Ant biodiversity and its relationship to ecosystem functioning: A review

Biodiversity and Conservation

Volumn 7, Issue 9, 1998, Pages 1221-1244

  Folgarait, Patricia J ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSIDAD DE BUENOS AIRES   (Argentina)

^b UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE QUILMES   (Argentina)

Author keywords

Ants; Biodiversity; Ecosystem engineers; Mounds; Soil function

Indexed keywords

ANT; BIODIVERSITY; ECOSYSTEM FUNCTION;

EID: 0032435107     PISSN: 09603115     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1008891901953     Document Type: Review

References (152)

1. Adis, J. and Albuquerque, M.O. (1989) Impact of deforestation on soil invertebrates from central amazonian inundation forests and their survival strategies to long-term flooding. Water Qual Bull. 14, 88-98.
2. Allen, M.F., Allen, E.B. and Friese, C.F. (1989) Responses of the non-mycotrophic plant Salsola kali to invasion by vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. New Phytology 111, 45-49.
3. Alvarado, A., Berish, C.W. and Peralta, F. (1981) Leaf-cutter ant (Atta cephalotes) influence on soil morphology of andepts in Cost Rica. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. 45, 790-794.
4. Amante, E. (1964) Nota previa sobre a estrutura do ninho de una nova formiga saúva (Atta sp.) (Hymenoptera, Formicidae). Biológico 30, 96-97.
5. Andersen, A.N. (1982) Seed removal by ants in the malle of north western Victoria. In Ant-Plant Interactions in Australia. (R.C. Buckley, ed). pp. 31-43. The Haughe, Netherlands: Dr. Junk Publishers.
6. Andersen, A.N. (1990) The use of ant communities to evaluate change in Australian terrestrial ecosystems: a review and a recipe. Proc. Ecol. Soc. Aust. 16, 347-357.
7. Andersen, A.N. (1991) Responses of ground-foraging ant communities of three experimental fire regimes in a savanna forest of tropical Australia. Biotropica 23, 575-585.
8. Andersen, A.N. (1993) Ants as indicators of restoration success at a uranium mine in tropical Australia. Restor. Ecol. Sep. 93, 156-167.
9. Andersen, A.N. (1995) A classification of Australian ant communities, based on functional groups which parallel plant life-forms in relation to stress and disturbance. J. Biogeogr. 22, 15-29.
10. Andersen, A.N. (1997) Measuring invertebrate biodiversity surrogates of ant species richness in the Australian seasonal tropics. Mem. Mus. Victt. 56, 355-359.
11. Andersen, A. and McKaige, M.E. (1987) Ant communities at Rotamah Island, Victoria, with particular reference to disturbance and Rhytidoponera tasmaniensis. Proc. R. Soc. Vict. 99, 141-146.
12. Andersen, A.N. and Clay, R.E. (1996) The ant fauna of Danggali Conservation Park in semi-arid South Australia: a comparison with Wyperfield (Vic.) and Cape Arid (W.A.) National Parks Aust. J. Entom. 35, 289-295.
13. Andersen, A.N. and Patel, A.D. (1994) Meat ants as dominant members of Australian ant communities: an experimental test of their influence on the foraging success and forager abundance of other species. Oecologia 98, 15-24.
14. Andersen, A.N. and Sparling, G.P. (1997) Ants as indicators of restoration success: relationship with soil microbial biomass in the Australian seasonal tropics. Rest. Ecol. 7, 109-114.
15. Anderson, J.M. and Flanagan, P (1987) Biological processes regulating organic matter dynamics in tropical soils. In Dynamics of Soil Organic Matter in Tropical Ecosystems (T. Oades, G. Uheara and D. C. Coleman, eds.) pp. 97-125. Honolulu: NifTAL Project, Univ. of Hawaii.
16. Autori, M (1947) Combate a formiga saúva. Biológico 13, 196-199.
17. Baxter, P.F. and Hole, H. (1967) Ant (Formica cinerea) pedoturbation in a prairie soil. Soil Sci. Soc Am. Proc. 31, 425-428.
18. Beattie, A.J. and Culver, D.C. (1997) Effects of the mound of the ant Formica obscuripes on the sourronding soil. The Am. Mid. Nat. 97, 390-399.
19. Bestelmeyer, B.T. and Wiens, J.A. (1996) The effects of land use structure of ground foraging ant community in the Argentinean Chaco. Ecol. Applic. 6, 1225-1240.
20. Bolton, B (1994) Identification guide to the ant genera of the world. Cambridge, USA: Harvard University Press.
21. Breymeier, A. (1971) Productivity investigation of two types of meadows in the Vistula valley. Ekologia polska 19, 93-201.
22. Brian, M.V. (1978) Production Ecology of Ants and Termites. IBP 13, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
23. Briese, D.T. (1982) The effect of ants on the soil of a semi-arid saltbush habitat. Ins. Soc. 29, 375-382.
24. Brussaard, L., Behan-Pelletier, V., Bignell, D., Brown, V., Didden, W., Folgarait, P., Fragoso, C., Freckman, D., Gupta, V., Hattori, T., Hawksworth, D., Kopatek, C., Lavelle, P., Malloch, D., Rusek, J., Södestroöm, B., Tiedje, J. and Virginia, R. 1997 Biodiversity and ecosystem function in soil. Ambio. 26, 563-570.
25. Bucher, E.H. (1982) Chaco and Caatinga-South American Arid Savannas, Woodlands and Thickets. In Ecology of Tropical Savannas. (B. J. Huntley and B. H. Walker, eds). pp. 48 79. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
26. Carlson, S. R. and Whitford, W.G. (1991) Ant mound influence on vegetation and soils in a semiarid mountain ecosystem. Amer Midl. Nat. 126, 125-139.
27. Cerdá, X., Retana, J. and Cross, S. (1997) Thermal disruption of transitive hierarchies in Mediterranean ant communities. J. Anim. Ecol. 66, 363-374.
28. Cherret, J.M. (1989) Leaf-cutting Ants. Biogeographical and Ecological Studies. In Ecosystem of the world. Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystem. (H. Leith and M.J. Werger, eds.) pp. 473-488. New York: Elsevier.
29. Colwell, R.K. and Coddington, J.A. (1994) Estimating terrestrial biodiversity through extrapolation. Philos. Trans Roy. Soc. Lond., Series B 345, 101-118.
30. Couthino, L.M. (1984) Aspectos ecologicos da saúva no cerrado. A saúva, as queimadas e sua possivel relacão na ciclagem de nutrientes mineráis. Bolm. Zool. Univ. S. Paulo 8, 1-9.
31. Culver, D.C. and Beattie, A.J. (1983) Effects of ant mounds on soil chemistry and vegetation patterns in a Colorado Montane Meadow. Ecology 64, 485-492.
32. Czerwinski, Z., Jakubczyk, H. and Petal, J. (1996) The influence of ants of the genus Myrmica on the physico-chemical and microbiological properties of soil within the compass of ant hills in Strzeleckie Meadows. Polish J. Soil Sci. 3, 51-58.
33. Czerwinski, Z., Jakubczyk, H. and Petal, J. (1971) Influence of ant hills on the meadow soils. Pedobiologia 1, 277-285.
34. Dasmann, R.F. (1984) Environmental Conservation. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
35. Davidson, D.W. and McKey, D. (1993) The evolutionary ecology of symbiotic ant-plant relationships. J. Hyn Res. 2, 13-83.
36. Decaens, T., Lavelle, P., Jimenez-Jaen, J.J., Escobar, G. and Rippstein, G. (1994) Impact of land management on soil macrofauna in the Oriental Llanos of Colombia. Eur. J. Soil. Biol. 30, 157-168.
37. Denning, J.L., Hole, F.D. and Bousma, J. (1977) Effects of Formica cinerea on a wetland soil on West Blue Mound, Wisconsin. In Wetlands Ecology: Values and impacts (C.B. Dewitt and E. Soloway, eds.) pp. 276-287. Madison Univ. Wisconsin.
38. Díaz, M. (1991) Spatial patterns of granivores and nest abundance and nest site selection in agricultural landscapes of Central Spain. Ins. Soc. 38, 351-363.
39. Donnelly, D., and Giliomee, J.H. (1985) Community structure of epigaeic ants in a pine plantation and in newly burnt fynbos. J. Ent. Soc. Sth. Afr. 48, 259-265.
40. Dunlop, J.N. and Majer, J.D. (1985) A preliminary assesment of minesite rehabilitation in the pilbara iron ore province using ant communities as ecological indicators. Mulga Res. Cent. J. 8, 25-31.
41. Eschenbrenner, V. (1994) The influence of fungus-cultivating ants (Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Attini) on the morphology of andosols in Martinique. In Soil Micromorphology: studies in management and genesis (A.J. Ringrose-Voase and G.S. Humphreys, eds.) pp. 405-410. Amsterdam: Elseveier.
42. Farji-Brener, A.G. and Ruggiero, A. (1994) Leaf-cutting ants (Atta and Acromyrmex) inhabiting Argentina: patterns in species richness and geographical range sizes. J. Biogeog. 21, 391-399.
43. Farji-Brener, A.G. and Silva, J.F. (1995) Leaf-cutting ant nests and soil fertility in a well-drained savanna in Western Venezuela. Biotropica 27, 250-253.
44. Farji-Brener, A.G. and Margutti, L. (1997) Patterns of plant species in relation to Acromyrmex lobicornis nest-mounds on roadside vegetation in Northweat Patagonia. Int. J. Ecol. and Env. Sci. 23, 37-47.
45. Folgarait, P.J. (1996). Latitudinal variation in myrmecophytic Cecropia. Association for Tropical Biology and Ecological Society of America Combined Meeting. 10-14 August, Providence, Rhode Island. p. 143.
46. Folgarait, P.J., Gorosito, N, Benítez, C, Fernández, J. and Pizzio, R. (1996) La ecologia de Camponotus punctulatus en relación a campos con distintas historias de uso. Simposio de Controle Biológico. 9-14 June, Foz de Iguaçú, Brazil, p. 348.
47. Folgarait, P.J., Gorosito, N. and Zipeto, G. (1997a) Reduction of biodiversity by Camponotus punctulatus ants mediated by human disturbance. Association for Tropical Biology Annual Meeting. Symposium on Tropical diversity, origins, maintenance and conservation. June 15-20, San Jose, Costa Rica. p. 57.
48. Folgarait, P.J., D'Adamo, P. and Gilbert, L. (1997b). Organización de una comunidad de hormigas de la Reserva Natural de Otamendi. IV Congreso Argentino de Entomología. 8-12 March, Mar Del Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina, p. 203.
49. Folgarait, P.J., Perelman, S., Gorosito, N. and Pizzio, R. (1997c). Effect of Camponouts punctulatus ants on plant community composition and soil across land use histories. Ecological Society of America Annual Meeting. 10 14 August, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA. p. 88.
50. Fowler, H.G. and Claver, S. (1991) Leaf-cutter ant assemblies: effects of latitude, vegetation, and behaviour. In Ant-plant interactions (C.R. Huxley and D.F. Cutler, eds.) pp. 51-59. New York, Oxford University Press.
51. Friese, C.F. and Allen, M.F. (1993) The interaction of harvester ants and vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in patchy semi-arid environment: the effects of mound structure on fungal dispersion and establishment. Funct. Ecol. 7, 13-20.
52. Gallé, L. (1972) Study of ant-population in various grassland ecosystems. Acta biologica. Szeged 18, 159-164.
53. Gilot, C., Lavelle, P., Blanchart, E., Keli, J., Kouassi, P. and Guillaume, G. (1995) Biological activity of soil rubber plantations in Cote d'Ivoire. Acta Zool. Fenn. 196, 186-189.
54. Golley, F.B., and Gentry, J.B. (1964) Bioenergetics of the sourhern harvester and Pogonomyrmex badius. Ecology 45, 217-225.
55. Gotwald, W.H. (1986) The Beneficial Economic Role of Ants. In Economic Impact and Control of Social insects (S. B. Vinson, ed.). pp. 290-313. New York: Praeger Special Studies.
56. Groombridge, B. (1992) Global Biodiversity. Status of the Earth's Living Resources. London: Chapman and Hall.
57. Hacker, S.D. and Gaines, S.D. (1997) Some implications of direct positive interactions for community species diversity. Ecology 78, 1990-2003.
58. Haines, B.L. (1978) Element and energy flow through colonies of the leaf-cutting ant, Atta Colombica, in Panama. Biotropica 10, 270-277.
59. Hölldobler, B. and Wilson, E.O. (1990) The Ants. Cambridge, USA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
60. Horstman, K. (1974) Untersuchungen über den Nahrungserwerb der Waldameisen (Formica polyctena Forest.). Oecologia 15, 187-204.
61. Horvitz, C.C. and Schmeske, W. (1986) Ant-nest soil and seeding growth in a neotropical ant-dispersed herb. Oecologia 92, 288-290.
62. Humphreys, G.S. (1994) Bioturbation, biofabrics and the biomantle: an example from the Sydney Basin. In Soil micromorphology: studies in management and genesis (A.J. Ringrose-Voase and G.S. Humphreys, eds.). pp. 421-436. Developments in Soil Science 22. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
63. Jakubczyk, H., Czerwinski, Z. and Petal, J. (1972) Ants as agents of the soil habitat changes. Ekologia polska 20, 153-161.
64. Johnson, D.L. (1990) Biomantle evolution and the redistribution of earth materials and artifacts Soil Sci. 149, 84-102.
65. Jones, C.G., Lawton, J.H. and Shachak, M. (1997) Positive and negative effects of organisms as physical ecosystem engineers. Ecology 78, 1946-1957.
66. Jones, C.G., Lawton, J.H. and Shachak, M. (1994) Organisms as ecosystem engineers. Oikos 69, 373-386.
67. Jonkman, J.C.M. (1978) Nests of the leaf-cutting ant Atta vollenweideri as accelerators of succesion in pastures. Z. Ang. Ent. 86, 25-34.
68. Kajak, A., Breymeyer, A. and Petal, J. (1971) Productivity investigation of two types of meadows in the Vistula Valley. XI Predatory arthropods. Ekologia Polska 19, 223-233.
69. Kannowski, P.B. (1956) The ants of Ramser Country, North Dakota. Am Midl. Nat. 56, 168-185.
70. Keals, N. and Majer, J.D. (1991) The conservation status of ant communities along the Wubinperenjori corridor. In Nature Conservation: the role of corridors (D.A. Saunders and R.J. Hobbs, eds.) pp. 387-93. Surrey Beatty and Sons.
71. Kempf, W.W. (1964) A revision of the neotropical ants of the genus Chyphomyrmex, part I: group of striagus. Studia Entomologica 7, 45-71.
72. Killham, K. (1994) Soil Ecology, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
73. King, R.L. (1977) The plant ecology of ant-hills in calcareous grasslands: I: Patterns of species in relation to anthills in southern England. J. Ecol. 65, 235-256.
74. Kusnezov, N. (1957) Number of species of ants in faunae of different latitudes. Evolution 11, 298-299.
75. Lamont, B.B. (1995) Testing the effect of ecosystem composition structure on its functioning. Oikos 74, 283-295.
76. Lavelle, P. and Pashanasi, B. (1989) Soil macrofauna and land management in Peruvian Amazonia (Yurimaguas, Loreto). Pedobiologia 33, 283-291.
77. Lavelle, P. and Spain, A.V. (In press) Soil Ecology. London: Chapman and Hall.
78. Lavelle, P., Spain, A.V., Blanchart, E., Martin, A. and Martin S. (1992) the impact of soil fauna on the properties of soils in the humid tropics. In Myths and Science of soils in the tropics (P.A. Sanchez and R. Lal, eds.) pp. 157-185. Madison, Wisconsin: SSSA Special Publ.
79. Lavelle, P., Chauvel, A. and Fragoso, C. (1995) Faunal activity in acid soils. In Plant Soil Interactions at Low pH (R.A. Date et al., eds.) pp. 201-211. The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
80. Le Masne, G. and Bonavita-Cougourdan, A. (1972) Premiers results tsd'une irradiation prolongée au césium sur les populations de fourmis en Haute-Provence. Ekologia Polska 20, 129-144.
81. Levan, M.A. and Stone, E.L. (1983) Soil modifications by colonies of black meadows ants in a New York old field. Soil. Sci. Soc. Am. J. 47, 1192-1196.
82. Lobry de Bruyn, L.A. (1993) Ant composition and activity in naturally vegetated and farmland environments on contrasting soils at Kellerberrin, Western Australia. Soil Biol. Biochem. 25, 1043 56.
83. Lobry de Bruyn, L. A. and Conacher, A.J. (1990) The role of termites and ants in soil modification: a review. Aust. J. Soil Res. 28, 55-93.
84. Lobry de Bruyn, L.A. and Conacher, A.J. (1994) The effect of ant biopores on water infiltration in soils in undisturbed bushland and in farmland in a semi-arid environment. Pedobiologia 38, 193-207.
85. Lockaby, B.G. and Adams, J.C. (1985) Pedoturbation of a forest soil by fire ants. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 49, 220-223.
86. Longino, J.T. and Colwell, R.K. (1997). Biodiversity assesment using structured inventory: capturing the ant fauna of a tropical rainforest. Ecol. Applic. 4, 1263-1277.
87. Lugo, A.E., Farnworth, E.G., Pool, D., Jerez, P. and Kaufman, G. (1973) The impact of the leaf cutter and Atta colombica on the energy flow of a tropical wet forest. Ecology 54, 1292-1301.
88. MacKay, W.P. (1981) A comparison of the nest phenologies of three species of Pogonomyrmex harvester ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Psyche 88, 25-74.
89. Majer, J.D. (1977) Preliminary survey of the epigaeic invertebrate fauna with particular reference to ants, in areas of different land use at Dwellingup, Western Australia. For. Ecol. and Manag. 1, 321-334.
90. Majer J.D. (1983) Ants: bio-indicators of minesite rehabiliation, land-use and land conservation. Env. Manag. 7, 375-383.
91. Majer, J.D. (1984) The influence of ants on seeding operations in Northern Australian mined areas. Reclam. and Reveg. Resear 2, 299-313.
92. Majer, J.D. (1985) Recolonisation by ants of rehabilitated mineral sand mines on North Stradbroke island, Queensland, with particular reference to seed removal. Aust. J. Ecol. 10, 31-48.
93. Majer, J.D. (1992) Ant recolonisation of rehabilitated bauxite mines in Poços de caldas. Brazil, J. Trop. Ecol. 8, 97-108.
94. Majer, J.D. (1996) Ant recolonization of rehabilitated bauxite mines at Trombetas, Pará, Brazil. J. Trop. Ecol. 12, 257-273.
95. Majer, J.D. (1997) The use of pitfall traps for sampling ants -a critique. Mem. Mus. Vict. 56, 323-329.
96. Majer, J.D. and de Kock, A.E. (1992) Ant recolonization of rehabilitated mineral sand mines near Richards Bay, South Africa: an evaluation of progress with rehabilitation S. Afr. J. Sci. 88, 31-36.
97. Majer J.D. and Delabie, J.H.C. (1994) Comparison of the ant communities of annually inundated and terra firme forests at Trombetas in the Brazilian Amazon. Ins. Soc. 41, 343-359.
98. Majer, J.D. and Beeston, G. (1996) The biodiversity integrity index: an illustration using ants in Western Australia. Conserv. Biol. 10, 65-73.
99. Majer, J.D. Sartiori, M., Stone, R. and Perriman, W.S. (1982) Recolonization by ants and other invertebrates in rehabiliated mineral sand mines near Enebba, Western Australia. Recl. and Reveg. Res. 1, 63-81.
100. Majer, J.D., Walker, T.C. and Berlandier, F. (1987) The role of ants in degraded soils within Dryandra state forest. Mulga Res. Ctre. J. 9, 15-16.
101. Mandel, R.D. and Sorenson, C.J. (1982) The role of harvester ant (Pogonomyrmex occidentalis) in soil formation. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 46, 785-788.
102. McGinley, M.A., Dhillion, S.S. and Neumann, J.C. (1994) Environmental heterogeneity and seeding establishment: ant-plant-microbe interactions. Funct. Ecol. 8, 607-615.
103. McIveen, W.D. and Cole, H. (1976) Spore dispersal of Endogonacdeae by worms, ants, wasps, and birds. Canad. J. Bot. 54, 1486-1489.
104. Medina, E. and Silva, J.F. (1990) The savannas of northern southamerica: a steady regulated by water-fire interactions on a background of low nutrient availability. J. Biog. 17, 403-413.
105. Meffe, G.K., Carroll, C.R. and Contributors (1997) Principles of Conservation Biology. Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates.
106. Oliver, I., and Beattie, A.J. (1996) Designing a cost-effective invertebrate survey: a test of methods for rapid assesment of biodiversity. Ecol. Appl. 6, 594-607.
107. Olson, D. (1991) A comparison of the efficacy of litter sifting and pitfall traps for sampling leaf litter ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in a tropical wet forest, Costa Rica. Biotropica 23, 166-172.
108. Paton, T.R., Humphreys, G.S. and Mitchell, P.B. (1995) Soils: a new global view. New Haven: Yale University Press.
109. Petal, J. (1974) The effect of pasture management on ant population. Ekologia Polska 22, 679-692.
110. Petal, J. (1976) The effect of mineral fertilization on ant populations in meadows. Pol. Ecol. Stud. 2, 209-218.
111. Petal, J. (1978a) Adaptation of ants to industrial pollution. Memorabilia Zool. 29, 99-108.
112. Petal, J. (1978b) The role of ants in Ecosystems. In Production Ecology of Ants and Termites. (M.V. Brain, ed.). pp. 293-325. Cambridge, Uk: Cambridge Univ. Press.
113. Petal, J. (1980) Ant populations, their regulation and effect on soil in meadows. Ekologia Polska 28, 297-326.
114. Petal, J. (1991) Diversity of ant communities in peatbogs of various origin and period under management. Polish Ecol. Stud. 17, 249-265.
115. Petal, J. (1992) The role of ants in nutrient cycling in forest ecosystems. In Biology and Evolution of Social Insects (J. Billen, ed.) pp. 167-170. Leuven: Leuven University Press.
116. Petal, J. (1994) Reaction of ant communities to degradation of forest habitats in the Karkonosze Mountains. Memorabilia Zool. 48, 171-179.
117. Petal, J. and Kusinska, A. (1994) Fractional composition of organic matter in the soil of anthills and of the environment of meadows. Pedobiologia 38, 493-501.
118. Petal, J., Jakubczyk, H. and Wójcik, Z. (1970) L'influence des fourmis sur la modification des sols et des plantes dans le milieu des praires. In Methods of study in soil ecology. Proc. Paris Symposium (J. Phillipson. ed.) pp. 235-240 Paris: UNESCO.
119. Petal, J., Jakubczyk, H., Chmielewski, K. and Tatur, A (1975) Response of ants to environmental pollution. In Progress in Soil Zoology (J. Vabek, ed.) pp. 363-373. Prague: Czechoslovakia Academy of Sciences.
120. Petal, J., Nowak, E., Jakubczyk, H. and Czerwinski, Z. (1977) Effect of ants and earthworms on soil habitat modification. Ecol. Bull. 25, 501-503.
121. Petal, J., Chmielewski, K., Czepinska-Kaminska, D., Konecka-Betley, K. and Kulinska, D. (1992) Ant communities in relation to changes in some properties of hydrogenic soils differentially transformed. Ekologia Polska 40, 553-576.
122. Perfecto, I., and R. Snelling. (1995) Biodiversity and the transformation of the tropical agroecosystem: ants in coffee plantations. Ecol. Appl. 5, 1084-1097.
123. Pianka, E.R. (1988) Evolutionary Ecology. New York: Harper and Row.
124. Pisarski, B. (1978d) Comparison of various biomes. In Production Ecology of Ants and Termites. (M.V. Brian, ed.). pp. 325-332. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
125. Radford, B.J., Key, A.J., Robertson, L.N. and Thomas, G.A. (1995) Conservation tillage increases soil water storage, soil animal populations, grain yield, and response to fertiliser in the semi-arid tropics. Austr. J. Exp. Agric 35, 223-232.
126. Ricklefs, R.E. (1990) Ecology. New York: Freeman and Company.
127. Rogers, L.E. (1972) The ecological effects of the western harvester ant (Pogonomyrmex occidentalis) in the shortgrass plains ecosystem. USA/IBP Grassland Biome. Technical Report. pp. 206.
128. Romero, H. and Jaffe, K. (1989) A comparison of methods for sampling ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in savannas. Biotropica 21, 348-352.
129. Room, M.P. (1971) The relative distributions of ant species in Ghana's cocoa farms. J. An. Ecol. 40, 735-751.
130. Roth, D., Perfecto, I. and Rathcke, B. (1994) The effect of management system on ground foraging ant diversity in Costa Rica. Ecol. Appl. 4, 423-436.
131. Salem, M. and Hole, F. (1968) Ant (Formica exectoides) Pedoturbacion in a Forest Soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. 32, 563-567.
132. Samson, D.A., Rickart, E.A. and Gonzales, P.C. (1997) Ant diversity and abundance along an elevational gradient in the Phillippines. Biotropica 29, 349-363.
133. Sarmiento, G. (1984) The Ecology of Neotropical Savannas. Massachussets: Harvard Univ. Press.
134. Schumacher, A. and Whitford, W.G. (1974) The foraging ecology of two species of Chihuahuan desert ants: Formica perpilosa and Trachymyrmex smithi neomexicanus (Hymenoptera Formicidae). Ins. Soc. 21, 317-330.
135. Talbot, M. (1975) A list of the ants of the Edwin George Reserve, Livingston Country. Michigan. Great Lake Ent. 8, 245-246.
136. Torossian, C. and Causse, R. (1968) Effets des radiations gamma sur la fertlité et la longévité des colonies de Dolichoderus quadripunctatus. Compte rendu du Colloque "Isotopes and radiation in entomology". International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, pp. 155-164.
137. Van Pelt, A.F. (1956) The ecology of the ants of Welaka Reserve, Florida Am Midl. Nat. 56, 358-387.
138. Wang, D., Lowery, B., McSweeney, K. and Norman. J.M. (1996) Spatial and temporal patterns of ant burrow openings as affected by soil properties and agricultural practices. Pedobiologia 40, 201-211.
139. Weber, N.A. (1972) Gardening Ants, The Attines. Mem. Am. Philos. Soc. 92, 1-146.
140. Whitford, W.G., and Di Marco, R. (1995) Variability in soils and vegetation associated with harvester ant (Pogonomyrmex rugosus) nests on a Chihuahuan desert watershed. Boil. Fert. Soils 20, 169-173.
141. Whitford, W.G., Schaeffer, D. and Wisdom, W. (1986) Soil movement by desert ants. Southwest. Nat. 31, 273-274
142. Wiegert, R.G. and Evans, F.C. (1967) Investigations of secondary productivity in grasslands. In Secondary productivity in terrestrial ecosystems. (K. Petursewicz, ed.). pp. 499-518. Warszawa-Kraków: Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe.
143. Wiens, J.A. (1977) On Competition and variable environments. Am. Sci. 65, 590-597.
144. Wiken, E.B., Broersma, K. Lavkulich, L.M., and L. Farstad. (1976) Biosynthetic alteration in a British Columbia soil by ants (Formica Fusca). Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 40, 422-426.
145. Willard, J.R. (1973) Soil invertebrates: III. Collembola and minor insects: populations and biomass. Matador Project. Technical Report.
146. Williams, D.F. (1994) Exotic Ants Biology, Impact, and Control of Introduced Species. San Francisco: Westview Press.
147. Wilson, E.O. (1959) Some ecological characteristics of ants in New Guinea rain forests. Ecology 40, 437-447.
148. Wilson, E.O. (1975) Sociobiology: the new synthesis. Cambridgge, USA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
149. Wilson, E.O. and Taylor, R.W. (1967) The ants of Polynesia (Hymenoptera: Formicidea). Pacific Ins. Mon. 14, 109 pp.
150. Wilson, M.F. (1992) The ecology of seed dispersal. In Seeds: the ecology of regeneration in plant communities (M. Fenner, ed.) pp. 61-86. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
151. Woodell, S.R. (1984) Ant-hill vegetation in a Norfolk salt marsh. Oecologia 16, 221-225.
152. York, A. (1994) The long term effects of fire on forest ant communities: management implications for the conservation of biodiversity. Mem. Queensl. Mus. 36, 227-239.