Chocolate: Food or drug?

Journal of the American Dietetic Association

Volumn 99, Issue 10, 1999, Pages 1249-1256

  Bruinsma, Kristen ^a   Taren, Douglas L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DOPAMINE; MAGNESIUM; SEROTONIN;

ADDICTION; BEHAVIOR DISORDER; CACAO; DIETITIAN; HUMAN; NEUROTRANSMISSION; NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY; NUTRITIONAL VALUE; REVIEW; SELF MEDICATION;

THEOBROMA CACAO;

EID: 0032852074     PISSN: 00028223     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0002-8223(99)00307-7     Document Type: Article

References (67)

1. Rudin RA. The Craving Brain: The Biobalance Approach to Controlling Addictions. New York. NY: Harper Collins; 1997.
2. Weingarten HP, Elston D The phenomenology of food cravings. Appetite. 1991;15:231-246.
3. Hill AJ, Heaton-Brown L. The experience of food craving: a prospective investigation in healthy women. J Psychosom Res. 1994;38:801-814.
4. Rozin P, Levine E, Stoess C. Chocolate craving and liking. Appetite. 1991;17:199-212.
5. Weingarten HP, Elston D. Food cravings in a college population. Appetite. 1991;17:167-175.
6. Chocolate Manufacturers Association National Confectioners Association. US 1996 statistics. Available at: http://www.candyusa.org. Accessed July 30, 1998.
7. Wood GAR, Lass RA. Cocoa. 4th ed. New York, NY: Longman; 1985:28-35,596.
8. Roberts AJ, Koob GF. The neurobiology of addiction: an overview. Alcohol Health Res World. 1997;21:101-106.
9. Hetherington MM, Macdiarmid JI. "Chocolate addiction": a preliminary study of its description and its relationship to problem eating. Appetite. 1993;21:233-246.
10. Rodin J, Mancuso J, Granger J, Nelbach E. Food cravings in relation to body mass index, restraint and estradiol levels: a repeated measures study in healthy women. Appetite. 1991;17:177-185.
11. Schuman M, Gitlin MJ, Fairbanks L. Sweets, chocolate, and atypical depressive traits. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1987;175:491-495.
12. Michener W, Rozin P. Pharmacological versus sensory factors in the satiation of chocolate craving. Physiol Behav. 1994;56:419-422.
13. Drewnowski A. Energy intake and sensory properties of food. Am J Clin Nutr. 1995;62(suppl):1081S-1085S.
14. Desor JA, Maller O, Greene LS. Preference tor sweet in humans: infants, children, and adults. In: Weiffenbacch J, ed. Taste and Development: The Genesis of Sweet Preference. Washington, DC: US Dept of Health, Education, and Welfare; 1977. Publication No. NIH 77-1068.
15. Colombo G, Agabio R, Diaz G, Fa M, Lobina C, Reali R, Gessa GL. Sardinian alcohol-preferring rats prefer chocolate and sucrose over ethanol. Alcohol. 1997;14:611-615.
16. Falk J. Sweet abuse and the addiction model. In: Weiffenbacch J, ed. Taste and Development: The Genesis of Sweet Preference. Washington, DC: US Dept of Health, Education, and Welfare; 1977. Publication No. NIH 77-1068.
17. Hurst WJ, Marin RA, Zoumas BL. Biogenic amines in chocolate - a review. Nutr Rep Int. 1982;26:1081-1086.
18. Sabelli HC, Javaid JI. Phenylethylamine modulation of affect: therapeutic and diagnostic implications. J Neuropsychol. 1995;7:6-14.
19. Paterson IA, Juorio AV, Boulton AA. 2-Phenylethylamine: a modulator of catecholamine transmission in the mammalian central nervous system. J Neurochem. 1990;55:1827-1837.
20. Philips SR, Robson AM. In vivo release of endogenous dopamine from the rat caudate nucleus by phenylethylamine. Neuropharmacology. 1983; 22:1297-1301.
21. Shannon HE, Cone EJ, Yousefnejad D. Physiologic effects and plasma kinetics of β-phenyl-ethylamine and its N-methyl homolog in the dog. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1982;223:190-196.
22. Marley B, Blackwell B. Interactions of monoamine oxidase inhibitors, amines and foodstuffs. Adv Pharmacol Chemother 1970;8:185-239.
23. Schifano F, Magni G. MDMA ("ecstasy") abuse: psychopathological features and craving for chocolate: a case series. Biol Psychiatry. 1994;36:763-767.
24. McKim WA. Drugs and Behavior: An Introduction to Behavioral Pharmacology. NJ: Prentice Hall; 1997.
25. Nehlig A, Daval JL, Debry G. Caffeine and the central nervous system: mechanisms of action, biochemical, metabolic and psychostimulant effects. Brain Res Rev. 1992;17:139-170.
26. Tarka SM. The toxicology of cocoa and methylxanthines: a review of the literature. Crit Rev Toxicol. 1982;9:275-312.
27. Mumford GK, Evans SM, Kaminski BJ, Preston KL, Sannerud CA, Silverman K, Griffiths RR. Discriminative stimulus and subjective effects of theobromine and caffeine in humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1994;115:1-8.
28. Barone JJ, Roberts HR. Caffeine consumption. Food Chem Toxicol. 1996;34:119-129.
29. di Tomaso E, Beltramo M, Piomelli D. Brain cannabinoids in chocolate. Nature. 1996;382:677-678.
30. Devane WA, Lumir H, Aviva B, Pertwee RG, Stevenson LA, Griffin G, Gibson D, Mandelbaum A, Etinger A, Mechoulam R. Isolation and structure of a brain constituent that binds to the cannabinoid receptor. Science. 1992;258:1946-1949.
31. Restak R. Brain by design. The Sciences. September-October 1993:27-33.
32. Di Marzo V, Fontana A, Cadas H, Schinelli S, Cimino G, Schwartz JC, Piomelli D. Formation and inactivation of endogenous cannabinoid anandamide in central neurons. Nature. 1994;372:686-691.
33. Pertwee RG. In vivo interactions between psychotropic cannabinoids and other drugs involving central and peripheral neurochemical mediators. In: Murphy L, Bartke A, eds. Marijuana/Cannabinoids: Neurobiology and Neurophysiology. Boca Raton, Fla: CRC Press; 1992:165-218.
34. Abraham GE, Lubran MM. Serum and red cell magnesium levels in patients with premenstrual tension. Am J Clin Nutr. 1981;34:2364-2366.
35. Abraham GE. The normal menstrual cycle. In. Givens JR, ed. Endocrine Causes of Menstrual Disorders. Chicago, III: Year Book Medical Publishers; 1978:15-44.
36. Rude RK, Behune JE. Renal tubular maximum for magnesium in normal, hyperparathyroid, and hypoparathyroid man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1980;51:1425-1431.
37. Abraham GE. Premenstrual tension. In: Levanthal M, ed. Current Problems in Obstetrics and Gynecology. Chicago, III: Year Book Medical Publishers; 1980:1-48.
38. Hill AJ, Weaver CFL. Food craving, dietary restraint and mood. Appetite. 1991;17:187-197.
39. Wurtman RJ, Wurtman JJ. Do carbohydrates affect food intake via neurotransmitter activity? Appetite. 1988;11(suppl):42-47.
40. Wurtman RJ, Wurtman JJ. Carbohydrate craving, obesity and brain serotonin. Appetite. 1986;7(suppl):99-103.
41. Curzon G. Serotonin and appetite. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1990;600:521-529.
42. Fernstrom JD. Dietary amino acids and brain function. J Am Diet Assoc. 1994;94:71-77.
43. Wurtman JJ. Neurotransmitter control of carbohydrate consumption. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1985;443:145-151.
44. Macdiarmid JI, Hetherington MM. Mood modulation by food: an exploration of affect and cravings in "chocolate addicts". Br J Clin Psychol. 1995; 34:129-138.
45. Bancroft J, Beckstrum T. Premenstrual syndrome. Clin Endocrinol. 1985; 22:313-336.
46. Bancroft J, Cook A, Williamson L. Food craving, mood and the menstrual cycle. Psychol Med. 1988;18:855-860.
47. Abraham GE. Nutritional factors in the etiology of the premenstrual tension syndromes. J Reprod Med. 1993;28:446-464.
48. Cohen T, Sherwin BB, Fleming AS. Food cravings, mood and the menstrual cycle. Horm Behav. 1987;21:457-470.
49. Dye I, Blundell JE. Menstrual cycle and appetite control: implications for weight regulation. Hum Reprod. 1997;12:1142-1151.
50. Bancroft J, Rennie D. The impact of oral contraceptives on the experience of perimenstrual mood, clumsiness, food craving and other symptoms. J Psychosom Res. 1993;37:195-202.
51. Bowen DJ, Grunberg NE. Variations in food preference and consumption across the menstrual cycle. Physiol Behav. 1990;47:287-291.
52. Tomerelli R, Grunewald KK. Menstrual cycle and food cravings in young college women. J Am Diet Assoc. 1987;87:311-316.
53. Buffensteine R, Poppitt SD, McDevitt RM, Prentice AM. Food intake and the menstrual cycle: a retrospective analysis, with implication for appetite research. Physiol Behav. 1995;58:1067-1077.
54. Blundell JE. Serotonin and the biology of feeding. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992; 55:1553-1593.
55. Leibowitz SF. Brain peptides and obesity: pharmacologic treatment. Obes Res. 1995;3:573S-589S.
56. Tempel DL, Leibowitz SF. Adrenal steroid receptors: interactions with brain neuropeptide systems in relation to nutrient intake and metabolism. J Neuroendocrinol. 1994;6:479-501.
57. Stanley BG, Daniel DR, Chin AS, Leibowitz SF. Paraventricular nucleus injections of peptide YY and neuropeptide Y preferentially enhance carbohydrate ingestion. Peptides. 1985;6:1205-1211.
58. Chae HJ, Hoebel BG, Tempel DL, Paredes M, Leibowitz SF. Neuropeptide Y, galanin and opiate agonists have differential effects on nutrient ingestion [abstract]. Soc Neurosci Abstracts. 1995;21:696.
59. Tempel DL, Leibowitz KJ, Leibowitz SF. Effects of PVN galanin on macronutrient selection. Peptides. 1988;9:309-314.
60. Leibowitz SF, Akabayashi A, Alexander JT, Wang J. Gonadal steroids and hypothalamic galanin and neuropeptide Y: role in eating behavior and body weight control in female rats. Endocrinology. 1998;139:1771-1780.
61. Drewnowski A. Fats and food acceptance. In: Gaull FE, Kosonis FN, Mackey MA, eds. Nutrition in the 90's. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker; 1991:25-39.
62. Drewnowski A, Krahn DD, Demitrack MA, Nairn K, Gosnell BA. Taste responses and preferences for sweet high-fat foods: evidence for opiod involvement. Physiol Behav. 1992;51:371-379.
63. Dum J, Gransch CH, Herz A. Activation of hypothalamic β-endorphin pools by reward induced by highly palatable food. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1983;33:119-126.
64. Yeomans MR, Gray RW. Selective effects of naltrexoneon food pleasantness and intake. Physiol Behav. 1996;60:439-446.
65. Roach M. More reasons to love chocolate. New Women. February 1989;135-236.
66. Jaffe JH: Drug addiction and drug abuse. In: Spiller GA. The Methylxanthine Beverages and Foods: Chemistry, Consumption and Health Effects. New York, NY: Alan R. Liss; 1984:149-178.
67. Waterhouse AL, Shirley JR, Donovan JL. Antioxidants in chocolate. Lancet. 1996;348:834.