in fn. 1).
15. Surveys of debates in IPE speak of a Realist/ Mercantilist, Liberal and Radical spectrum. See Roger Tooze 'Perspectives and Theory: A Consumer's Guide', in Susan Strange (ed.), Paths to International Political Economy (London: Allen and Unwin, 1984); or Geoffrey Underhill 'Introduction; Conceptualizing the Unchanging Global Order', in R. Stubbs and G. Underhill (eds.), Political Economy and the Changing Global Order (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994). The spectrum of perspectives among feminists includes Liberals, Radicals, Essentialists and Standpoint theorists and feminist critical theorists. See ch. 7 of Steans Gender and International Relations (cited in fn. 1).
16. This critical conversation is pursued in articles such as Randall Germain and Michael Kenny 'International Relations and the New Gramscians', Review of International Studies, 24:1 (1998), and Wade L. Huntley 'An Unlikely Match? Kant and Feminism in IR Theory', Millennium Journal of International Studies, 26:2 (1997). Basic questions of IR epistemology are also raised in the Introduction and essays edited by V. Spike Peterson, Gendered States: Feminist (Re) visions of International Relations Theory (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992).
17. This critical conversation is pursued in articles such as Randall Germain and Michael Kenny 'International Relations and the New Gramscians', Review of International Studies, 24:1 (1998), and Wade L. Huntley 'An Unlikely Match? Kant and Feminism in IR Theory', Millennium Journal of International Studies, 26:2 (1997). Basic questions of IR epistemology are also raised in the Introduction and essays edited by V. Spike Peterson, Gendered States: Feminist (Re) visions of International Relations Theory (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992).
18. This critical conversation is pursued in articles such as Randall Germain and Michael Kenny 'International Relations and the New Gramscians', Review of International Studies, 24:1 (1998), and Wade L. Huntley 'An Unlikely Match? Kant and Feminism in IR Theory', Millennium Journal of International Studies, 26:2 (1997). Basic questions of IR epistemology are also raised in the Introduction and essays edited by V. Spike Peterson, Gendered States: Feminist (Re) visions of International Relations Theory (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992).
19. See again, Michael Banks 'The Evolution of International Relations Theory' in Conflict in World Society (Sussex, UK: Wheatsheaf, 1984).
20. This refers to the essentialist stance in feminism as advanced in the work of Carol Gilligan such as 'Visions of Maturity', in In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982). See also Virginia Sapiro 'Gender Politics, Gendered Politics: The State of the Field' quoted in Jones, Review of International Studies (October 1996), p. 407.
21. This refers to the essentialist stance in feminism as advanced in the work of Carol Gilligan such as 'Visions of Maturity', in In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982). See also Virginia Sapiro 'Gender Politics, Gendered Politics: The State of the Field' quoted in Jones, Review of International Studies (October 1996), p. 407.
22. See Charlotte Bretherton, 'Global Environmental Politics' in Review of International Studies, 24:1 (1998), p. 85.
23. Steans, Gender and International Relations, ch. 6. See also Bina Agarwal A Field of One's Own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
24. Steans, Gender and International Relations, ch. 6. See also Bina Agarwal A Field of One's Own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
25. I am sceptical of standpoint epistemologies. Not all women or men in a given social context think alike and it is difficult to distill several lived experiences to authenticate a single epistemology. I prefer Henrietta Moore's suggestion that different cultures negotiate different arrangements of men's and women's gender roles. See her 'Balancing Acts: Gender at the Turn of the Century', LSE Magazine, 8:1 (1996), pp. 10, 11.
26. A useful distinction can be made between 'Realism' and 'realism'. The first. Realism, is a recognized tradition in IR concerned with the problem of order among states. The second, realism, is an outlook on social change that sees politics in terms of competition or conflict among self-interested agents. Hence Realism is the realism of states and Liberalism is the realism of markets, Marxism the realism of classes and so on.
27. See Turpin and Lorentzen (eds.) The Gendered New World Order, 'Introduction' and ch. 1 'Women, Gender, Feminism and the Environment', by Lorraine Elliot, pp. 13-34.
28. Petras, for example demonstrates that given states change in outlook and motivation, depending on the configuration of social forces that support their incumbency. See James Petras, Critical Perspectives on Imperialism and Social Class in the Third World, Monthly Review, NY (1978), ch. 1. See also Robert Cox 'Social Forces, States and World Orders: Beyond International Relations Theory', in Robert O. Keohane (ed.), Neorealism and its Critics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986).
29. Petras, for example demonstrates that given states change in outlook and motivation, depending on the configuration of social forces that support their incumbency. See James Petras, Critical Perspectives on Imperialism and Social Class in the Third World, Monthly Review, NY (1978), ch. 1. See also Robert Cox 'Social Forces, States and World Orders: Beyond International Relations Theory', in Robert O. Keohane (ed.), Neorealism and its Critics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986).
30. Steans, Gender and International Relations; Whitworth 'Theory as Exclusion'; J. Ann Tickner 'On the Fringes of the World Economy: A Feminist Perspective', in Murphy and Tooze (eds.), The New International_Political Economy, 1991.
31. Steans, Gender and International Relations; Whitworth 'Theory as Exclusion'; J. Ann Tickner 'On the Fringes of the World Economy: A Feminist Perspective', in Murphy and Tooze (eds.), The New International_Political Economy, 1991.
32. Rhoda Reddock, 'Primacy of Gender in Race and Class', in J. Edward Greene (ed.), Race, Class and Gender in the Future of the Caribbean (Mona, Jamaica: Institute of Social and Economic Research, 1993).
33. Ann Tickner, 'Hans Morganthau's Principles of Political Realism: A Feminist Reformulation', Millennium, 17:3, 1988; also Tickner, 'On the Fringes of the World Economy'. The World Human Rights Guide, 3rd edn (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), compiled by Charles Humana, notes that even in Scandinavian countries and the English-speaking democracies, women are under-represented in government, earn less than men, and are less powerful in households (pp. 8-9). Figures from the Human Development Reports 1997, United Nations Development Programme (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997) support this. See Table 11, pp. 172-3.
34. Ann Tickner, 'Hans Morganthau's Principles of Political Realism: A Feminist Reformulation', Millennium, 17:3, 1988; also Tickner, 'On the Fringes of the World Economy'. The World Human Rights Guide, 3rd edn (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), compiled by Charles Humana, notes that even in Scandinavian countries and the English-speaking democracies, women are under-represented in government, earn less than men, and are less powerful in households (pp. 8-9). Figures from the Human Development Reports 1997, United Nations Development Programme (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997) support this. See Table 11, pp. 172-3.
35. Ann Tickner, 'Hans Morganthau's Principles of Political Realism: A Feminist Reformulation', Millennium, 17:3, 1988; also Tickner, 'On the Fringes of the World Economy'. The World Human Rights Guide, 3rd edn (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), compiled by Charles Humana, notes that even in Scandinavian countries and the English-speaking democracies, women are under-represented in government, earn less than men, and are less powerful in households (pp. 8-9). Figures from the Human Development Reports 1997, United Nations Development Programme (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997) support this. See Table 11, pp. 172-3.
36. See S. M. Okin, Justice, Gender and the Family (New York: Basic Books, 1989); also Diane Elson 'Gender-Aware Analysis and Development Economics', Journal of International Development, 5:2, 1993.
37. See S. M. Okin, Justice, Gender and the Family (New York: Basic Books, 1989); also Diane Elson 'Gender-Aware Analysis and Development Economics', Journal of International Development, 5:2, 1993.
38. Turpin and Lorentzen, The Gendered New World Order, p. 3; also Human Development Report 1997, ch. 3.
39. Diane Elson, 'Gender-Aware Analysis'.
40. Human Development Report 1997, ch. 3; Maria de los Angeles Crummett 'The "Women's Movement"', in K. P. Jameson and C. K. Wilbur (eds.) The Political Economy of Development and Underdevelopment (New York: McGraw Hill, 1996); I. Palmer, Gender and Population in the Adjustment of African Economies: Planning for Change (Geneva: International Labor Organization, 1991).
41. Human Development Report 1997, ch. 3; Maria de los Angeles Crummett 'The "Women's Movement"', in K. P. Jameson and C. K. Wilbur (eds.) The Political Economy of Development and Underdevelopment (New York: McGraw Hill, 1996); I. Palmer, Gender and Population in the Adjustment of African Economies: Planning for Change (Geneva: International Labor Organization, 1991).
42. Human Development Report 1997, ch. 3; Maria de los Angeles Crummett 'The "Women's Movement"', in K. P. Jameson and C. K. Wilbur (eds.) The Political Economy of Development and Underdevelopment (New York: McGraw Hill, 1996); I. Palmer, Gender and Population in the Adjustment of African Economies: Planning for Change (Geneva: International Labor Organization, 1991).
43. Joan Smith and Immanuel Wallerstein, Creating and Transforming Households: the Constraints of the World-economy (Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992); June Nash and Helen Safa, Women and Change in Latin America (South Hadley, Massachusetts: Bergin and Garvey Publishers, 1986); and Nash and Maria P. Fernandez-Kelly (eds.) Women and the International Division of Labor (Albany: States University of New York Press, 1983).
44. Joan Smith and Immanuel Wallerstein, Creating and Transforming Households: the Constraints of the World-economy (Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992); June Nash and Helen Safa, Women and Change in Latin America (South Hadley, Massachusetts: Bergin and Garvey Publishers, 1986); and Nash and Maria P. Fernandez-Kelly (eds.) Women and the International Division of Labor (Albany: States University of New York Press, 1983).
45. Joan Smith and Immanuel Wallerstein, Creating and Transforming Households: the Constraints of the World-economy (Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992); June Nash and Helen Safa, Women and Change in Latin America (South Hadley, Massachusetts: Bergin and Garvey Publishers, 1986); and Nash and Maria P. Fernandez-Kelly (eds.) Women and the International Division of Labor (Albany: States University of New York Press, 1983).
46. For an example of the impact of religion on household and market power in South Asia, see Bina Agarwal '"Bargaining" and Gender Relations: Within and Beyond the Household', Feminist Economics, 3:1, 1997.
47. Nash and Fernandez-Kelly (eds.), Women and the International Division of Labor.
48. Nash and Safa, Women and Change in Latin America; Bina Agarwal (ed.), Structures of Patriarchy: State, Community and Household in Modernizing Asia (London: Zed Books, 1988).
49. Nash and Safa, Women and Change in Latin America; Bina Agarwal (ed.), Structures of Patriarchy: State, Community and Household in Modernizing Asia (London: Zed Books, 1988).
50. Smith and Wallerstein, Creating and Transforming Households.
51. Swasti Mitter, Common Fates, Common Bond: Women in the Global Economy (London: Pluto Press, 1986); S. Mitter and A. Luijken, The Unseen Phenomenon: The Rise of Houseworking (London: Change Publications, 1989).
52. Swasti Mitter, Common Fates, Common Bond: Women in the Global Economy (London: Pluto Press, 1986); S. Mitter and A. Luijken, The Unseen Phenomenon: The Rise of Houseworking (London: Change Publications, 1989).
53. Maria Mies, Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale (London: Zed Books, 1986); Heidi Hartman, 'Capitalism, Patriarchy and Job Segregation by Sex', in M. Blaxall and B. Reagan (eds.) Women and the Workplace: The Implications of Occupational Segregation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976).
54. Maria Mies, Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale (London: Zed Books, 1986); Heidi Hartman, 'Capitalism, Patriarchy and Job Segregation by Sex', in M. Blaxall and B. Reagan (eds.) Women and the Workplace: The Implications of Occupational Segregation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976).
55. As Turpin and Lorentzen (eds.) have done in The Gendered New World Order.
56. My critique of Realism and essential realism is contained in 'Politics of Global Industries: Toward New Images of World Politics and World Society', paper to the Northeastern Political Science Association meeting, Providence, RI, November 1988.
57. Strange, States and Markets; R. W. Cox, Production, Power and World Order: Social Forces in the Making of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987); S. Gill and D. Law, The Global Political Economy: Perspectives, Problems and Policies (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988).
58. Strange, States and Markets; R. W. Cox, Production, Power and World Order: Social Forces in the Making of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987); S. Gill and D. Law, The Global Political Economy: Perspectives, Problems and Policies (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988).
59. Strange, States and Markets; R. W. Cox, Production, Power and World Order: Social Forces in the Making of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987); S. Gill and D. Law, The Global Political Economy: Perspectives, Problems and Policies (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988).
60. Murphy and Tooze, The New International Political Economy (see note 6); Stubbs and Underhill, Political Economy and the Changing Global Order, Roger Morgan et al., New Diplomacy.
61. Murphy and Tooze, The New International Political Economy (see note 6); Stubbs and Underhill, Political Economy and the Changing Global Order, Roger Morgan et al., New Diplomacy.
62. Murphy and Tooze, The New International Political Economy (see note 6); Stubbs and Underhill, Political Economy and the Changing Global Order, Roger Morgan et al., New Diplomacy.
63. Strange, States and Markets.
64. On the interdependence of the knowledge and security structures respectively, with other structures, see essays by Steven Gill and Barry Buzan in Stubbs and Underhill (eds. ), Political Economy.
65. Buzan in Stubbs and Underhill and other work by the same author.
66. I have traced the example of the world aluminum industry, which has moved through several ordering bargains. See Michael H. Allen, Bargaining and Change: The International Bauxite Association, 1973-1977, Ph.D. thesis, London School of Economics, 1984.
67. On the political framing of trade bargains see Victoria Curzon Price. 'The Decay of GATT: Does Multilateralism have a Future?' in Roger Morgan et al. (eds.), New Diplomacy in the Post-Cold War World (London: Macmillan, 1993). See also Miroslava Filipovic, 'A Global Private Regime for Capital Flows', paper presented to British International Studies Association, York, December 1994; and Susan Strange, 'Transnational Financial System of the 1990s', paper for the International Studies Association, Vancouver, 1991. See also Orson Watson, 'The Soros Proposal: Credit Risk Insurance as Global Governance', paper presented at the International Studies Association Annual Conference, Minneapolis, March 1998.
68. On the political framing of trade bargains see Victoria Curzon Price. 'The Decay of GATT: Does Multilateralism have a Future?' in Roger Morgan et al. (eds.), New Diplomacy in the Post-Cold War World (London: Macmillan, 1993). See also Miroslava Filipovic, 'A Global Private Regime for Capital Flows', paper presented to British International Studies Association, York, December 1994; and Susan Strange, 'Transnational Financial System of the 1990s', paper for the International Studies Association, Vancouver, 1991. See also Orson Watson, 'The Soros Proposal: Credit Risk Insurance as Global Governance', paper presented at the International Studies Association Annual Conference, Minneapolis, March 1998.
69. On the political framing of trade bargains see Victoria Curzon Price. 'The Decay of GATT: Does Multilateralism have a Future?' in Roger Morgan et al. (eds.), New Diplomacy in the Post-Cold War World (London: Macmillan, 1993). See also Miroslava Filipovic, 'A Global Private Regime for Capital Flows', paper presented to British International Studies Association, York, December 1994; and Susan Strange, 'Transnational Financial System of the 1990s', paper for the International Studies Association, Vancouver, 1991. See also Orson Watson, 'The Soros Proposal: Credit Risk Insurance as Global Governance', paper presented at the International Studies Association Annual Conference, Minneapolis, March 1998.
70. On the political framing of trade bargains see Victoria Curzon Price. 'The Decay of GATT: Does Multilateralism have a Future?' in Roger Morgan et al. (eds.), New Diplomacy in the Post-Cold War World (London: Macmillan, 1993). See also Miroslava Filipovic, 'A Global Private Regime for Capital Flows', paper presented to British International Studies Association, York, December 1994; and Susan Strange, 'Transnational Financial System of the 1990s', paper for the International Studies Association, Vancouver, 1991. See also Orson Watson, 'The Soros Proposal: Credit Risk Insurance as Global Governance', paper presented at the International Studies Association Annual Conference, Minneapolis, March 1998.
71. Cox, Production, Power and World Order. See also R. W. Cox, 'Social Forces, States and World Order: Beyond International Relations Theory', in R. O. Keohane (ed.), Neorealism and its Critics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986).
72. Cox, Production, Power and World Order. See also R. W. Cox, 'Social Forces, States and World Order: Beyond International Relations Theory', in R. O. Keohane (ed.), Neorealism and its Critics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986).
73. Gill and Law, The Global Political Economy; also Stephen Gill, 'Global Macro-economics and the Internationalization of the State: Regulating the Power of Capital'. Paper presented at the British International Studies Association Annual Conference, Warwick, England, 1991.
74. Gill and Law, The Global Political Economy; also Stephen Gill, 'Global Macro-economics and the Internationalization of the State: Regulating the Power of Capital'. Paper presented at the British International Studies Association Annual Conference, Warwick, England, 1991.
75. This is reflected in renewed interest in the thought of Gramsci and of Kant. See Randall Germain and Michael Kenny, 'International Relations and the New Gramscians', and Wade L. Huntley, 'An Unlikely Match? Kant and Feminism in IR Theory' (see fn. 9).
76. This is reflected in renewed interest in the thought of Gramsci and of Kant. See Randall Germain and Michael Kenny, 'International Relations and the New Gramscians', and Wade L. Huntley, 'An Unlikely Match? Kant and Feminism in IR Theory' (see fn. 9).
77. Diane Elson, 'Gender-Aware Analysis and Development Economics', Journal of International Development, 5:2, 1993.
78. Guy Standing, 'Global Feminization Through Flexible Labor', World Development, 17:7, 1989.
79. Mitter and Luijken, The Unseen Phenomenon; Nash and Fernandez-Kelly, Women and the International Division of Labor.
80. Mitter and Luijken, The Unseen Phenomenon; Nash and Fernandez-Kelly, Women and the International Division of Labor.
81. Allen, 'Rival Workers' (see fn. 4).
82. Political economy in South Africa demonstrates this mix, as I argue in 'Bargaining Dynamics of Post-Apartheid State: Market, Class and Ethnic Dimensions', in Paul B. Rich (ed.), The Dynamics of Change in Southern Africa (London: Macmillan, 1994).
83. The UNDP Human Development Report 1997 shows in its gender empowerment measure that women's roles in administration and management, professional and technical occupations and shares of earned income are still well behind those of men in all categories of countries. Table 3, pp. 152-4.
84. While legal scholarship and jurisprudence are clearly part of the knowledge structure, rules and the everyday practices that operationalize them are as distinct from legal scholarship as shopping is from economic theory. Rules both shape and reflect what is acceptable behaviour in markets and institutions of authority. In most complex social formations, the relations of authoritative decision-making are as distinct as those of production, finance or advanced knowledge. The relations of meaning and identity-construction (religion) are also usefully seen as distinct. In premodern times these shaped the relations of production, finance, knowledge and authoritative decision-making more than they do now. With the perceived failure of modernity in many parts of the world there are revised attempts to make religion the basis of political-economic coherence, many times, at the expense of women. See Mark Jürgensmeyer, 'The Worldwide Rise of Religious Nationalism' in Journal of International Affairs, 50:1, Summer, 1996. See also N. J. Demerath III and Karen S. Straight, 'Religion, Politics and the State: Cross-Cultural Observations', in Cross Currents, 47:1, Spring 1997.
85. While legal scholarship and jurisprudence are clearly part of the knowledge structure, rules and the everyday practices that operationalize them are as distinct from legal scholarship as shopping is from economic theory. Rules both shape and reflect what is acceptable behaviour in markets and institutions of authority. In most complex social formations, the relations of authoritative decision-making are as distinct as those of production, finance or advanced knowledge. The relations of meaning and identity-construction (religion) are also usefully seen as distinct. In premodern times these shaped the relations of production, finance, knowledge and authoritative decision-making more than they do now. With the perceived failure of modernity in many parts of the world there are revised attempts to make religion the basis of political-economic coherence, many times, at the expense of women. See Mark Jürgensmeyer, 'The Worldwide Rise of Religious Nationalism' in Journal of International Affairs, 50:1, Summer, 1996. See also N. J. Demerath III and Karen S. Straight, 'Religion, Politics and the State: Cross-Cultural Observations', in Cross Currents, 47:1, Spring 1997.
86. I place law and order in distinct domains because in any social context, those who hold legitimate decision-making status are not necessarily also the ones who can assure order. People in countries with powerful counter-elites like drug barons or corrupt soldiers know this well. Those whose power to coerce must be taken into account, despite the rules, are part of the security structure. At the level of households, if laws against spouse abuse are absent or not enforced, the victim partners have both a security and a nominative problem.
87. The Swedish state has attempted to do much of this with mixed results. See Anna Nelson 'Sweden: Equality and Difference in the Labor Market and in Family Policy', Senior Thesis, Bryn Mawr College, April 1996. See also Maud L. Eduards, 'Toward a Third Way: Women's Politics and Welfare Policies in Sweden', Social Research, 58:3, 1991.
88. The Swedish state has attempted to do much of this with mixed results. See Anna Nelson 'Sweden: Equality and Difference in the Labor Market and in Family Policy', Senior Thesis, Bryn Mawr College, April 1996. See also Maud L. Eduards, 'Toward a Third Way: Women's Politics and Welfare Policies in Sweden', Social Research, 58:3, 1991.
89. See Hal Morgan and Kenny Tucker, Companies that Care (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991).
90. It is true enough that IMF functionaries are aware of these connections as evidenced in their publications, such as: Paul Gleason, 'Poverty Reduction and Structural Adjustment discussed at IMF Seminar', pp. 178-82, IMF Survey, 22:12, June 14, 1993, International Monetary Fund, Washington DC. However, the practical effects of IMF-imposed adjustment requirements, specifically for women in developing countries, remain in tension with the spirit of such publications. On these practical effects, see Mary J. Osirim, 'The Dilemmas of Modern Development: Structural Adjustment and Women Micro-entrepreneurs in Nigeria and Zimbabwe' in Turpin and Lorentzen (eds. ), The Gendered New World Order.
91. It is true enough that IMF functionaries are aware of these connections as evidenced in their publications, such as: Paul Gleason, 'Poverty Reduction and Structural Adjustment discussed at IMF Seminar', pp. 178-82, IMF Survey, 22:12, June 14, 1993, International Monetary Fund, Washington DC. However, the practical effects of IMF-imposed adjustment requirements, specifically for women in developing countries, remain in tension with the spirit of such publications. On these practical effects, see Mary J. Osirim, 'The Dilemmas of Modern Development: Structural Adjustment and Women Micro-entrepreneurs in Nigeria and Zimbabwe' in Turpin and Lorentzen (eds. ), The Gendered New World Order.
92. I demonstrate this point in Bargaining and Change (see fn. 39 above).
93. This dialectical understanding of law or authoritative decision-making in the context of real political-economy is well demonstrated in the work of Richard Falk in International Law. See Richard Falk, 'An Inquiry into the Political Economy of World Order' in New Political Economy, 1:1, 1996.
94. Nahid Toubia (ed.), Women of the Arab World (London and Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Zed Books, 1988).
95. See Diana L. Eck and Devaki Jain (eds.), Speaking of Faith: Global Perspectives on Women, Religion and Social Change (Philadelphia: New Society Publishers, 1987).
96. I draw this understanding of law from the work of Richard Falk, as in The Status of Law in International Society (Princeton: Princeton University Press), 1970, Part I. As he and others who take a Social Science approach to International Law point out, law is not always relevant, since those whom legal logic and juridical standing favour are not always the ones who have coercive power to deliver or disrupt order. This points to the usefulness of regarding the security and authoritative-decision-making structures as distinct in world politics.
97. There is an emerging discourse on new forms of authority in international political economy. On transgovernmental trends see Anne-Marie Slaughter, 'The Real New World Order', Foreign Affairs, September/October 1997; on transnational forms of authority see Susan Strange, The Retreat of the State: the diffusion of power in the World-economy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996). On nascent supranationalism, see again Gill, 'Global Macroeconomics . . .' (see fn. 42 above).
98. There is an emerging discourse on new forms of authority in international political economy. On transgovernmental trends see Anne-Marie Slaughter, 'The Real New World Order', Foreign Affairs, September/October 1997; on transnational forms of authority see Susan Strange, The Retreat of the State: the diffusion of power in the World-economy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996). On nascent supranationalism, see again Gill, 'Global Macroeconomics . . .' (see fn. 42 above).
99. There is an emerging discourse on new forms of authority in international political economy. On transgovernmental trends see Anne-Marie Slaughter, 'The Real New World Order', Foreign Affairs, September/October 1997; on transnational forms of authority see Susan Strange, The Retreat of the State: the diffusion of power in the World-economy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996). On nascent supranationalism, see again Gill, 'Global Macroeconomics . . .' (see fn. 42 above).
100. See again Nahid Toubia (ed.), Women of the Arab World.
101. It is helpful to remember that the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 was supported by a wide cross-section of states from all regions and religions of the world, albeit after much caution and equivocation on the part of some delegations. This contrasts with some nationalist protests since then, that universal minimal standards are impossible, or are necessarily expressions of Western hegemony.
102. For example the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which speaks of 'the equal rights of men and women' dates back to 1948; the 'Convention on the Political Rights of Women, 1953' entered into force in July 1954; and the 'Declaration on Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, 1967' was adopted unanimously by the UN General Assembly in November 1967.
103. See again Turpin and Lorentzen, The Gendered New World Order, see also Johann Galtung, Peace by Peaceful Means: Peace and Conflict, Development and Civilizations (Oslo: International Press, Research Institute, 1996).
104. See again Turpin and Lorentzen, The Gendered New World Order, see also Johann Galtung, Peace by Peaceful Means: Peace and Conflict, Development and Civilizations (Oslo: International Press, Research Institute, 1996).
105. See again Agarwal '"Bargaining" and Gender Relations: Within and Beyond the Household', Feminist Economics, 3:1, 1997.
106. The Clinton administration in the United States has strongly advocated family leave and other legislation that reflects awareness of the connections between household economies and the market economy.
107. See for example David Cheney, 'Conference Addresses Major Issues Relating to Global Poverty', IMF Survey, 22:3, February 8, 1993.
108. This is the thrust of Eric Williams' thesis in Capitalism and Slavery (New York: Capricorn Books, 1966).
109. Williams, Capitalism and Slavery.
110. Michael Allen 'Bargaining Dynamics of a Post-Apartheid State' (see above fn. 48).
111. An example of this is found in the case of aluminum. See Allen, Bargaining and Change (see fn. 39).
112. This was a major argument of the two Brandt Commission reports: North-South: A Program for Survival (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1980) and Common Crisis, North-South Co-operation for World Recovery (London: Pan Books, 1983).
113. This was a major argument of the two Brandt Commission reports: North-South: A Program for Survival (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1980) and Common Crisis, North-South Co-operation for World Recovery (London: Pan Books, 1983).
114. Undersea and atmospheric tests of nuclear warheads could be systematically banned between 1963 and 1974 largely because the major nuclear states had, by then, invented underground testing. France, which lagged behind in this technology was slower to stop than the US and USSR. A useful backgrounder remains Common Security: A Programme for Disarmament , Olaf Palme and others (London: Pan Books, 1982).
115. See again S. Mitter (see fn. 30).
116. On Jamaican instances, see Aggrey Brown, Color, Class and Politics in Jamaica (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1979).
117. The example of Beyers Naude comes to mind. See The Trial of Beyers Naude: Christian Witness and the Rule of Law edited by the International Commission of Jurists (Geneva and London: Search Press in conjunction with Rovan Press, Johannesburg, 1975).
118. See Mitchell Reiss and Robert Litwak (eds.), Nuclear Proliferation After the Cold War (Washington DC: Woodrow Wilson Centre Press, Distributed by Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), particularly the chapter on South Africa by David Fischer.
119. I raise this point as a question of critical reaction to Manfred Halpern's theory of Transformation in 'Politics of Global Industries'.
120. Karl Mannheim Ideology and Utopia: An Introduction to the Sociology of Knowledge (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1936).
121. A helpful interpretation is offered in the chapter on Max Weber in Lewis A. Coser, Masters of Sociological Thought (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977).
122. This refers, of course, to two contrasting figures in South African history, with Mandela seeming to have gone against the grain of immediate self-interest for the sake of social justice. Realism and idealism are not dichotomous, but dialectical. For a sceptical view, see Roger D. Spegele, 'Is robust globalism a mistake?', Review of International Studies, 23:2, 1997.
123. Studies in both developed and developing areas have shown that women's negotiating authority within households increases with their independent earnings. See Philip Blumstein and Pepper Schwartz, American Couples: Money, Work, Sex (New York: William Morrow, 1983), esp. pp. 53, 77 and 164;
124. also Bessie House-Midamba and Felix K. Ekechi (eds.), African Market Women and Economic Power: the Role of Women in African Economic Development (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1995).
125. Micro-lending on the Grameen Bank model has proven useful in empowering poor women in different regions of the world. Both state and non-governmental sources of funds have been vital catalysts. See for example 'Women in Africa's Development: Overcoming Obstacles, Pushing for Progress', Africa Recovery, (United Nations Department of Public Information: Briefing Paper no. 11, April 1998).
126. The price to be paid may include ostracism or excommunication in the religious structure or promotion, tenure and research grants denied in the knowledge structure.
127. I have argued that despite the loss of state power in relation to capital, access to state power is critical to bargaining power for workers in 'Rival Worker' (see fn. 4).
128. See Nelson'Sweden: Equality and Difference' (see fn. 52).
129. Eduards 'Toward a Third Way' (fn. 52).
130. See Human Development Report, UNDP, 1997, Table 3, p. 152.
131. One is reminded of the utopian speeches coming from revolutionary movements and governments in the Non-Aligned Movement and UN General Assembly in the 1970s, or from radical social movements of the 1960s.
132. See Mary J. Osirim, 'Vehicles for Change and Empowerment: Urban Women's Organizations in Nigeria and Zimbabwe', paper presented to the NGO Forum on Women '95, Huairou, The People's Republic of China, August 30 to September 8, 1995.
133. It seems ironic that what women need to do in order to advance in the market place, with all the benefits to society that that implies, may require more time out of households and thus, more time by other women in those same households. The commoditisation of nurture displaces still other women of a different class from nurture in their own families, and marginal compensation does not always match marginal effort or social cost.
134. This points to the idea of different feminisms in a different way, that is, varieties bound by class and ethnicity. In any case, contrary to Essentialist expectations, gender does not predict pacifism and solidarity for women. See Mark Tessler and Ina Warriner, 'Gender, Feminism and Attitude Toward International Conflict: Exploring Relationships with Survey Data from the Middle East', World Politics, 49 (January 1997), pp. 250-81.
135. An allusion to Mitter's book entitled Common Fates, Common Bond.
136. This was an argument in Allen 'Rival Workers'.
137. This seems to be what the Liberal feminist push for women in the US military is about.
138. Such a project would be based on assumptions of: difference in values, wants, knowledges and economic goals among peoples within and outside of global capitalism; freedom of choice of modes of production and culture to live in; complementary technologies, infrastructures and resource environments; and compatibility of authoritative decision-making procedures. See Nelson W. Keith, Reframing International Development: Globalism, Postmodernity and Difference (Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 1997).