An indistinct balance: The safety and efficacy of parenteral iron therapy

Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

Volumn 10, Issue 9, 1999, Pages 2029-2043

  Besarab, Anatole ^a   Frinak, Stanley ^a   Yee, Jerry ^a  

^a HENRY FORD HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENDOTHELIN; FERRIC GLUCONATE; FERRITIN; HEMOGLOBIN; IRON; IRON DEXTRAN; IRON SACCHARATE; NITRIC OXIDE; PLATELET DERIVED GROWTH FACTOR; RECOMBINANT ERYTHROPOIETIN; TRANSFERRIN;

ANAPHYLAXIS; ANEMIA; ARTHRALGIA; CLINICAL TRIAL; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; DRUG SAFETY; DYSPNEA; ERYTHROPOIESIS; HEART INFARCTION; HEMATOCRIT; HEMODIALYSIS; HUMAN; HYPOTENSION; INFECTION; IRON ABSORPTION; IRON DEFICIENCY; IRON THERAPY; KIDNEY FAILURE; MYALGIA; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; WHEEZING;

EID: 0032814578     PISSN: 10466673     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1681/asn.v1092029     Document Type: Review

References (149)

1. NKF-DOQI: Clinical practice guidelines for the treatment of anemia of chronic renal failure. National Kidney Foundation-Dialysis Outcomes Quality Initiative. Am J Kidney Dis 30: S192-S240, 1997
2. Eschbach JW, Haley NR, Egrie JC, Adamson JW: A comparison of the responses to recombinant human erythropoietin in normal and uremic subjects. Kidney Int 42: 407-416, 1992
3. Eschbach JW, Kelly MR, Haley NR, Abels RI, Adamson JW: Treatment of the anemia of progressive renal failure with recombinant human erythropoietin. N Engl J Med 321: 158-163, 1989
4. Eschbach JW, Downing MR, Egrie JC, Browne JK, Adamson JW: USA multicenter clinical trial with recombinant human erythropoietin (Amgen): Results in hemodialysis patients. Contrib Nephrol 76: 160-165; discussion 212-218, 1989
5. Powe NR, Griffiths RI, Greer JW: Early dosing practices and effectiveness of recombinant human erythropoietin. Kidney Int 43: 1125-1133, 1993
6. USRDS: USRDS 1996 Annual Data Report, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 1996
7. Macdougall I, Coles G, Williams J: Inhibition of a response to erythropoietin in the presence of infection or malignancy. Erythropoiesis 3: 29-30, 1992
8. Muirhead N, Hodsman AB: Occult infection and resistance of anaemia to rHuEpo therapy in renal failure. Nephrol Dial Transplant 5: 232-234, 1990
9. Rao DS, Shih MS, Mohini R: Effect of serum parathyroid hormone and bone marrow fibrosis on the response to erythropoietin in uremia. N Engl J Med 328: 171-175, 1993
10. Macdougall IC: Poor response to erythropoietin should be fully investigated and treated. Br Med J 310: 1424-1425, 1995
11. Ifudu O, Feldman J, Friedman EA: The intensity of hemodialysis and the response to erythropoietin in patients with end-stage renal disease. N Engl J Med 334: 420-425, 1996
12. Eschbach JW, Adamson JW: Recombinant human erythropoietin: Implications for nephrology. Am J Kidney Dis 11: 203-209, 1988
13. Sunder-Plassmann G, Hörl WH: Importance of iron supply for erythropoietin therapy. Nephrol Dial Transplant 10: 2070-2076, 1995
14. Vaziri ND, Zhou XJ, Naqvi F, Smith J, Oveisi F, Wang Q, Purdy RE: Role of nitric oxide resistance in erythropoietin-induced hypertension in rats with chronic renal failure. Am J Physiol 271: E113-E122, 1996
15. De Marchi S, Cecchin E, Falleti E, Giacomello R, Stel G, Sepiacci G, Bortolotti N, Zanello F, Gonano F, Bartoli E: Long term effects of erythropoietin therapy on fistula stenosis and plasma concentrations of PDGF and MCP-1 in hemodialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 8: 1147-1156, 1997
16. Hussein S, Prieto J, O'Shea M, Hoffbrand AV, Baillod RA, Moorhead JF: Serum ferritin assay and iron status in chronic renal failure and haemodialysis. Br Med J 1: 546-548, 1975
17. Worwood M: Serum ferritin. In: Methods in Hematotogy, Vol. 1, edited by Cook V, New York, Churchill Livingstone, 1980, pp 59-89
18. Fishbane S, Kowalski EA, Imbriano LJ, Maesaka JK: The evaluation of iron status in hemodialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 7: 2654-2657, 1996
19. Boelaert JR, Cantinieaux BF, Hariga CF, Fondu PG: Recombinant erythropoietin reverses polymorphonuclear granulocyte dysfunction in iron-overloaded dialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplants 5: 504-517, 1990
20. Collins A, Ebben J, Ma J: Frequent IV iron dosing is associated with higher infectious deaths [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 8: 190A, 1997
21. Collins A, Ebben J, Ma J, Xia H: I.V. iron dosing patterns and mortality [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 205A, 1998
22. Collins A, Ma J, Xia H, Ebben J: I.V. iron dosing patterns and hospitalization [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 204A, 1998
23. Eschbach JW, Cook JD, Scribner BH, Finch CA: Iron balance in hemodialysis patients. Ann Intern Med 87: 710-713, 1977
24. Conrad M: Iron absorption. In: Physiology of the Gastrointestinal Tract, edited by Johnson L, New York, Raven, 1987, pp 1437-1453
25. Whiting SJ: The inhibitory effect of dietary calcium on iron bioavailability: A cause for concern? Nutr Rev 53: 77-80, 1995
26. Wingard RL, Parker RA, Ismail N, Hakim RM: Efficacy of oral iron therapy in patients receiving recombinant human erythropoietin. Am J Kidney Dis 25: 433-439, 1995
27. Markowitz GS, Kahn GA, Feingold RE, Coco M, Lynn RI: An evaluation of the effectiveness of oral iron therapy in hemodialysis patients receiving recombinant human erythropoietin. Clin Nephrol 48: 34-40, 1997
28. Ponka P, Beaumont C, Richardson DR: Function and regulation of transferrin and ferritin. Semin Hematol 35: 35-54, 1998
29. Cavill I: Disorders of iron metabolism: Diagnostic methods. Clin Hematol 11: 259-273, 1982
30. Kondo H, Saito K, Grasso JP, Aisen P: Iron metabolism in the erythrophagocytosing Kupffer cell. Hepatology 8: 32-38, 1988
31. Kooistra MP, Niemantsverdriet EC, van Es A, Mol-Beermann NM, Struyvenberg A, Marx JJ: Iron absorption in erythropoietin-treated haemodialysis patients: Effects of iron availability, inflammation and aluminium. Nephrol Dial Transplant 13: 82-88, 1998
32. Besarab A, Kaiser JW, Frinak S: A study of parenteral iron regimens in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 34: 21-28, 1999
33. Collins A, Ebben J, Ma J: Patient survival is associated with hematocrit (HCT) level [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 8: 190A, 1997
34. Madore F, Bridges K, Brugnara C: A population study of the interplay between iron, nutrition, and inflammation in erythropoiesis in hemodialysis patients [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 7: 1456, 1996
35. Collins A, Xia H, Ebben J, Ma J: Change in hematocrit and risk of mortality [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 204A, 1998
36. Churchill DN, Muirhead N, Goldstein M: Effect of recombinant human erythropoietin on hospitalization of hemodialysis patients. Clin Nephrol 43: 184-188, 1995
37. Powe NR, Griffiths RI, Watson AJ: Effect of recombinant erythropoietin on hospital admissions, readmissions, length of stay, and costs of dialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 4: 1455-1465, 1994
38. Collins A, Ebben J, Ma J, Xia H: Change in hematocrit and risk of hospitalization. J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 204A, 1998
39. Major A, Mathez-Loic F, Rohling R, Gautschi K, Brugnara C: The effect of intravenous iron on the reticulocyte response to recombinant human erythropoietin. Br J Haematol 98: 292-294, 1997
40. Lai C, Bailie G, Eisele G: Changes in Hct, serum ferritin, and transferrin saturation after IV iron dextran [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 7: 1392-1393, 1996
41. Kaufmann J, Reda D, Goldfarb D, Kleinman J, Vaamonde C: Diagnosis and treatment of iron deficiency in patients on maintenance recombinant erythropoietin [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 7: 1450, 1996
42. Kaufmann J, Reda D, Fye C: Diagnosis of functional iron deficiency in hemodialysis patients on maintenance erythopoietin (rHuEPO) [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 213A, 1998
43. Macdougall IC: Monitoring of iron status and iron supplementation in patients treated with erythropoietin. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 3: 620-625, 1994
44. Ali M, Rigolosi R, Fayemi AO, Braun EV, Frascino J, Singer R: Failure of serum ferritin levels to predict bone-marrow iron content after intravenous iron-dextran therapy. Lancet 1: 652-655, 1982
45. Kernilde J-J, Folkert V, Mokrzycki M: Functional iron deficiency in hemodialysis patients with high ferritin levels [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 253A, 1998
46. Fishbane S, Galgano C, Langley RC Jr, Canfield W, Maesaka JK: Reticulocyte hemoglobin content in the evaluation of iron status of hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 52: 217-222, 1997
47. Brugnara C, Laufer MR, Friedman AJ, Bridges K, Platt O: Reticulocyte hemoglobin content (CHr): Early indicator of iron deficiency and response to therapy. Blood 83: 3100-3101, 1994
48. Bhandari S, Brownjohn A, Turney J: Changes in CHr in response to intravenous iron therapy in haemodialysis patients [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 243A, 1998
49. Fishbane S, Frei GL, Maesaka J: Reduction in recombinant human erythropoietin doses by the use of chronic intravenous iron supplementation. Am J Kidney Dis 26: 41-46, 1995
50. Eschbach JW, Aquiling T, Haley NR, Fan MH, Blagg CR: The long-term effects of recombinant human erythropoietin on the cardiovascular system. Clin Nephrol 38: S98-S103, 1992
51. Tarng DC, Chen TW, Huang TP: Iron metabolism indices for early prediction of the response and resistance to erythropoietin therapy in maintenance hemodialysis patients. Am J Nephrol 15: 230-237, 1995
52. Dunea G, Swagel MA, Bodiwala U, Arruda JA: Intra-dialytic oral iron therapy. Int J Artif Organs 17: 261-264, 1994
53. Macdougall IC, Hutton RD, Cavill I, Coles GA, Williams JD: Poor response to treatment of renal anaemia with erythropoietin corrected by iron given intravenously. Br Med J 299: 157-158, 1989
54. Roe DJ, Harford AM, Zager PG: Iron utilization after iron dextran administration for iron deficiency in patients with dialysis-associated anemia: A prospective analysis and comparison of two agents. Am J Kidney Dis 28: 855-860, 1996
55. Rosenlof K, Kivivuori SM, Gronhagen-Riska C, Teppo AM, Slimes MA: Iron availability is transiently improved by intravenous iron medication in patients on chronic hemodialysis. Clin Nephrol 43: 249-255, 1995
56. Auerbach M, Winchester J, Wahab A: A randomized trial of three iron dextran infusion methods for anemia in EPO-treated dialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 31: 81-86, 1998
57. Macdougall IC, Tucker B, Thompson J, Tomson CR, Baker LR, Raine AE: A randomized controlled study of iron supplementation in patients treated with erythropoietin. Kidney Int 50: 1694-1699, 1996
58. Schaefer R, Schaefer L: Management of iron substitution during rHuEPO therapy in chronic renal failure patients. Erythropoiesis 3: 71-75, 1992
59. Navarro JF, Teruel JL, Liano F, Marcen R, Ortuno J: Effectiveness of intravenous administration of Fe-gluconate-Na complex to maintain adequate body iron stores in hemodialysis patients. Am J Nephrol 16: 268-272, 1996
60. Granolleras C, Zein A, Oules R, Branger B, Fourcade J, Shaldon S: Continuous administration of intravenous iron during haemodialysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 12: 1007-1008, 1997
61. Taylor JE, Peat N, Porter C, Morgan AG: Regular low-dose intravenous iron therapy improves response to erythropoietin in haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 11: 1079-1083, 1996
62. Nyvad O, Danielsen H, Madsen S: Intravenous iron-sucrose complex to reduce epoetin demand in dialysis patients. Lancet 344: 1305-1306, 1994
63. Silverberg DS, Blum M, Peer G, Kaplan E, Iaina A: Intravenous ferric saccharate as an iron supplement in dialysis patients. Nephron 72: 413-417, 1996
64. Sepandj F, Jindal K, West M, Hirsch D: Economic appraisal of maintenance parenteral iron administration in treatment of anaemia in chronic haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 11: 319-322, 1996
65. Khan A, Besarab A, Amin N: Are there optimal iron parameters for erythropoiesis during maintenance EPO therapy? [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 152A, 1998
66. Senger JM, Weiss RJ: Hematologic and erythropoietin responses to iron dextran in the hemodialysis environment. ANNA J 23: 319-323; discussion 324-325, 1996
67. Allegra V, Mengozzi G, Vasile A: Iron deficiency in maintenance hemodialysis patients: Assessment of diagnosis criteria and of three different iron treatments. Nephron 51: 175-182, 1991
68. Fudin R, Jaichenko J, Shostak A, Bennett M, Gotloib L: Correction of uremic iron deficiency anemia in hemodialyzed patients: A prospective study. Nephron 79: 299-305, 1998
69. Silverberg DS, Iaina A, Peer G: Intravenous iron supplementation for the treatment of the anemia of moderate to severe chronic renal failure patients not receiving dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 27: 234-238, 1996
70. Suh H, Wadhwa NK: Iron dextran treatment in peritoneal dialysis patients on erythropoietin. Adv Perit Dial 8: 464-466, 1992
71. Ahsan N: Intravenous infusion of total dose iron is superior to oral iron in treatment of anemia in peritoneal dialysis patients: A single center comparative study. J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 664-668, 1998
72. Groff J, Khalid A, Ahsan N: Prospective cross-over study of ITDI and oral iron supplementation in rHuEpo treated out-patient peritoneal dialysis patients [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 20A, 1998
73. Rosen R, Bittle P, Soto V, Ramirez G: Erythropoietic response to low dose intravenous iron supplementation in anemic peritoneal dialysis patients [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 8: 271A, 1997
74. Barth R, Aboul-Magd A, Goldwasser P: Response to iron dextran therapy is not precluded by high serum ferritin (ferr) [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 6: 519, 1995
75. Wish J, Frankenfeld D, Frederick P, Owen W, Johnson C, Rocco M: Iron management and Hct control in hemodialysis (HD) patients. Report from the 1997 HCFA Core Indicator project (CIP) [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 230A, 1998
76. Briglia A, Harrington F, Ellis P: Differing intravenous iron dextran (ID)-loading doses and subsequent laboratory responses in chronic hemodialysis patients (CHD): Effect of total and pulse dosage amount [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 8: 187A, 1997
77. Briglia A, Bednarz D, Davis P, Paganini E: Co-administration of intravenous iron dextran (IVID)/routine heparin during each session in chronic hemodialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 201A, 1998
78. Fishbane S, Ungureanu VD, Maesaka JK, Kaupke CJ, Lim V, Wish J: The safety of intravenous iron dextran in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 28: 529-534, 1996
79. NKF-DOQI clinical practice guidelines for iron support. Am J Kidney Dis 30: S202-S212, 1997
80. Novey HS, Pahl M, Haydik I, Vaziri ND: Immunologic studies of anaphylaxis to iron dextran in patients on renal dialysis. Ann Allergy 72: 224-228, 1994
81. Van Wyck DB, Hartford AM, Zager PG, Wiltbank TB, Kirlin LF, Della Valle AM, Roe DJ: Adverse effects of iron dextran: A prospective comparative trial [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 162, 1998
82. Faich G, Strobos J: Sodium ferric gluconate in sucrose: Safer than iron dextran [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 8: 192A, 1997
83. Nissenson A, Swan S, Lambrecht L, Anderson P, Seligman P: Ferric gluconate is safe in hemodialysis (HD) patients who react to iron dextran [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 7: 1460, 1997
84. Sunder-Plassmann G, Hörl WH: Safety of intravenous injection of iron saccharate in haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 11: 1797-1802, 1996
85. Zanen AL, Adriaansen HJ, van Bommel EF, Posthuma R, Th de Jong GM: "Oversaturation" of transferrin after intravenous ferric gluconate (Ferrlecit®)) in haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 11: 820-824, 1996
86. Banyai S, Rainer V, Derfler K, Druml W, Hörl W, Sunder-Plassman G: Bleomycin detectable free iron (BDI) is present in patients on intravenous (IV) iron therapy [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 199A, 1998
87. Jacobs JC, Alexander NM: Colorimetry and constant-potential coulometry determinations of transferrin-bound iron, total iron-binding capacity, and total iron in serum containing iron-dextran, with use of sodium dithionite and alumina columns. Clin Chem 36: 1803-1807, 1990
88. Thomas CE, Morehouse LA, Aust SD: Ferritin and superoxide-dependent lipid peroxidation. J Biol Chem 260: 3275-3280, 1985
89. Schafer AI, Cheron RG, Dluhy Rl: Clinical consequences of acquired transfusional iron overload in adults. N Engl J Med 304: 319-324, 1981
90. Eschbach JW, Funk D, Adamson J, Kuhn I, Scribner BH, Finch CA: Erythropoiesis in patients with renal failure undergoing chronic dialysis. N Engl J Med 276: 653-658, 1967
91. Stivelman J, Schulman G, Fosburg M, Lazarus JM, Hakim RM: Kinetics and efficacy of deferoxamine in iron-overloaded hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 36: 1125-1132, 1989
92. Aljama P, Ward MK, Pierides AM: Serum ferritin concentration: A reliable guide to iron overload in uremic and hemodialyzed patients. Clin Nephrol 10: 101-104, 1978
93. Van de Vyver FL, Vanheule AO, Verbueken AH: Patterns of iron storage in patients with severe renal failure. Contrib Nephrol 38: 153-166, 1984
94. Bassett ML, Halliday JW, Powell LW: Value of hepatic iron measurements in early hemochromatosis and determination of the critical iron level associated with fibrosis. Hepatology 6: 24-29, 1986
95. Powell LW, Jazwinska E, Halliday J: Changing concepts of haemochromatosis. Adv Exp Med Biol 356: 285-291, 1994
96. Bothwell TA: Iron metabolism in man. In: Methods in Haematology, Vol. 1, edited by Cook V, Oxford, Blackwell Scientific, 1979, pp 7-43
97. Bottomly SS: Secondary iron overload disorders. Semin Hematol 35: 77-86, 1998
98. Fleming LW, Hopwood D, Shepherd AN, Stewart WK: Hepatic iron in dialysed patients given intravenous iron dextran. J Clin Pathol 43: 119-124, 1990
99. Gokal R, Millard PR, Weatherall DJ, Callender ST, Ledingham JG, Oliver DO: Iron metabolism in haemodialysis patients: A study of the management of iron therapy and overload. Q J Med 48: 369-391, 1979
100. Brown EJ, Dubach R, Smith S, Reynafarje C, Moore C: Studies in iron transportation and metabolism. X. Long-term iron overload in dogs. J Lab Clin Med 50: 862-893, 1957
101. Finch C, Hegsted M, Kinney T: Iron metabolism: The pathophysiology of iron storage. Blood 5: 983-1008, 1950
102. Stanbaugh GH, Gillit DM, Holmes AW: Dialysis hemosiderosis mimicking non-A, non-B hepatitis. Trans Am Soc Artif Int Organs 30: 217-221, 1984
103. Boucher E, Bourienne A, Adams P, Turlin B, Brissot P, Deugnier Y: Liver iron concentration and distribution in chronic hepatitis C before and after Interferon treatment. Gut 41: 115-120, 1997
104. Weiss G, Houston T, Kastner S, Johrer K, Grunewald K, Brock JH: Regulation of cellular iron metabolism by erythropoietin: Activation of iron-regulatory protein and upregulation of transferrin receptor expression in erythroid cells. Blood 89: 680-687, 1997
105. Eschbach JW, Abdulhadi MH, Browne JK: Recombinant human erythropoietin in anemic patients with end-stage renal disease: Results of a phase III multicenter clinical trial. Ann Intern Med 111: 992-1000, 1989
106. McCarthy JT, Johnson WJ, Nixon DE, Jenson BM, Moyer TP: Transfusional iron overload in patients undergoing dialysis: Treatment with erythropoietin and phlebotomy. J Lab Clin Med 114: 193-199, 1989
107. Lazarus JM, Hakim RM, Newell J: Recombinant human erythropoietin and phlebotomy in the treatment of iron overload in chronic hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 16: 101-108, 1990
108. Cuthbert JA: Iron, HFE, and hemochromatosis update. J Invest Med 45: 518-529, 1997
109. Peuchant E, Carbonneau MA, Dubourg L: Lipoperoxidation in plasma and red blood cells of patients undergoing haemodialysis: Vitamins A, E, and iron status. Free Radical Biol Med 16: 339-346, 1994
110. Epperlein MM, Nourooz-Zadeh J, Jayasena SD, Hothersall JS, Noronha-Dutra A, Neild GH: Nature and biological significance of free radicals generated during bicarbonate hemodialysis. J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 457-463, 1998
111. Van der Kraaij AM, Mostert LJ, van Eijk HG, Koster JF: Iron-load increases the susceptibility of rat hearts to oxygen reperfusion damage: Protection by the antioxidant (+)-cyanidanol-3 and deferoxamine. Circulation 78: 442-449, 1988
112. Toyokuni S: Iron-induced carcinogenesis: The role of redox regulation. Free Radical Biol Med 20: 553-566, 1996
113. Delmas-Beauvieux MC, Combe C, Peuchant E: Evaluation of red blood cell lipoperoxidation in hemodialysed patients during erythropoietin therapy supplemented or not with iron. Nephron 69: 404-410, 1995
114. Scheurmann E, Belwe V, Blaser C, Peschke B, Lenz T, Kaltwasser J: Parenteral iron causes increased peroxidation in hemodialysis patients [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 7: 251A, 1997
115. Roob J, Khoschsorur G, Tiran A, Horn S, Holzer H, Winklhofer-Roob B: Effect of Vitamin E on lipid peroxidation induced by intravenous iron in patients on chronic hemodialysis [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 224A, 1998
116. Nguyen Khoa T, Massy Z, Salama L: Oxidative stress in hemodialysis (HD) patients treated with recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEPO): Potential role of vitamin C [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 264A, 1998
117. Cook JD, Finch CA, Smith NJ: Evaluation of the iron status of a population. Blood 48: 449-455, 1976
118. Sullivan JL: Iron and the sex difference in heart disease risk. Lancet 1: 1293-1294, 1981
119. Salonen JT, Nyyssonen K, Korpela H, Tuomilehto J, Seppanen R, Salonen R: High stored iron levels are associated with excess risk of myocardial infarction in eastern Finnish men. Circulation 86: 803-811, 1992
120. Aronow WS, Ahn C: Three-year follow-up shows no association of serum ferritin levels with incidence of new coronary events in 577 persons aged > or = 62 years. Am J Cardiol 78: 678-679, 1996
121. Morrison HI, Semenciw RM, Mao Y, Wigle DT: Serum iron and risk of fatal acute myocardial infarction. Epidemiology 5: 243-246, 1994
122. Ascherio A, Willett WC, Rimm EB, Giovannucci EL, Stampfer MJ: Dietary iron intake and risk of coronary disease among men. Circulation 89: 969-974, 1994
123. Gartside PS, Glueck CJ: The important role of modifiable dietary and behavioral characteristics in the causation and prevention of coronary heart disease hospitalization and mortality: The prospective NHANES I follow-up study. J Am Coll Nutr 14: 71-79, 1995
124. Corti MC, Guralnik JM, Salive ME: Serum iron level, coronary artery disease, and all-cause mortality in older men and women. Am J Cardiol 79: 120-127, 1997
125. Nurko S, Young E: Serum ferritin (SF), cardiovascular risk and mortality risk in hemodialysis patients [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 8: 206A, 1997
126. Meyers DG: The iron hypothesis: Does iron cause atherosclerosis? Clin Cardiol 19: 925-929, 1996
127. Corti MC, Gaziano M, Hennekens CH: Iron status and risk of cardiovascular disease. Ann Epidemiol 7: 62-68, 1997
128. Salonen R: Lowering of body iron stores by blood letting and oxidation resistance of serum lipoproteins: A randomized crossover trial in male smokers. J Intern Med 237: 161-168, 1995
129. Besarab A, Bolton WK, Browne JK: The effects of normal as compared with low hematocrit values in patients with cardiac disease who are receiving hemodialysis and epoetin. N Engl J Med 339: 584-590, 1998
130. Kalantar-Zadeh K, Don B: Serum ferritin is a significant prognostic marker of hospitalization days and frequency in ESRD patients [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 213A, 1998
131. Guerinot ML: Microbial iron transport. Ann Rev Microbiol 48: 743-772, 1994
132. Touati D, Jacques M, Tardat B, Bouchard L, Despied S: Lethal oxidative damage and mutagenesis are generated by iron in delta fur mutants of Escherichia coli: Protective role of superoxide dismutase. J Bacteriol 177: 2305-2314, 1995
133. Bothwell TH, MacPhail AP: Hereditary hemochromatosis: Etiologic, pathologic, and clinical aspects. Semin Hematol 35: 55-71, 1998
134. Cantinieaux B, Boelaert J, Hariga C, Fondu P: Impaired neutrophil defense against Yersinia enterocolitica in patients with iron overload who are undergoing dialysis. J Lab Clin Med 111: 524-528, 1988
135. Yang Q, McDonnell SM, Khoury MJ, Cono J, Parrish RG: Hemachromatosis-associated mortality in the United States from 1979-1992: An analysis of multiple-cause mortality. Ann Intern Med 129: 946-953, 1998
136. Hoen B, Kessler M, Hestin D, Mayeux D: Risk factors for bacterial infections in chronic haemodialysis adult patients: A multicentre prospective survey. Nephrol Dial Transplant 10: 377-381, 1995
137. Hoen B, Paul-Dauphin A, Hestin D, Kessler M: EPIBACDIAL: A multicenter prospective study of risk factors for bacteremia in chronic hemodialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 869-876, 1998
138. Seifert A, von Herrath D, Schaefer K: Iron overload, but not treatment with desferrioxamine favours the development of septicemia in patients on maintenance hemodialysis. Q J Med 65: 1015-1024, 1987
139. Kessler M, Hoen B, Mayeux D, Hestin D, Fontenaille C: Bacteremia in patients on chronic hemodialysis: A multicenter prospective survey. Nephron 64: 95-100, 1993
140. Tielemans C, Lenclud C: Respective role of haemosiderosis and desferrioxamine therapy in the risk from infection of haemodialysed patients. Q J Med 68: 573-574, 1988
141. USRDS: USRDS annual data report. VI. Causes of death. Am J Kidney Dis 32: S81-S88, 1998, 1997
142. Vanholder R, Van Biesen W, Ringoir S: Contributing factors to the inhibition of phagocytosis in hemodialyzed patients. Kidney Int 44: 208-214, 1993
143. Patruta SI, Edlinger R, Sunder-Plassmann G, Hörl WH: Neutrophil impairment associated with iron therapy in hemodialysis patients with functional iron deficiency. J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 655-663, 1998
144. Flament J, Goldman M, Waterlot Y, Dupont E, Wybran J, Vanhenweghem JL: Impairment of phagocyte oxidative metabolism in hemodialyzed patients with iron overload. Clin Nephrol 25: 227-230, 1986
145. Ward CG, Hammond JS, Bullen JJ: Effect of iron compounds on antibacterial function of human polymorphs and plasma. Infect Immun 51: 723-730, 1986
146. Klein HG: Immunologic aspects of blood transfusion. Semin Oncol 21: 16-20, 1994
147. Veys N, Vanholder R, Ringoir S: Correction of deficient phagocytosis during erythropoietin treatment in maintenance hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 19: 358-363, 1992
148. Tielemans CL, Lenclud CM, Wens R, Collart FE, Dratwa M: Critical role of iron overload in the increased susceptibility of haemodialysis patients to bacterial infections: Beneficial effects of desferrioxamine. Nephrol Dial Transplant 4: 883-887, 1989
149. Vreugdenhil G, Feelders RA, Coppens PJ, de Leeuw PW: Possible mechanisms underlying potentiating effects of iron chelators in hematopoietic response to erythropoietin. Nephron 61: 475-476, 1992