Systematic biology of gymnotiform and mormyriform electric fishes: Phylogenetic relationships, molecular clocks and rates of evolution in the mitochondrial rRNA genes

Journal of Experimental Biology

Volumn 202, Issue 10, 1999, Pages 1167-1183

  Alves Gomes, José A ^a  

^a INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE PESQUISAS DA AMAZÔNIA   (Brazil)

Author keywords

Electric fish; Gymnotiformes; Molecular clock; Molecular evolution; Mormyriformes; Ostariophysi; Osteoglossomorpha; Phylogeny; Systematics

Indexed keywords

AFRICA; BRIENOMYRUS; EVOLUTION; FISH; GENETIC DIFFERENCE; MITOCHONDRIAL GENETICS; MUTATION; PHYLOGENY; SOUTH AMERICA;

EID: 0033002109     PISSN: 00220949     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (118)

1. Agnèse, J.-F. and Bigorne, R. (1992). Premières données sur les relations génétiques entre onze espèces ouest-africaines de Mormyridae (Teleostei, Osteichthyes). Rev. Hydrobiol. Trop. 25, 253-261.
2. Albert, J. S. (1999). Phylogenetic Systematics of the American Knifefishes (Teleostei: Gymnotiformes). Miscellaneous Publications of the Museum of Zoology of the University of Michigan (in press).
3. Albert, J. S. and Campos-da-Paz, R. (1998). Phylogenetic systematics of Gymnotiformes with diagnoses of 60 clades: a review of available data. In Phylogeny and Classification of Neotropical Fishes (ed. L. R. Malabarba, R. E. Reis, R. P. Vari, C. A. S. Lucena and Z. M. S. Lucena), pp. 419-446. Porto Alegre: Museu de Ciencias e Tecnologia - PUC/RS. (in press).
4. Albert, J. S. and Fink, W. L. (1996). Sternopygus xingu, a new species of electric fish from Brazil (Teleostei: Gymnotoidei), with comments on the phylogenetic position of Sternopygus. Copeia 1996, 85-102.
5. Albert, J. S. and Miller, R. R. (1995). Gymnotus maculosus, a new species of electric fish (Chordata: Teleostei: Gymnotoidei) from Middle America, with a key to species of Gymnotus. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 108, 662-678.
6. Alves-Gomes, J. A. (1995). The phylogeny and evolutionary history of the South American electric fishes (order Gymnotiformes). PhD thesis, University of California, San Diego.
7. Alves-Gomes, J. A. (1998). The phylogenetic position of the South American electric fish genera Sternopygus and Archolaeumus (Ostariophysi: Gymnotiformes) according to 12S and 16S mitochondrial DNA sequences. In Phylogeny and Classification of Neotropical Fishes (ed. L. R. Malabarba, R. E. Reis, R. P. Vari, C. A. S. Lucena and Z. M. S. Lucena), pp. 447-460. Porto Alegre: Museu de Ciencias e Tecnologia - PUC/RS. (in press).
8. Alves-Gomes, J. A. and Hopkins, C. D. (1997). Molecular insights into the phylogeny of mormyriform fishes and the evolution of their electric organ. Brain Behav. Evol. 49, 324-350.
9. Alves-Gomes, J. A., Ortí, G., Haygood, M., Heiligenberg, W. and Meyer, A. (1995). Phylogenetic analysis of the South American electric fishes (order Gymnotiformes) and the evolution of their electrogenic system: a synthesis based on morphology, electrophysiology and mitochondrial sequence data. Mol. Biol. Evol. 12, 298-318.
10. Arratia, G. (1997). Basal Teleosts and Teleostean Phylogeny. Munich: F. Pfeil.
11. Arratia, G. and Cione, A. (1996). The record of fossil fishes of southern South America. In Contributions of Southern South America to Vertebrate Paleontology (ed. G. Arratia), pp. 9-72. Munich: F. Pfeil.
12. Avise, J. C. (1994). Molecular Markers, Natural History and Evolution. New York: Chapman & Hall.
13. Bargelloni, L., Ritchie, P. A., Patarnello, T., Battaglia, B., Lambert, D. M. and Meyer, A. (1994). Molecular evolution at subzero temperatures: mitochondrial and nuclear phylogenies of fishes from antarctica (suborder notothenioidei), and the evolution of antifreeze glycopeptides. Mol. Biol. Evol. 11, 854-863.
14. Bass, A. H. (1986). Species differences in electric organs of mormyrids: Substrates for species-typical electric organ discharge waveforms. J. Comp. Neurol. 244, 313-330.
15. e Coll. Africain de Micropaleont. Abstracts.
16. Benveniste, L. (1995). Phylogenetic systematic of Gymnarchus (Notopteroidei) with notes on Petrocephalus (Mormyridae) of the Osteoglossomorpha. MSc thesis, The City College of New York.
17. Boden, G., Teugels, G. G. and Hopkins, C. D. (1997). A systematic revision of the large-scaled Marcusenius with description of a new species from Cameroon (Teleostei; Osteoglossomorpha; Mormyridae). J. Nat. Hist. 31, 1645-1682.
18. Boulenger, G. A. (1898). A revision of the genera and species of fishes of the family Mormyridae. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1898, 775-821.
19. Boulenger, G. A. (1907). Zoology of Egypt. The Fishes of the Nile. London: Hugh Rees Ltd.
20. Bowen, B. W., Nelson, W. S. and Avise, J. C. (1993). A molecular phylogeny for marine turtles: trait mapping, rate assessment and conservation relevance. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90, 5574-5577.
21. Braford, M. R., Jr (1982). African, but not Asian notopterid fishes are electroreceptive: Evidence from brain characters. Neurosci. Lett. 32, 35-39.
22. Braford, M. R., Jr (1986). African knifefishes - The xenomystines. In Electroreception (ed. T. H. Bullock and W. Heiligenberg), pp. 453-464. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
23. Briolay, J., Galtier, N., Brito, R. M. and Bouvet, Y. (1998). Molecular phylogeny of Cyprinidae inferred from cytochrome b DNA sequences. Mol. Phyl. Evol. 9, 100-108.
24. Britten, R. J. (1986). Rates of DNA sequence evolution differ between taxonomic groups. Science 231, 1393-1398.
25. Bullock, T. H., Bodznick, D. A. and Northcutt, R. G. (1983). The phylogenetic distribution of electroreception: Evidence for convergent evolution of a primitive vertebrate sense modality. Brain Res. Rev. 6, 25-46.
26. Bullock, T. H. and Heiligenberg, W. (1986). Electroreception. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
27. Caccone, A., Milinkovitch, M. C., Sbordoni, V. and Powell, J. (1997). Mitochondrial DNA rates and biogeography in European newts (genus Euproctus). Syst. Biol. 46, 126-144.
28. Campos-da-Paz, R. (1996). Redescription of the Central American electric fish Gymnotus cylindricus (Ostariophysi: Gymnotiformes: Gymnotidae), with comments on character ambiguity within the ostariophysan clade. J. Zool. Lond. 240, 371-382.
29. Campos-da-Paz, R. and Albert, J. S. (1998). The gymnotiform 'eels' of tropical America: A history of classification and phylogeny of the South American knifefishes (Teleostei: Ostariophysi: Siluriphysi). In Phylogeny and Classification of Neotropical Fishes (ed. L. R. Malabarba, R. E. Reis, R. P. Vari, C. A. S. Lucena and Z. M. S. Lucena), pp. 401-418. Porto Alegre: Museu de Ciencias e Tecnologia - PUC/RS. (in press).
30. Campos-da-Paz, R. and Paepke, H.-J. (1994). On Sternarchorhamphus hahni, a member of the rhamphicthyid genus Rhamphichthys (Ostariophysi: Gtmnotiformes). Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters 5, 155-159.
31. Cantatore, P., Roberti, M., Pesole, G., Ludovico, A., Milella, F., Gadaleta, M. N. and Saccone, C. (1994). Evolutionary analysis of cytochrome b sequences in some perciformes: evidence for a slower rate of evolution than in mammals. J. Mol. Evol. 39, 589-597.
32. Cione, A. (1987). The late Cretaceous fauna of Los Alamitos, Patagonia, Argentina. II. The fishes. Rev. Mus. Argentino Cienc. Nat. 3, 111-120.
33. Cione, A. L., Pereira, S. M., Alonso, R. and Arias, J. (1985). Los bagres (Osteichthyes, Siluriformes) de la formación Yacoraite (Cretácico tardío) del Noroeste Argentino. Consideraciones biogeográficas y bioestratigraficas. Ameghiniana 21, 294-304.
34. Costa, W. J. E. M. and Campos-da-Paz, R. (1991). Description d'une nouvelle espèce de Poisson électrique du genre néotropical Hypopomus (Siluriformes: Gymnotoidei: Hypopomidae) du Sud-Est du Brésil. Rev. Fr. Aquariol. 18, 117-120.
35. Dimmick, W. W. and Larson, A. (1996). A molecular and morphological perspective on the phylogenetic relationships of the otophysan fishes. Mol. Phyl. Evol. 6, 120-133.
36. Dixon, M. T. and Hillis, D. M. (1993). Ribosomal RNA secondary structure: compensatory mutations and implications for phylogenetic analysis. Mol. Biol. Evol. 10, 256-267.
37. Easteal, S. (1992). A mammalian molecular clock? BioEssays 14, 415-419.
38. Erdl, M. P. (1847). Beschreibung des Skeletes von Gymnarchus niloticus, nebst Vergleichung mit Skeleten formverwandter Fishes. Abh. K. bayer Akad. Wiss., Math.-Phys. K1 5, 209-252.
39. Finger, T. E., Bell, C. C. and Carr, C. E. (1986). Comparisons among electroreceptive teleosts. Why are electrosensory systems so similar? In Electroreception (ed. T. H. Bullock and W. Heiligenberg), pp. 465-481. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
40. Fink, S. V., Albert, J. S. and Fink, W. L. (1999). Phylogenetic relationships of the fossil gymnotoid Ellisella kirschbaumi (Ostariophysi: Gymnotoidei). J. Vert. Paleont. (in press).
41. Fink, S. V. and Fink, W. L. (1981). Interrelationships of the ostariophysan fishes (teleostei). Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 72, 297-353.
42. Fink, S. V. and Fink, W. L. (1996). Interrelationships of Ostariophysan Fishes (Teleostei). In Interrelationships of Fishes (ed. M. L. J. Stiassny, L. R. Parenti and G. D. Johnson), pp. 209-249. San Diego: Academic Press.
43. Frizzell, D. L. (1965). Otoliths of new fish (Vorhisia vulpes, n. gen., n. sp., Siluroidei?) from Upper Cretaceous of South Dakota. Copeia 1965, 178-181.
44. Gayet, M. (1982). Découverte dans le Crétacé supérieur de Bolivie des plus anciens Characiformes connus. C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris 294, 1037-1040.
45. Gayet, M. (1988a). Le plus ancien crâne de Siluriforme: Andinichthys bolivianensis nov. gen., nov. sp. (Andinichthyidae nov. fam.) du Maastrichtien de Tiupampa (Bolivie). C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris 307, 833-836.
46. Gayet, M. (1988b). Nouveaux Siluriformes du Maastrichtien de Tiupampa (Bolivie). C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris 390, 867-872.
47. Gayet, M. (1991). 'Holostean' and Teleostean fishes of Bolivia. In Fosiles y Facies de Bolivia, vol. 12 (ed. R. Suarez), pp. 453-494. Revista Tecnica de Yacimientos Petroliferos Fiscales Bolivianos.
48. Gayet, M. (1995). Fossil relatives of Ostariophysi (Pisces, Teleosteans). Bull. Soc. Zool. Fr.-Evol. Zool. 120, 347-360.
49. Gayet, M. and Meunier, F. J. (1991). Première découverte de Gymnotiformes fossiles (Pisces, Ostariophysi) dans le Miocène supérieur de Bolivie. C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris 313, 471-476.
50. Gayet, M. and Meunier, F. J. (1998). Maastrichtian to early late Paleocene Ostechtyes of Bolivia: additions and comments. In Phylogeny and Classification of Neotropical Fishes (ed. L. R. Malabarba, R. E. Reis, R. P. Vari, C. A. S. Lucena and Z. M. S. Lucena), pp. 85-110. Porto Alegre: Museu de Ciencias e Tecnologia - PUC/RS. (in press).
51. Gayet, M., Meunier, F. J. and Kirschbaum, F. (1994). Ellisella kirschbaumi Gayet and Meunier, 1991, gymnotiforme fossile de Bolivie et ses relations phylogénétiques au sein des formes actuelles. Cybium 18, 273-306.
52. Grande, L. (1984). Paleontology of the Green River formation with a review of the fish fauna. Bull. Geol. Surv. Wyoming 63, 1-333.
53. Grande, L., Eastman, J. T. and Cavender, T. (1982). Amyzon gosiutensis, a new catostomid fish from the Green River Formation. Copeia 1982, 523-532.
54. Grande, T. (1997). Interrelationships and historical biogeography of ostariophysan fishes with emphasis on the gonorynchiformes (Actinopterygii: Teleostei). J. Vert. Paleont. 17, 50A-51A.
55. Greenwood, P. H. (1970). On the genus Lycoptera and its relationship with the family Hiodontidae (Pisces, Osteoglossomorpha). Bull. Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. (Zool.) 19, 257-285.
56. Greenwood, P. H. (1971). Hyoid and ventral gill arch musculature in osteoglossomorph fishes. Bull. Br. Mus. Nat. Hist. (Zool.) 22, 1-55.
57. Greenwood, P. H. (1973). Interrelationships of osteoglossomorphs. In Interrelationships of Fishes (ed. P. H. Greenwood, R. S. Miles and C. Patterson), pp. 307-332. London: Academic Press.
58. Günther, A. (1880). An Introduction to the Study of Fishes (reprinted 1993). New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House.
59. Gutell, R. R. (1993). Collection of small subunit (16S-and 16S-like) ribosomal RNA structures. Nucleic Acids Res. 21, 3051-3054.
60. Gutell, R. R. and Fox, G. E. (1988). A compilation of large subunit RNA sequences presented in a structural format. Nucleic Acids Res. (Suppl.) 16, r175-r269.
61. Gutell, R. R., Schnare, M. N. and Gray, M. W. (1992). A compilation of large subunit (23S-and 23S-like) ribosomal RNA structures. Nucleic Acids Res. (Suppl.) 20, 2095-2109.
62. Hillis, D. (1996). Applications of molecular systematics: The state of the field and a look to the future. In Molecular Systematics (ed. D. Hillis, C. Moritz and B. K. Mable), pp. 515-543. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc.
63. Hopkins, C. (1986). Behavior of Mormyridae. In Electroreception (ed. T. H. Bullock and W. Heiligenberg), pp. 527-576. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
64. Horai, S., Hayasaka, K., Kondo, R., Tsugane, K. and Takahata, N. (1995). Recent African origin of modern humans revealed by complete sequences of hominoid mitochondrial DNAs. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92, 532-536.
65. Jin, F. (1991). A new genus and species of Hiodontidae from Xintai, Shandong. Vert. PalAsiatica. 29, 46-54.
66. Kawasaki, M. (1993). Independently evolved jamming avoidance responses employ identical computational algorithms: a behavioral study of the African electric fish, Gymnarchus niloticus. J. Comp. Physiol. A 173, 9-22.
67. Keller, C. H., Kawasaki, M. and Heiligenberg, W. (1991). The control of pacemaker modulations for social communication in the weakly electric fish Sternopygus. J. Comp. Physiol. A 169, 441-450.
68. Lauder, G. V. and Liem, K. F. (1983). The evolution and interrelationships of the actinopterygian fishes. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 150, 95-197.
69. Li, G.-Q. (1996). A new species of Late Cretaceous osteoglossid (Teleostei) from the Oldman Formation of Alberta, Canada and its phylogenetic relationships. In Mesozoic Fishes - Systematic and Paleoecology (ed. G. Arratia and G. Viohl), pp. 285-298. Munich: F. Pfeil.
70. Li, G.-Q., Grande, L. and Wilson, M. V. H. (1997a). The species of Phareodus (Teleostei: Osteoglossidae) from the Eocene of North America and their phylogenetic relationships. J. Vert. Paleont. 17, 487-505.
71. Li, G.-Q. and Wilson, M. V. H. (1996). Phylogeny of Osteoglossomorpha. In Interrelationships of Fishes (ed. M. L. J. Stiassny, L. R. Parenti and G. D. Johnson), pp. 163-174. San Diego: Academic Press, Inc.
72. Li, G.-Q., Wilson, M. V. H. and Grande, L. (1997b). Review of Eohiodon (Teleostei: Osteoglossomorpha) from Western North America, with phylogenetic reassessment of Hiodontidae. J. Paleont. 71, 1109-1124.
73. Li, W.-H. (1997). Molecular Evolution. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc.
74. Lissmann, H. W. (1951). Continuous electrical signals from the tail of a fish, Gymnarchus niloticus Cuv. Nature 167, 201-202.
75. Lissmann, H. W. and Machin, K. E. (1958). The mechanisms of object location in Gymnarchus niloticus and similar fish. J. Exp. Biol. 35, 451-486.
76. Lundberg, J. G. (1993). African-South American freshwater fish clades and continental drift: Problems with a paradigm. In Biological Relationships between Africa and South America (ed. P. Goldblatt), pp. 157-199. New Haven: Yale University Press.
77. Lundberg, J. G. (1998). The temporal context for diversification of neotropical fishes. In Phylogeny and Classification of Neotropical Fishes (ed. L. R. Malabarba, R. E. Reis, R. P. Vari, C. A. S. Lucena and Z. M. S. Lucena), pp. 49-68. Porto Alegre: Museu de Ciencias e Tecnologia - PUC/RS. (in press).
78. Lundberg, J. G., Cox Fernendes, C., Albert, J. S. and Garcia, M. (1996). Magosternarchus, a new genus with two new species of electric fishes (Gymnotiformes: Apteronotidae) from the Amazon River Basin, South America. Copeia 1996, 657-670.
79. Machin, K. E. and Lissman, H. W. (1960). The mode of operation of the electric receptors in Gymnarchus niloticus. J. Exp. Biol. 37, 801-811.
80. Mago-Leccia, F. (1976). Venezuelan gymnotiform fishes: a preliminary study for a revision of the group in South America. PhD thesis, Universidad Central de Venezuela.
81. Mago-Leccia, F. (1978). Los peces de la familia Sternopygidae de Venezuela. Acta Cient. Venez. 29, 1-89.
82. Mago-Leccia, F. (1994). Electric Fishes of the Continental Waters of America. Caracas: Clemente Editores, C.A.
83. Mago-Leccia, F. and Zaret, T. M. (1978). The taxonomic status of Rhabdolichops troscheli (Kaup, 1856) and speculations on gymnotiform efolution. Env. Biol. Fish. 3, 379-384.
84. Martin, A. P., Naylor, G. J. and Palumbi, S. R. (1992). Rates of mitochondrial DNA evolution in sharks are slow compared with mammals. Nature 357, 153-155.
85. Martin, A. P. and Palumbi, S. R. (1993). Body size, metabolic rate, generation time and the molecular clock. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90, 4087-4091.
86. Moller, P. (1995). Electric Fishes - History and Behavior. London: Chapman & Hall.
87. Montoya-Burgos, J.-I., Muller, S., Weber, C. and Pawlowski, J. (1997). Phylogenetic relationships between Hypostominae and Ancistrinae (Siluroidei: Loricariidae): first results from mitochondrial 12S and 16S rRNA gene sequences. Rev. Suisse Zool. 104, 185-198.
88. Novacek, M. J. and Marshall, L. G. (1976). Early biogeographic history of ostariophysan fishes. Copeia 1976, 1-12.
89. Ortí, G. (1997). Radiation of characiform fishes: Evidence from mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences. In Molecular Systematics of Fishes (ed. T. Kocher and C. Stepien), pp. 219-243. San Diego: Academic Press.
90. Ortí, G. and Meyer, A. (1997). The radiation of characiform fishes and the limits of resolution of mitochondrial ribosomal DNA sequences. Syst. Biol. 46, 75-100.
91. Ortí, G., Petry, P., Porto, J. I. R., Jégu, M. and Meyer, A. (1996). Patterns of nucleotide change in mitochondrial ribosomal RNA genes and the phylogeny of piranhas. J. Mol. Evol. 42, 169-182.
92. Patterson, C. (1975). The distribution of Mesozoic freshwater fishes. Mem. Mus. Nat. D'hist. Nat., Paris, Serie A, Zool. 88, 155-174.
93. Pitman, III, W. C., Cande, S., LaBrecque, J. and Pindell, J. (1993). Fragmentation of Gondwana: the separation of Africa from South America. In Biological Relationships between Africa and South America (ed. P. Goldblatt), pp. 15-34. New Haven: Yale University Press.
94. Poyato-Ariza, F. J. (1994). A new Early Cretaceous gonorhynchiform fish (Teleostei: Ostariophysi) from Las Hoyas (Cuenca, Spain). Occ. Pap. Mus. of Nat. Hist. Univ. Kansas 164, 1-37.
95. Rand, D. M. (1994). Thermal habit, metabolic rate and the evolution of mitochondrial DNA. Trends Ecol. Evol. 9, 125-131.
96. Rose, G., Keller, C. and Heiligenberg, W. (1987). 'Ancestral' neural mechanisms of electrolocation suggest a substrate for the evolution of the jamming avoidance response. J. Comp. Physiol. A 160, 491-500.
97. Rosen, D. E. and Greenwood, P. H. (1970). Origin of the Weberian apparatus and the relationships of the ostariophysan and gonorhynchiform fishes. Am. Mus. Novitates 2428, 1-25.
98. Shaffer, H. B. and McKnight, M. L. (1996). The polytipic species revisited: genetic differentiation and molecular phylogenetics of the tiger salamander Ambystoma tigrinum (Amphibia: Caudata) complex. Evolution 50, 417-433.
99. Silva-Santos, R. (1985). Laeliichthys ancestralis, novo gênero e espécies de Osteoglossiformes do Aptiano da Formação Areado, estado de Minas Gerais, Brasil. VIII Congresso Bras. de Paleotol. Ser. Geol. 27, Paleontol./Estrat. 2, 151-167.
100. Simons, A. M. and Mayden, R. L. (1998). Phylogenetic relationships of the Western North American phoxinins (Actinopterygii: Ciprinidae) as inferred from mitochondrial 12S and 16S ribosomal RNA sequences. Mol. Phyl. Evol. 9, 308-329.
101. Sullivan, J. P. (1997). A phylogenetic study of the neotropical hypopomid electric fishes (Gymnotiformes: Rhamphichthyoidea). PhD thesis, Duke University.
102. Taverne, L. (1969). Etude ostéologique des genres Boulengeromyrus Taverne et Géry, Genyomyrus Boulenger, Petrocephalus Marcusen (Pisces, Mormyriformes). Mus. Roy. Afr. Centr. Ann. Soc. R. Zool. Belg. 174, 1-85.
103. Taverne, L. (1970). Note sur l'ostéologies du genre Gymnarchus Cuvier (Pisces, Mormyriformes). Bull. Acad. R. Belg. Cl. Sci. 56, 63-78.
104. Taverne, L. (1971a). Note sur la systématique des poissons Mormyriformes. Le probléme des genres Gnathonemus Gill, Marcusenius Gill, Hippopotamyrus Pappenhein, Cyphomyrus Myers, et les nouveaux genres Pollimyrus et Brienomyrus. Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 84, 99-110.
105. Taverne, L. (1971b). Ostéologie des genres Marcusenius Gill, Hippopotamyrus Pappenhein, Cyphomyrus Myers, Pollimyrus Taverne et Brienomyrus Taverne (Pisces Mormyriformes). Mus. Roy. Afr. Centr. Ann. Soc. R. Zool. Belg. 188, 1-144.
106. Taverne, L. (1972). Ostéologie des genres Mormyrus Linné, Mormyrops Müller, Hyperopisus Gill, Isichthys Gill, Mormyrus Boulenger, Stomayorhinus Boulenger et Gymnarchus Cuvier. Considérations générales sur la systématique des poisson du l'ordre des Mormyriformes. Mus. Roy. Afr. Centr. Ann. Soc. R. Zool. Belg. 200, 1-194.
107. Taverne, L. (1979). Ostéologie, phylogenèse et systematique des Téléostéens fossiles et actuels du super-ordre des Ostéoglossomorphes. Troisième partie. Évolution des structures ostéologiques et conclusions générales relatives à la phylogenèse et à la systematique du super-ordre. Bull. Acad. R. Belg. Cl. Sci. Addendum 43, F. 3, 1-168.
108. Triques, M. L. (1993). Filogenia dos generos de gymnotiformes (Actinopterygii, Ostariophysi), com base em caracteres esqueleticos. Comun. Mus. Cienc. PUCRS, Serie Zool. 6, 85-130.
109. Triques, M. L. (1996a). Eigenmannia vicentespelaea, a new species of cave dwelling electrogenic neotropical fish ( Ostariophysi: Gymnotiformes: Sternopygidae). Rev. Fr. Aquariol. 23, 1-4.
110. Triques, M. L. (1996b). Iracema caiana, new genus and species of electrogenic neotropical freshwater fish ( Rhamphichthyidae: Gymnotiformes: Ostariophysi: Actinopterygii). Rev. Fr. Aquariol. 23, 91-92.
111. Triques, M. L. (1998). Tembeassu marauna, new genus and species of electrogenic neotropical fish (Ostariophysi: Gymnotiformes: Apteronotidae). Rev. Fr. Aquariol. 25, 5-10.
112. Van Der Bank, F. H. and Kramer, B. (1996). Phylogenetic relationships between eight African species of Mormyriform fish (Teleostei, Osteichthyes): Resolution of a cryptic species and reinstatement of Cyphomyrus Myers, 1960. Biochem. Systematics Ecol. 24, 275-290.
113. Vawter, L. and Brown, W. M. (1993). Rates and patterns of base change in the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene. Genetics 134, 597-608.
114. Werner, C. (1994). Die kontinentale Wirbeltierfauna aus der unteren Oberkreide de Sudan (Waidi Milk Formation). Berliner Geowiss. Abh. E 13, 221-249.
115. Wheeler, W. C. and Honeycutt, R. L. (1988). Paired sequence difference in ribosomal RNAs: evolutionary and phylogenetic implications. Mol. Biol. Evol. 5, 90-96.
116. Zakon, H. H. (1986). The electroreceptive periphery. In Electroreception (ed. T. H. Bullock and W. Heiligenberg), pp. 103-156. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
117. Zuckerkandl, E. and Pauling, L. (1962). Molecular disease, evolution and genic heterogeneity. In Horizons in Biochemistry (ed. M. Kasha and B. Pullman), pp. 189-225. New York: Academic Press.
118. Zuckerkandl, E. and Pauling, L. (1965). Evolutionary divergence and convergence in proteins. In Evolving Genes and Proteins (ed. V. Bryson and H. J. Vogel), pp. 97-166. New York: Academic Press.