Inflammation markers and coronary heart disease

Current Opinion in Lipidology

Volumn 10, Issue 5, 1999, Pages 435-441

  Tracy, Russell P ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACUTE PHASE PROTEIN; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; FIBRINOGEN;

ACUTE PHASE RESPONSE; CAROTID ARTERY; CORONARY ARTERY ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CORONARY ARTERY THROMBOSIS; DISEASE MARKER; HUMAN; INFLAMMATION; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

BIOLOGICAL MARKERS; C-REACTIVE PROTEIN; CORONARY DISEASE; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 0033386090     PISSN: 09579672     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00041433-199910000-00008     Document Type: Review

References (75)

1. 1 Nieto F. Infections and atherosclerosis: new clues from an old hypothesis? Am J Epidemiol 1998; 148:937-948. An excellent review of the relationship of infection to CVD risk.
2. 2 Ross R. Atherosclerosis-an inflammatory disease. N Engl. J Med 1999; 340:115-126. The definitive review of our current understanding of the relationship between inflammation and the molecular pathology of atherosclerosis.
3. 3 Levi M, ten Cate H, van der Poll T, van Deventer J. Pathogenesis of disseminated intravascular coagulation in sepsis. JAMA 1993; 270:975-979.
4. 4 Rokitansky C. A manual of pathological anatomy. Philadelphia: Blanchard and Lee; 1855.
5. 5 Duguid J. Thrombosis as a factor in the pathogenesis of coronary atherosclerosis. J Pathol Bacteriol 1946; 58:207-212.
6. 6 DeWood M, Spores J, Notske R, Mouser L, Burroughs R, Goldens M, et al. Prevalence of total coronary occlusion during the early hours of transmural myocardial infarction. N Eng J Med 1980; 303:897-902.
7. 7 Meade T, Brozovic M, Chakrabarti R, Haines A, Imeson J, Mellows S, et al. Haemostatic function and ischaemic heart disease: principal results of the Northwick Park Heart Study. Lancet 1986; 2:533-537.
8. 8 Wilhelmsen L, Svardsudd K, Korsan-Bengtsen K, Larsson B, Welin L, Tibblin G. Fibrinogen as a risk factor for stroke and myocardial infarction. N Eng J Med 1984; 311:501-505.
9. 9 Stone M, Thorp J. Plasma fibrinogen-a major coronary risk factor. J R Coll Gen Pract 1985; 35:565-569.
10. 10 Yarnell J, Sweetnam P, Elwood P, Eastham R, Gilmour R, O'Brien J, et al. Haemostatic factors and ischaemic heart disease: the Caerphilly study. Br Heart J 1985; 53:483-487.
11. 11 Kannel W, Wolf P, Castelli W, D'Agostino R. Fibrinogen and risk of cardiovascular disease: the Framingham study. JAMA 1987; 258:1183-1186.
12. 12 Thompson S, Kienast J, Pyke S, Haverkate F, van de Loo J. Hemostatic factors and the risk of myocardial infarction or sudden death in patients with angina pectoris. N Engl J Med 1995; 332:635-641.
13. 13 Becker R, Cannon C, Bovill E, Tracy R, Thompson B, Knatterud G, et al. Prognostic value of plasma fibrinogen concentration in patients with unstable angina and non-Q wave infarction enrolled in the TIMI III trial. Am J Cardiol 1996; 78:142-147.
14. 14 Folsom AR, Wu KK, Rosamond WD, Sharrett AR, Chambless LE. Prospective study of hemostatic factors and incidence of coronary heart disease: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Circulation 1997; 96:1102-1108. A report from a large, multi-ethnic study of both men and women that confirmed fibrinogen as a CVD risk factor, but challenged the relevance of factor VII levels.
15. 15 Tracy RP, Arnold AM, Ettinger W, Fried L, Meilahn E, Savage P. The relationship of fibrinogen and factors VII and VIII to incident cardiovascular disease and death in the elderly: results from the cardiovascular health study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1999; 19:1776-1783. This study, but in a large, multi-ethnic elderly cohort, reported similar findings to [14•], and also pointed out that fibrinogen predicted events better when the occurred soon after the blood was drawn, compared with later.
16. 16 Tracy R, Bovill E, Yanez D, Psaty B, Fried L, Heiss G, et al. Fibrinogen and factor VIII, but not factor VII, are associated with measures of subclinical cardiovascular disease in the elderly: results from the Cardiovascular Health Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1995; 15:1269-1279.
17. 17 Sakkinen PA, Cushman M, Psaty BM, Kuller LH, Bajaj SP, Sabharwal AK, et al. Correlates of antithrombin, protein C, protein S, and TFPI in a healthy elderly cohort. Thromb Haemost 1998; 80:134-139.
18. 18 Cushman M, Psaty B, Macy E, Bovill E, Cornell E, Kuller L, et al. Correlates of thrombin markers in an elderly cohort free of clinical cardiovascular disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1996; 16:1163-1169.
19. 19 Hamsten A, de Faire U, Walldius G, Dahlen G, Szamosi A, Landou C, et al. Plasminogen activator inhibitor in plasma: risk factor for recurrent myocardial infarction. Lancet 1987; 2:3-9.
20. 20 Ridker P, Vaughan D, Stampfer M, Manson J, Hennekens C. Endogenous tissue-type plasminogen activator and risk of myocardial infarction. Lancet 1993; 341:1165-1168.
21. 21 Lowe GD, Lee AJ, Rumley A, Price JF, Fowkes FG. Blood viscosity and risk of cardiovascular events: the Edinburgh Artery Study. Br J Haematol 1997; 96:168-173.
22. 22 Yarnell J, Baker I, Sweetnam P, Bainton D, O'Brien J, Whitehead P, et al. Fibrinogen, viscosity, and white blood cell count are major risk factors for ischemic heart disease. Circulation 1991; 83:836-844.
23. 23 Ceriello A, Pirisi M, Giacomello R, Stel G, Falleti E, Motz E, et al. Fibrinogen plasma levels as a marker of thrombin activation: new insights on the role of fibrinogen as a cardiovascular risk factor [see comments]. Thromb Haemost 1994; 71:593-595.
24. 24 Fowkes FG, Connor JM, Smith FB, Wood J, Donnan PT, Lowe GD. Fibrinogen genotype and risk of peripheral atherosclerosis. Lancet 1992; 339:693-696.
25. 25 Zito F, Di Castelnuovo A, Amore C, D'Orazio A, Donati MB, Iacoviello L. Bcl I polymorphism in the fibrinogen beta-chain gene is associated with the risk of familial myocardial infarction by increasing plasma fibrinogen levels. A case-control study in a sample of GISSI-2 patients. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1997; 17:3489-3494.
26. 26 Scarabin PY, Bara L, Ricard S, Poirier O, Cambou JP, Arveiler D, et al. Genetic variation at the beta-fibrinogen locus in relation to plasma fibrinogen concentrations and risk of myocardial infarction. The ECTIM Study. Arterioscler Thromb 1993; 13:886-891.
27. 27 Wang XL, Wang J, McCredie RM, Wilcken DE. Polymorphisms of factor V, factor VII, and fibrinogen genes. Relevance to severity of coronary artery disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1997; 17:246-251.
28. 28 Iacoviello L, Di Castelnuovo A, De Knijff P, D'Orazio A, Amore C, Arboretti R, et al. Polymorphisms in the coagulation factor VII gene and the risk of myocardial infarction [see comments]. N Engl J Med 1998; 338:79-85. This study demonstrated a strong relationship between factor VII genotype and CVD risk.
29. 29 Lane A, Green F, Scarabin PY, Nicaud V, Bara L, Humphries S, et al. Factor VII Arg/Gln353 polymorphism determines factor VII coagulant activity in patients with myocardial infarction (MI) and control subjects in Belfast and in France but is not a strong indicator of MI risk in the ECTIM study. Atherosclerosis 1996; 119:119-127.
30. 30 Iacoviello L, Burrito F, Di Castelnuovo A, Zito F, Martially R, Donati MB. The 4G/ 5G polymorphism of PAI-1 promoter gene and the risk of myocardial infarction: a meta-analysis [letter]. Thromb Haemost 1998; 80:1029-1030. This study supported the position that PAI-1 genotype is associated with CVD risk through a meta-analysis.
31. 31 Ridker P, Hennekens C, Lindpaintner K, Stampfer M, Miletich J. Arterial and venous thrombosis is not associated with the 4G/5G polymorphism in the promoter of the plasminogen activator inhibitor gene in a large cohort of US men. Circulation 1997; 95:59-62. The authors failed to find any evidence for PAI-1 genotype as a CVD risk factor.
32. 32 Aggawal B, Puri R, editors. Human cytokines: their role in disease and therapy. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Science; 1995.
33. 33 Kushner I. C-reactive protein and the acute-phase response. Hosp Pract 1990; 30:13-28.
34. 34 Huber S, Sakkinen P, Rincon M, Hardin N, Tracy R. Interleukin-6 exacerbates early atherosclerosis in mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1999; in press.
35. 35 Ernst E, Resch K. Fibrinogen as a cardiovascular risk factor: A meta-analysis and review of the literature. Ann Intern Med 1993; 118:956-963.
36. 36 Tuddenham E. Factor VIII. In: High K, Roberts H, editors. Molecular basis of thrombosis and hemostasis. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1995. pp. 167-196.
37. 37 Juhan-Vague I, Alessi MC, Joly P, Thirion X, Vague P, Declerck PJ, et al. Plasma plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 in angina pectoris. Influence of plasma insulin and acute-phase response. Arteriosclerosis 1989; 9:362-367.
38. 38 Kluft C, Verheijen J, Jie A, Rijken D, Preston F, Sue-Ling H, et al. The post-operative fibrinolytic shutdown: a rapidly reverting acute phase pattern for the fast acting inhibitor of tissue-type plasminogen activator after trauma. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1985; 45:605-610.
39. 39 Sobel BE. Increased plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 and vasculopathy. A reconcilable paradox [editorial]. Circulation 1999; 99:2496-2498.
40. 40 Salonen J, Salonen R, Korpela H, Suntioinen S, Tuomilehto J. Serum copper and the risk of acute myocardial infarction: a prospective population study in men in eastern Finland. Am J Epidemiol 1991; 134:268-276.
41. 41 Salonen J, Nyyssonen K, Korpela H, Tuomilehto J, Seppanen R, Salonen R. High stored iron levels are associated with excess risk of myocardial infarction in eastern Finnish men. Circulation 1992; 86:803-811.
42. 42 Ettinger W, Harris T, Verdery R, Tracy R, Kouba E. Evidence for inflammation as a cause of hypocholesterolemia in older people. JAGS 1995; 43:264-266.
43. 43 Miller G. High density lipoproteins and atherosclerosis. Ann Rev Med 1980; 31:97-108.
44. 44 Drexel H, Amann F, Beran J, Rentsch K, Candinas R, Muntwyler J, et al. Plasma triglycerides and three lipoprotein cholesterol fractions are independent predictors of the extent of coronary atherosclerosis. Circulation 1994; 90:2230-2235.
45. 45 Moyer MP, Tracy RP, Tracy PB, van't Veer C, Sparks CE, Mann KG. Plasma lipoproteins support prothrombinase and other procoagulant enzymatic complexes. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1998; 18:458-465.
46. 46 Grigoriadis G, Stewart AG. Albumin inhibits platelet-activating factor (PAF)-induced responses in platelets and macrophages: implications for the biologically active form of PAF. Br J Pharmacol 1992; 107:73-77.
47. 47 Hopkins P, Wu L, Hunt S, James B, Vincent G, Williams R. Higher serum bilirubin is associated with decreased risk for early familial coronary artery disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1996; 16:250-255.
48. 48 Maeda S, Abe A, Seishima M, Makino K, Noma A, Kawade M. Transient changes of serum lipoprotein (a) as an acute phase protein. Atherosclerosis 1989; 78:144-150.
49. 49 Loscalzo J, Weinfeld M, Fless G, Scanu A. Lipoprotein (a), fibrin binding, and plasminogen activation. Arteriosclerosis 1990; 10:240-245.
50. 50 Scanu AM. Atherothrombogenicity of lipoprotein (a): the debate. Am J Cardiol 1998; 82:26Q-33Q.
51. 51 Kuller L, Eichner J, Orchard T, Grandits G, McCallum L, Tracy R, et al. The relation between serum albumin levels and risk of coronary heart disease in the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. Am J Epidemiol 1991; 134:1266-1277.
52. 52 Schwertner H, Jackson W, Tolan G. Association of low serum concentration of bilirubin with increased risk of coronary artery disease. Clin Chem 1994; 40:18-23.
53. 53 Reunanen A, Knekt P, Aaran R-K. Serum ceruloplasmin level and risk of myocardial infarction and stroke. Am J Epidemiol 1992; 136:1082-1090.
54. 54 Kharash L. Is serum ferritin a risk factor for coronary artery disease? Am J Cardiology 1994; 74:418.
55. 55 Bataille R, Klein B. C-reactive protein levels as a direct indicator of interleukin-6 levels in humans in vivo (letter). Arthrit Rheum 1992; 35:982-984.
56. 56 Lagrand WK, Visser CA, Hermens WT, Niessen HW, Verheugt FW, Wolbink GJ, et al. C-reactive protein as a cardiovascular risk factor: more than an epiphenomenon? Circulation 1999; 100:96-102. This is an excellent summary of CRP clinical studies to date; focuses on the authors' mechanistic hypothesis that CRP is related to CVD risk via a role in complement activation.
57. 57 Liuzzo G, Biasucci L, Gallimore J, Grillo R, Rebuzzi A, Pepys M, et al. The prognostic value of C-reactive protein and serum amyloid A protein in severe unstable angina. N Engl J Med 1994; 331:417-424.
58. 58 Kuller L, Tracy R, Shaten J, Meilahn E, for the MRFIT Research Group. Relationship of C-reactive protein and coronary heart disease in the MRFIT nested case-control study. Am J Epidemiol 1996; 144:537-547.
59. 59 Tracy R, Lemaitre R, Psaty B, Ives D, Evans R, Cushman M, et al. Relationship of C-reactive protein to risk of cardiovascular disease in the elderly: results from the Cardiovascular Health Study and the Rural Health Promotion Project. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1997; 17:1121-1127.
60. 60 Ridker P, Cushman M, Stampfer M, Tracy R, Hennekens C. Inflammation, aspirin, and the risk of cardiovascular disease in apparently healthy men. N England J Med 1997; 336:973-979. This study not only established a role for CRP in CVD risk prediction in healthy middle aged men, but also demonstrated that aspirin had the biggest effect in risk reduction in those with the highest CRP levels. This supports the position that inflammation is not just a by-product of atherosclerotic progression, but an integral component, and that anti-inflammatory interventions may be important.
61. 61 Koenig W, Sund M, Frohlich M, Fischer H-G, Lowel H, Doring A, et al. C-reactive protein, a sensitive marker of inflammation, predicts future risk of coronary heart disease in initially healthy middle-aged men. Circulation 1999; 99:237-242.
62. 62 Ridker P, Glynn R, Hennekens C. C-reactive protein adds to the predictive value of total and HDL cholesterol in determining risk of first myocardial infarction. Circulation 1998; 97:2007-2011.
63. 63 Curb J, Abbott R, Rodriguez B, Sakkinen P, Yano K, RP T. The relationship of C-reactive protein to the incidence of thromboembolic stroke [abstract]. Circulation 1999; 99:1108.
64. 64 Sakkinen P, Abbott R, Curb J, Rodriguez B, Yano K, Tracy R. C-reactive protein and incident myocardial infarction in Japanese American men [abstract]. Circulation 1999; 99:1121.
65. 65 Tracy R, Macy E, Bovill E, Cushman M, Psaty B, Cornell E, et al. Lifetime smoking exposure affects the association of C-reactive protein with cardiovascular disease risk factors and subclinical disease in healthy elderly subjects. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1997; 17:2167-2176 This report demonstrated that an individual's CRP level may represent, at least in part, the accumulated damage done by lifetime exposure to detrimental environmental factors.
66. 66 Cushman M, Arnold A, Kuller L, Psaty B, Manolio T, Burke G, et al. C-reactive protein and risks of myocardial infarction, stroke and death in an elderly cohort [abstract]. Circulation 1999; 98:1108.
67. 67 Ridker P, Stampfer M, Cushman M, Tracy R, Hennekens C. Plasma concentration of C-reactive protein and risk of developing peripheral vascular disease. Circulation 1998; 97:425-428.
68. 68 Harris TB, Ferrucci L, Tracy RP, Corti MC, Wacholder S, Ettinger WH Jr, et al. Associations of elevated interleukin-6 and C-reactive protein levels with mortality in the elderly. Am J Med 1999; 106:506-512. This is the first population-based cohort study to demonstrate that interleukin-6 predicts mortality in otherwise healthy individuals.
69. 69 Ridker PM, Rifai N, Pfeffer MA, Sacks FM, Moye LA, Goldman S, et al. Inflammation, pravastatin, and the risk of coronary events after myocardial infarction in patients with average cholesterol levels. Cholesterol and Recurrent Events (CARE) Investigators. Circulation 1998; 98:839-944. This study demonstrates that at least some of the effect of statin-based therapy may be related to inflammation as opposed to lipid-lowering per se.
70. 70 Lagrand WK, Niessen HW, Wolbink GJ, Jaspars LH, Visser CA, Verheugt FW, et al. C-reactive protein colocalizes with complement in human hearts during acute myocardial infarction. Circulation 1997; 95:97-103.
71. 71 Cermak J, Key N, Bach R, Balla J, Jacob H, Vercellotti G. C-reactive protein induces human peripheral blood monocytes to synthesize tissue factor. Blood 1993; 82:513-520.
72. 72 Cushman M, Lemaitre R, Kuller L, Psaty B, Macy E, Sharrett A, et al. Fibrinolytic activation markers predict myocardial infarction in the elderly: the Cardiovascular Health Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1999; 19:493-498. This is the first population-based case-control study to demonstrate that markers of fibrinolytic activation predict future CVD events in the elderly.
73. 73 Tracy R. Epidemiological evidence for inflammation in cardiovascular disease. Thromb Haemost 1999; in press.
74. 74 Felton CV, Crook D, Davies MJ, Oliver MF. Relation of plaque lipid composition and morphology to the stability of human aortic plaques. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1997; 17:1337-1345.
75. 75 Fuster V. Elucidation of the role of plaque instability and rupture in acute coronary events. Am J Cardiol 1995; 76:24C-33C.