Gonadal steroids in the treatment of mood disorders

Psychosomatic Medicine

Volumn 61, Issue 5, 1999, Pages 676-697

  Epperson, C Neill ^a   Wisner, Katherine L ^b   Yamamoto, Bryan ^b  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Depression; Gonadal steroids; Libido; Treatment

Indexed keywords

ESTROGEN; PROGESTERONE; STEROID;

AFFECTIVE NEUROSIS; ARTICLE; CLINICAL TRIAL; DEPRESSION; HORMONAL THERAPY; HUMAN; LIBIDO; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SEX DIFFERENCE; SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 0032834019     PISSN: 00333174     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00006842-199909000-00010     Document Type: Article

References (188)

1. Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Zhao S, Nelson CB, Hughes M, Eshleman S, Wittchen H-U, Kendler KS. Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994;51:8-19.
2. Pariser SF. Women and mood disorders: menarche to menopause. Ann Clin Psychiatry 1993;5:249-53.
3. Liebenluft E, Fiero PL, Rubinow DR. Effects of the menstrual cycle on dependent variables in mood disorder research. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994;51:761-81.
4. Birmaher B, Ryan ND, Williamson DE, Brent DA, Kaufman J. Childhood and adolescent depression: a review of the past 10 years. Part 1. J Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996;35:1427-39.
5. Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Swartz M, Blazer DG, Nelson CB. Sex and depression in the National Comorbidity Survey. I. Lifetime prevalence, chronicity and recurrence. J Affect Disord 1993;29:85-96.
6. Weissman MM, Olfson M. Depression in women: implications for healthcare research. Science 1995;269:799-801.
7. Liebenluft E. Issues in the treatment of women with bipolar illness. J Clin Psychiatry 1997;58(Suppl):5-11.
8. Parry BL. Reproductive factors affecting the course of affective illness in women. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1989;12:207-20.
9. Kendler KS. The prediction of major depression in women: toward an integrated etiologic model. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150:1139-48.
10. Rivera-Tovar AD, Frank E. Late luteal phase dysphoric disorder in young women. Am J Psychiatry 1990;147:1634-6.
11. O'Hara MW, Schlecte JA, Lewis DA, Varner MW. Controlled prospective study of postpartum mood disorders: psychological, environmental, and hormonal variables. J Abnorm Psychol 1991;100:63-73.
12. Dean C, Kendell RE. The symptomatology of puerperal illnesses. Br J Psychiatry 1981;139:128-35.
13. Matthews KA. Myths and realities of the menopause. Psychosom Med 1992;54:1-9.
14. Hunter M. The south-east England longitudinal study of the climacteric and postmenopause. Maturitas 1992;14:117-26.
15. Avis NE, McKinlay SM. The Massachusetts Women's Health Study: an epidemiologic investigation of the menopause. JAMA 1995;50:45-9.
16. Kaufert PA, Gilbert P, Tate R. The Manitoba Project: a reexamination of the link between menopause and depression. Maturitas 1992;14:143-55.
17. Stewart DE, Boydell K, Derzko C, Marshall V. Psychologic distress during the menopausal years in women attending a menopause clinic. Int J Psychiatry Med 1992;22:213-20.
18. Hay AG, Bancroft J, Johnstone EC. Affective symptoms in women attending a menopause clinic. Br J Psychiatry 1994;164:513-6.
19. Schmidt PJ, Roca CA, Bloch M, Rubinow DR. The perimenopause and affective disorders. Semin Reprod Endocrinol 1997;15:91-100.
20. Parry B. Reproductive related depressions in women: phenomena of hormonal kindling? In: Hamilton JA, Harberger PN, editors. Postpartum psychiatric illness: a picture puzzle. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press; 1992. p. 200-18.
21. Yonkers KA. The association between premenstrual dysphoric disorder and other mood disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 1997;58(Suppl):19-25.
22. DSM-IV. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th ed. Washington (DC): American Psychiatric Association; 1994.
23. Freeman EW, Rickels K, Sondheimer SJ, Polansky M. A double-blind trial of oral progesterone, alprazolam, and placebo in treatment of severe premenstrual syndrome. JAMA 1995;274:51-7.
24. Freeman EW. Premenstrual syndrome: current perspective on treatment and etiology. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 1997;9:147-53.
25. Kendell RE, Rennie D, Clarke JA, Dean C. The social and obstetric correlates of psychiatric admission in the puerperium. Psychol Med 1981;11:341-50.
26. Kendell RE, Chalmers JC, Platz C. Epidemiology of puerperal psychoses. Br J Psychiatry 1987;150:662-73.
27. Wisner KL, Peindl K, Hanusa BH. Symptomatology of affective and psychotic illnesses related to childbearing. J Affect Disord 1994;30:77-87.
28. Cooper PJ, Campbell EA, Day A, Kennerley H, Bond AK. Non-psychotic psychiatric disorder after childbirth: a prospective study of prevalence, incidence, course and nature. Br J Psychiatry 1988;152:799-806.
29. Kumar R, Robson KM. A prospective study of emotional disorders in childbearing women. Br J Psychiatry 1984;144:35-47.
30. Cox JL, Murray D, Chapman G. A controlled study of the onset, duration and prevalence of postnatal depression. Br J Psychiatry 1993;163:27-31.
31. O'Hara MW, Zeikoski EM, Phillips LH, Wright EJ. Controlled prospective study of postpartum mood disorders: comparison of childbearing and nonchildbearing women. J Abnorm Psychol 1990;99:3-15.
32. Cooper PJ, Murray L. Course and recurrence of postnatal depression: evidence for the specificity of the diagnostic concept. Br J Psychiatry 1995;166:191-5.
33. Hunter MS. Emotional well-being, sexual behaviour and hormone replacement therapy. Maturitas 1990;12:299-314.
34. Endicott J, Spitzer RL. A diagnostic interview: the schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1978;35:837-44.
35. Seeman MV. Psychopathology in women and men: focus on female hormones. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:1641-7.
36. Paganini-Hill A. Does estrogen replacement therapy protect against Alzheimer's disease? Osteoporos Int 1997;1(Suppl):S12-7.
37. Kawas C, Resnick S, Morrison A, Brookmeyer R, Corrada M, Zonderman A, Bacal C, Lingle DD, Metter E. A prospective study of estrogen replacement therapy and the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease: the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Neurology 1997;48:1517-21.
38. Baldereschi M, DiCarlo AD, Lepore V, Bracco L, Maggi S, Grigoletto F, Scarlato G, Amaducci L. Estrogen-replacement therapy and Alzheimer's disease in the Italian Longitudinal Study on Aging. Neurology 1998;50:996-1002.
39. Angermeyer MC, Goldstein JM, Kuehn L. Gender differences in schizophrenia: rehospitalization and community survival. Psychol Med 1989;19:365-82.
40. Goldstein JM. Gender differences in the course of schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1988;145:684-9.
41. Tamminga CA. Gender and schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry 1997;58(Suppl):33-7.
42. Goldstein JM, Seidman LJ, Goodman JM, Koren D, Lee H, Weintraub S, Tsuang MT. Are there sex differences in neuropsychological function among patients with schizophrenia? Am J Psychiatry 1998;155:1358-64.
43. Yonkers KA, Kando JC, Cole JO, Blumenthal S. Gender differences in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of psychotropic medication. Am J Psychiatry 1992;149:587-95.
44. Raskin A. Age-sex differences in response to antidepressant drugs. J Nerv Ment Dis 1974;159:120-30.
45. Davidson J, Pelton S, Krishnan KR, McLeod M, Raft D, Miller RD, Allf B. An assessment of the Newcastle Anxiety Depression Index. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1986;73:533-43.
46. Eriksson E, Hedberg MA, Andersch B, Sundbland C. The serotonin reuptake inhibitor paroxetine is superior to the noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor maprotiline in the treatment of premenstrual syndrome. Neuropsychopharmacology 1995;12:169-76.
47. Freeman EW, Rickles K, Sondheimer SJ, Wittmaack FM. Sertraline versus desipramine in the treatment of premenstrual syndrome: an open-label trial. J Clin Psychiatry 1996;57:7-11.
48. Freeman EW, Rickels K, Sondheimer SJ. Sertraline versus desipramine in PMS treatment. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association. Vol. 1; Toronto. Washington (DC): American Psychiatric Association; 1998 May 30-June 4. p. 202.
49. Pearlstein TB, Stone AB, Lund SA, Scheft H, Zlotnick C, Brown WA. Comparison of fluoxetine, bupropion, and placebo in the treatment of premenstrual dysphoric disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1997;17:261-6.
50. Kornstein S. Premenstrual exacerbation of depression. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, New York. Washington (DC): American Psychiatric Association; 1996 May 4-9.
51. Wisner KL, Peindl KS, Gialiotti TV. Tricyclics versus selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors for postpartum depression. Arch Women's Ment Health. In press.
52. Zimmerman M, Coryell W, Corenthal C, Wilson S. A self-report scale to diagnose major depressive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1986;43:1076-81.
53. Elkin I, Shea MT, Watkins JT, Imber SD, Sotsky SM, Collins JF, Glass DR, Pilkonis PA, Leber WR, Docherty JP, Fiester SJ, Parloff MB. National Institute of Mental Health Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program: general effectiveness of treatments. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1989;46:971-82.
54. Stowe ZN, Casarella J, Landry J, Nemeroff CB. Sertraline in the treatment of women with postpartum major depression. Depression 1995;3:49-55.
55. Conney AH. Pharmacological implications of microsomal enzyme induction. Pharmacol Rev 1967;19:317-66.
56. Ketter TA, Flockhart DA, Post RM, Denicoff K, Pazzaglia PJ, Marangell LB, George MS, Callahan AM. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1995;15:387-98.
57. Wadelius M, Darj E, Frenne G, Rane A. Induction of CYP2D6 in pregnancy. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1997;62:400-7.
58. Wisner KL, Peindl K, Hanusa BH. Relationship of psychiatric illness to childbearing status: a hospital-based epidemiologic study. J Affect Disord 1993;28:39-50.
59. Wisner KL, Perel JM, Peindl KS, Findling RL, Hanusa BH. Effects of the postpartum period on nortriptyline pharmacokinetics. Psychopharmacol Bull 1997;33:243-8.
60. Dahl ML, Bertilsson L, Nordin C. Steady-state plasma levels of nortriptyline and its 10-hydroxy metabolite: relationship to the CYP2D6 genotype. Psychopharmacology 1996;123:315-9.
61. McEwen BS, Davis PG, Parsons B, Pfaff DW. The brain as a target for steroid hormone action. Annu Rev Neurosci 1979;2:65-112.
62. Weiner RI, Ganong WF. Role of brain monoamine and histamine in regulation of anterior pituitary secretions. Physiol Rev 1978;58:905-76.
63. Woolley DE, Hope WG, Thompson MA, Gietzen DW, Conway SB. Dopaminergic stimulation of estrogen receptor binding in vivo: a reexamination. Recent Prog Horm Res 1994;49:383-93.
64. 3H]estradiol binding by specific brain areas and pituitary in ovariectomized rats. Endocrinology 1983;113:855-65.
65. 3H]estradiol binding in hypothalamus of female rats but not males. Life Sci 1983;33:2221-8.
66. Stumpf WE, Grant LD. Anatomical neuroendocrinology. New York: Karger; 1975.
67. Power RF, Mani SK, Codin J, Conneely OM, O'Malley BW. Dopaminergic and ligand-independent activation of steroid hormone receptors. Science 1991;254:1636-9.
68. Saceda M, Knabbe C, Dickson RB, Lippman ME, Bronzert D, Lindsey RK, Gottardis MM, Martin MB. Post-transcriptional destabilization of estrogen receptor mRNA in MCF-7 cells by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate. J Biol Chem 1991;266:17809-14.
69. Biegon A, McEwen BS. Modulation by estradiol of serotonin receptors in brain. J Neurosci 1982;2:199-205.
70. Biegon A, Reches A, Snyder L, McEwen BS. Serotonergic and noradrenergic receptors in the rat brain: modulation by chronic exposure to ovarian hormones. Life Sci 1983;32:2015-21.
71. Hruska RE, Silbergeld EK. Increased dopamine receptor sensitivity after estrogen treatment using the rat rotation model. Science 1980;208:1466-7.
72. Tonnaer JA, Leinders T, van Delft AM. Ovariectomy and subchronic estradiol-17β administration decrease dopamine D1 and D2 receptors in rat striatum. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1989;14:469-76.
73. Pecins-Thompson M, Brown NA, Kohama SG, Bethea CL. Ovarian steroid regulation of tryptophan hydroxylase mRNA expression in rhesus macaques. J Neurosci 1996;16:7021-9.
74. McQueen JK, Wilson H, Fink G. Estrogen increases serotonin transporter (sert) binding sites and sert mRNA expression in female rat brain. Soc Neurosci Abstr 1996;22(Part 1):612.
75. Biver F, Lotstra F, Monclus M, Wikler D, Damhaut P, Mendlewicz J, Goldman S. Sex difference in 5HT2 receptor in the living human brain. Neurosci Lett 1996;204:25-8.
76. 2A receptors in forebrain is increased at pro-oestrus in intact female rats. Neurosci Lett 1997;234:7-10.
77. Sumner BEH, Fink G. Effects of acute estradiol on 5-hydroxytryptamine and dopamine receptor subtype mRNA expression in female rat brain. Mol Cell Neurosci 1993;4:83-92.
78. Walsh BW, Schiff I, Rosner B, Greenberg L, Ravinkar V, Sacks FM. Effects of postmenopausal estrogen replacement on the concentrations and metabolism of plasma lippproteins. N Engl J Med 1991;325:1196-204.
79. McBride PA, Tierney H, Demeo M, Chen JS, Mann TJ. Effects of age and gender on CNS serotonergic responsivity in normal adults. Biol Psychiatry 1990;27:1143-55.
80. O'Keane V, O'Hanlon M, Webb M, Dinan T. D-Fenfluramine/ prolactine response throughout the menstrual cycle: evidence for an oestrogen induced alteration. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1991;34:289-92.
81. Murphy DL, Mueller EA, Hill JL, Tollwer TJ, Jacobsen FM. Comparative anxiogenic, neuroendocrine, and other physiologic effects of m-chlorophenylpiperazine given intravenously or orally to healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology 1989;98:275-82.
82. Kahn RS, Kalus O, Weltzer S, Cahn W, Asnis GM, vanPraag HM. Effects of serotonin antagonists on m-chlorophenylpiperazine response in normal subjects. Psychiatry Res 1990;33:189-98.
83. Lawlor BA, Sunderland T, Mellow AM, Hill JL, Newhouse PA, Murphy DL. A preliminary study of the effects of intravenous m-chorophenylpiperazine, a serotonin agonist, in elderly subjects. Biol Psychiatry 1989;25:679-86.
84. Anand A, Charney DS, Delgado PL, McDougle CJ, Heninger GR, Price LH. Neuroendocrine and behavioral responses to intravenous m-chlorophenylpiperazine in depressed patients and healthy comparison subjects. Am J Psychiatry 1994;151:1626-30.
85. Halbreich U, Rojansky N, Palter S, Tworek H, Hissin P, Wang K. Estrogen augments serotonergic activity in postmenopausal women. Biol Psychiatry 1995;37:434-41.
86. Bancroft J, Cook A, Davidson D, Bennie J, Goodwin G. Blunting of neuroendocrine responses to infusion of L-tryptophan in women with perimenstrual mood change. Psychol Med 1991;21:305-12.
87. Menkes DB, Coates DC, Fawcett JP. Acute tryptophan depletion aggravates premenstrual syndrome. J Affect Disord 1994;32:37-44.
88. Hannah P, Adams D, Glover V, Sandler M. Abnormal platelet 5-hydroxytrptamine uptake and imipramine binding in postnatal dysphoria. J Psychiatr Res 1992;26:69-75.
89. Bazzett TJ, Becker JB. Sex differences in the rapid and acute effects of estrogen on striatal D2 dopamine receptor binding. Brain Res 1994;637:163-72.
90. Castner SA, Xiao L, Becker JB. Sex differences in striatal dopamine: in vivo microdialysis and behavioral studies. Brain Res 1993;610:127-34.
91. Becker JG, Cha J. Estrous cycle-dependent variation in amphetamine-induced behaviors and striatal dopamine release assessed with microdialysis. Behav Brain Res 1989;35:117-25.
92. Thompson TL, Moss RL. Modulation of mesolimbic dopaminergic activity over the rat estrous cycle. Neurosci Lett 1997;229:145-8.
93. Wieck A, Kumar R, Hirst AD, Marks MN, Campbell IC, Checkley SA. Increased sensitivity of dopamine receptors and recurrence of affective psychosis after childbirth. BMJ 1991;303:613-6.
94. Paul SM, Purdy RH. Neuroactive steroids. FASEB J 1992;6:2311-22.
95. Majewska MD, Harrison NL, Schwartz RD, Barker JL, Paul SM. Steroid hormone metabolites are barbiturate-like modulators of the GABA receptor. Science 1986;232:1004-7.
96. Baulieu EE. Neurosteroids: a new function in the brain. Biol Cell 1991;71:3-10.
97. Freeman EW, Purdy RH, Coutifaris C, Rickels K, Paul SM. Anxiolytic metabolites of progesterone: correlation with mood and performance measures following oral progesterone administration to healthy female volunteers. Neuroendocrinology 1993;58:478-84.
98. Brinton RD, Tran J, Proffitt P, Montoya M. 17-Beta-estradiol enhances outgrowth and survival of neocortical neurons in culture. Neurochem Res 1997;22:1339-51.
99. Baker G, Wong JTF, Yeung JM, Coutts RT. Effects of the antidepressant phenelzine on brain levels of GABA. J Affect Disord 1991;21:207-11.
100. Squires RF, Saederup D. Antidepressants and metabolites that block GABAA receptors coupled to 35S-5-butylobicyclophosphorothionate binding sites in rat brain. Brain Res 1988;441:15-22.
101. Malatynsha E, De Leon I, Allen D, Yamamura HI. Effects of amitriptyline on GABA-stimulated C1 uptake in relation to a behavioral model of depression. Brain Res Bull 1995;1:53-9.
102. Sackeim HA, Devanand DP, Nobler MS. Electroconvulsive therapy. In: Bloom F, Kupfer DJ, editors. Psychopharmacology: the fourth generation of progress. New York: Raven Press; 1995. p. 1126-41.
103. Sanacora G, Mason GS, Rothman DL, Behar KL, Berman R, Hyder F, Abi-Saab W, Krystal JH. Decreased cortical GABA levels in major depression as determined by 1H-MRS. Vol. 484.12. Los Angeles: Society for Neuroscience; 1998. p. 1238.
104. Halbreich U, Petty F, Yonkers K, Kramer GL, Rush AJ, Bibi KW. Low plasma gamma-aminobutyric acid levels during the late luteal phase of women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1996;1996:718-9.
105. Rapkin AJ, Morgan M, Goldman L, Brann DW, Simone D, Mahesh VB. Progesterone metabolite allopregnanolone in women with premenstrual syndrome. Obstet Gynecol 1997;90:709-14.
106. Wang M, Seippel L, Purdy RH, Bäckström T. Relationship between symptom severity and steroid variation in women with premenstrual syndrome: study on serum pregnenolone, pregnenolone sulfate, 5α-pregnane-3,20-dione and 3 α-pregnan-20-one. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996;81:1076-82.
107. Schmidt PJ, Purdy RH, Moore PH Jr, Paul SM, Rubinow DR. Circulating levels of anxiolytic steroids in the luteal phase in women with premenstrual syndrome and in control subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994;79:1256-60.
108. Yu R, Follesa P, Maharaj KT. Down-regulation of the GABA receptor subunits mRNA levels in mammalian cultured cortical neurons following chronic neurosteroid treatment. Mol Brain Res 1996;41:163-8.
109. Herzog AG. Intermittent progesterone therapy and frequency of complex partial seizures in women with menstrual disorders. Neurology 1986;36:1607-10.
110. Sundstrom I, Ashbrook D, Backstrom T. Reduced benzodiazepine sensitivity in patients with premenstrual syndrome: a pilot study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1997;22:25-38.
111. Sundstrom I, Andersson A, Nyberg S, Ashbrook D, Purdy RM, Backstrom T. Patients with premenstrual syndrome have a different sensitivity to a neuroactive steroid during the menstrual cycle compared with control subjects. Neuroendocrinology 1998;67:126-38.
112. A receptor alpha-4 subunit suppression prevents withdrawal properties of an endogenous steroid. Nature 1998;392:926-9.
113. Wickelgren I. Estrogen stakes claim to cognition. Science 1997;276:675-8.
114. Wilson MA, Dwyer KD, Roy EJ. Direct effects of ovarian hormones on antidepressant binding sites. Brain Res Bull 1989;22:181-5.
115. Kendall DA, Stancel GM, Enna SJ. Imipramine: effect of ovarian steroids on modifications in serotonin receptor binding. Science 1981;211:1183-5.
116. Rubinow DR, Schmidt PJ. Androgens, brain and behavior. Am J Psychiatry 1996;153:974-82.
117. Klaiber EL, Broverman DM, Vogel W, Kobayashi Y. Estrogen therapy for severe persistent depressions in women. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1979;36:550-4.
118. Oppenheim G, Zohar J, Shapiro B, Belmaker RH. The role of estrogen in treating resistant depression. In: Zohar J, Belmaker RH, editors. Treating resistant depression. Boston: PMA Publishing; 1987. p. 357-65.
119. Oppenheim G. A case of rapid mood cycling with estrogen: implications for therapy. J Clin Psychiatry 1984;45:34-5.
120. Magos AL, Brincat M, Studd JWW. Treatment of the premenstrual syndrome by subcutaneous oestradiol implants and cyclical oral norethisterone: placebo controlled study. BMJ 1986;292:1629-33.
121. Watson NR, Savvas M, Studd JWW, Garnett T, Baber RJ. Treatment of severe premenstrual syndrome with oestradiol patches and cyclical oral norethisterone. Lancet 1989;2:730-2.
122. Smith RNJ, Studd JWW, Zamblera D, Holland EFN. A randomised comparison over 8 months of 100 μg and 200 μg twice weekly doses of transdermal oestradiol in the treatment of severe premenstrual syndrome. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1995;102:475-84.
123. Dhar V, Murphy BEP. Double-blind randomized crossover trial of luteal phase estrogens (Premarin®) in the premenstrual syndrome (PMS). Psychoneuroendocrinology 1990;15:489-93.
124. Bloch M, Schmidt PJ, Ruhinow DR. Clinical aspects of premenstrual syndrome. Infertil Reprod Med Clin North Am 1996;7:315-29.
125. Watson NR, Studd JWW, Riddle AL, Savvas M. Suppression of ovulation by transdermal oestradiol patches. BMJ 1988;297:900-1.
126. Cullberg J. Mood changes and menstrual symptoms with different gestagen/estrogen combinations: a double blind comparison with a placebo. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 1972;236:1-86.
127. Graham CA, Sherwin BB. A prospective treatment study of premenstrual symptoms using a triphasic oral contraceptive. J Psychosom Res 1992;36:257-66.
128. Endicott J, Nee J, Cohen J, Halbreich U. Premenstrual changes: patterns and correlates of daily ratings. J Affect Disord 1986;10:127-35.
129. Schmidt PJ, Nieman LK, Grover GN, Muller KL, Merriam GR, Rubinow DR. Lack of effect of induced menses on symptoms in women with premenstrual syndrome. N Engl J Med 1991;324:1174-9.
130. Paffenbarger RS, McCabe LJ. The effect of obstetric and perinatal events on risk of mental illness in women of childbearing age. Am J Public Health 1966;56:400-7.
131. Kendell RE, Wainwright S, Hailey A, Shannon B. The influence of childbirth on psychiatric morbidity. Psychol Med 1976;6:297-302.
132. Sholomskas D, Wichamaratne PJ, Dologo L, O'Brien DW, Leaf PJ, Woods SW. Postpartum onset of panic disorder: a coincidental event? J Clin Psychiatry 1993;54:476-80.
133. Gregoire AJP, Kumar R, Everitt B, Henderson AF, Studd JWW. Transdermal oestrogen for treatment of severe postnatal depression. Lancet 1996;347:930-3.
134. Cox JL, Holden JM, Sagovsky R. Detection of postnatal depression: development of the 10-item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. Br J Psychiatry 1987;150:782-6.
135. Sichel DA, Cohen LS, Robertson LM, Ruttenberg A, Rosenbaum JF. Prophylactic estrogen in recurrent postpartum affective disorder. Biol Psychiatry 1995;38:814-8.
136. Adami S, Rossini M, Zamberlan N, Bertoldo F, Dorizzi R, Lo Cascio V. Long-term effects of transdermal and oral estrogens on serum lipids and lipoproteins in postmenopausal women. Maturitas 1993;17:191-6.
137. Lufkin EG, Wahner HW, O'Fallon WM, Hodgson SF, Katowicz MA, Lane AW, Judd HL, Caplan RH, Riggs BL. Treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis with transdermal estrogen. Ann Intern Med 1992;117:1-9.
138. Ripley HS, Shorr E, Papanicolaou GN. The effect of treatment with depression in the menopause with estrogenic hormone. Am J Psychiatry 1940;96:905-14.
139. Aylward M. Estrogens, plasma tryptophan levels in perimenopausal patients. In: The management of the menopause. Baltimore: University Park Press. 1976. p. 135-47.
140. Campbell S. Double blind psychometric studies on the effects of natural estrogens on post-menopausal women. In: The management of the menopause. Baltimore: University Park Press. 1976. p. 149-58.
141. Furuhjelm M, Karlgren E, Carlström K. The effect of estrogen therapy on somatic and psychical symptoms in postmenopausal women. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1984;63:655-61.
142. Derman RJ, Dawood MY, Stone S. Quality of life during sequential hormone replacement therapy. Int J Fertil Menopausal Stud 1995;40:73-8.
143. Fedor-Freybergh P. The influence of oestrogens on the wellbeing and mental performance in climacteric and postmenopausal women. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand Suppl 1977;64:1-91.
144. Strickler RC, Borth R, Cecutti A, Cookson BA, Harper JA, Potvin R, Riffel P, Sorbara VJ, Woolever CA. The role of oestrogen replacement in the climacteric syndrome. Psychol Med 1977;7:631-9.
145. Thomson J, Oswald I. Effect of oestrogen on the sleep, mood, and anxiety of menopausal women. BMJ 1977;2:1317-9.
146. Campbell S, Whitehead M. Oestrogen therapy and the menopausal syndrome. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1977;4:31-47.
147. Montgomery JC, Brincat M, Tapp A, Appleby L, Versi E, Fenwick PBC, Studd JWW. Effect of oestrogen and testosterone implants on psychological disorders in the climacteric. Lancet 1987;1:297-9.
148. Coope J. Double blind cross-over study of estrogen replacement therapy. In: The management of the menopause. Baltimore: University Park Press. 1981. p. 159-68.
149. Sherwin BB, Gelfand MM. Sex steroids and affect in the surgical menopause: a double-blind, cross-over study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1985;10:325-35.
150. Schneider LS, Small GW, Hamilton SH, Bystritsky A, Nemeroff CB, Meyers BS. Estrogen replacement and response to fluoxetine in a multicenter geriatric depression trial. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 1997;5:97-106.
151. Dalton K. Comparative trials of new oral progestogenic compounds in treatment of premenstrual syndrome. BMJ 1959;152:1307-9.
152. Dalton K. Trial of progesterone vaginal suppositories in the treatment of premenstrual syndrome [letter]. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987;156:1555.
153. Freeman E, Rickels K, Sondheimer SJ, Polansky M. Ineffectiveness of progesterone suppository treatment for premenstrual syndrome. JAMA 1990;264:349-53.
154. Sampson GA. Premenstrual syndrome: a double-blind controlled trial of progesterone and placebo. Br J Psychiatry 1979;135:209-15.
155. Van Der Meer YG, Benedek-Jaszmann LJ, Van Loenen AC. Effect of high-dose progesterone on the pre-menstrual syndrome; a double-blind cross-over trial. J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol 1983;2-4:220-2.
156. Maddocks S, Hahn P, Moller F, Reid RL. A double-blind placebo-controlled trial of progesterone vaginal suppositories in the treatment of premenstrual syndrome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1986;154:573-81.
157. Dennerstein L, Morse C, Gotts G, Brown J, Smith. M, Oats J, Burrows G. Treatment of premenstrual syndrome: a double-blind trial of dydrogesterone. J Affect Disord 1986;11:199-205.
158. Vanselow W, Dennerstein L, Greenwood KM, de Lignieres B. Effect of progesterone and its 5α and 5β metabolites on symptoms of premenstrual syndrome according to route of administration. J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol 1996;17:29-38.
159. Dennerstein L, Spencer-Gardner C, Gotts G, Brown JB, Smith MA, Burrows GD. Progesterone and the premenstrual syndrome: a double blind crossover trial. BMJ 1985;290:1617-21.
160. Baker ER, Best RG, Manfredi RL, Demers LM, Wolf GC. Efficacy of progesterone vaginal suppositories in alleviation of nervous symptoms in patients with premenstrual syndrome. J Assist Reprod Genet 1995;12:205-9.
161. Magill PJ. Investigation of the efficacy of progesterone pessaries in the relief os symptoms of premenstrual syndrome. Progesterone Study Group. Br J Gen Pract 1995;45:589-93.
162. Moos RH. The development of a menstrual distress questionnaire. Psychosom Med 1968;30:853-67.
163. Freeman EW, DeRubeis RJ, Rickels K. Reliability and validity of a daily diary for premenstrual syndrome. Psychiatry Res 1996;65:97-106.
164. Dalton K. Successful prophylactic progesterone for idiopathic postnatal depression. Int J Prenatal Perinatal Stud 1989;323-7.
165. Kane FJ Jr. Evaluation of emotional reactions to oral contraceptive use. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1976;126:968-72.
166. Kirkham C, Hahn PM, Van Vugt DA, Carmichael JA, Reid RL. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over trial to assess the side effects of medroxyprogesterone acetate in hormone replacement therapy. Obstet Gynecol 1991;78:93-7.
167. Graham CA, Ramos R, Bancroft J, Maglaya C, Farley TMM. The effects of steroidal contraceptives on the well-being and sexuality of women: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, two-center study of combined and progestogen-only methods. Contraception 1995;52:363-9.
168. Hammarbäck S, Bäckström T, Holst J, von Schoultz B, Lyrenäs S. Cyclical mood changes as in the premenstrual tension syndrome during sequential estrogen-progestogen postmenopausal replacement therapy. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1985;64:393-7.
169. Holst J, Bäckström T, Hammarbäck S, van Schoultz B. Progestogen addition during oestrogen replacement therapy - effects on vasomotor symptoms and mood. Maturitas 1989;11:13-20.
170. Klaiber EL, Broverman DM, Vogel W, Peterson LG, Snyder MB. Individual differences in changes in mood and platelet monoamine oxidase (MAO) activity during hormonal replacement therapy in menopausal women. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1996;21:575-92.
171. Speroff L, Glass RH, Kase NG. Clinical gynecologic endocrinology and infertility. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1994.
172. Brown-Sequard CE. The effects produced on man by subcutaneous injections of a liquid obtained from the testicles of animals. Lancet 1889;2:105-7.
173. Morales AJ, Nolan JJ, Nelson JC, Yen SS. Effects of replacement dose of dehydroepiandrosterone in men and women of advancing age. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994;78:1360-7.
174. Vermeulen A. The hormonal activity of the postmenopausal ovary. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1976;42:247-53.
175. Zuckerman M, Lubin B. Manual for the Multiple Adjective Checklist. San Diego (CA): Education and Industrial Testing Service; 1965.
176. Sherwin BB, Gelfand MM, Brender W. Androgen enhances sexual motivation in females: a prospective, crossover study of sex steroid administration in the surgical menopause. Psychosom Med 1985;47:339-51.
177. Brain PF. Effects of the hormones of the pituitary-gonadal axis on behavior. New York: Academic Press; 1979.
178. Burris AS, Banks SM, Carter CS, Davidson JM, Sherins RJ. A long-term, prospective study of the physiology and behavioral effects of hormone replacement in untreated hypogonadal men. J Androl 1992;13:297-304.
179. Beuna F, Swerdloff RS, Steiner BS, Lutchmansingh P, Peterson MA, Pandian MR, Galmarini M, Bhasin S. Sexual function does not change when serum testosterone levels are pharmacologically varied within the normal male range. Fertil Steril 1993;59:1118-23.
180. Carani C, Zini D, Baldini A, Casa LD, Ghizzani A, Marrama P. Effects of androgen treatment in impotent men with normal and low levels of free testosterone. Arch Sex Behav 1990;19:223-34.
181. Chakravarti S, Collins WP, Newton JR, Oram DH, Studd JW. Endocrine changes and symptomatology after oophorectomy in. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1977;84:769-75.
182. Burger HG, Hailes J, Menelaus M, Nelson J, Hudson B, Balazs H. The management of persistent menopausal symptoms with oestradiol-testosterone implants: clinical lipid and hormonal results. Maturitas 1984;6:351-8.
183. Fink G, Sumner BEH. Oestrogen and mental state. Nature 1996;383:306.
184. Shapira B, Oppenheim G, Zohar J, Segal M, Malach D, Belmaker RH. Lack of efficacy of estrogen supplementation to imipramine in resistant female depressives. Biol Psychiatry 1985;20:570-83.
185. Sherwin BB, Gelfand MM. A prospective one-year study of estrogen and progestin in postmenopausal women: effects on clinical symptoms and lipoprotein lipids. Obstet Gynecol 1989;73:759-66.
186. George GCW, Utian WH, Beumont PJV, Beardwood CJ. Effect of exogenous oestrogens on minor psychiatric symptoms in postmenopausal women. South Afr Med J 1973;47:2387-8.
187. Ditkoff EC, Crary WG, Cristo M, Lobo RA. Estrogen improves psychological function in asymptomatic postmenopausal women. Obstet Gynecol 1991;78:991-5.
188. Dennerstein L, Fotherby K, Burrows GD, Laby B, Wood C. Plasma levels of ethinyl oestradiol and norgestrel during hormone replacement therapy. Maturitas 1980;2:147-54.