Coordinated food systems and accountability mechanisms for food safety: A law and economics approach

Food and Drug Law Journal

Volumn 53, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 729-776

  Lyon, Jesse D ^a,b  

^a LLP   (United States)

^b GEORGE MASON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURE; CONFERENCE PAPER; FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION; FOOD INDUSTRY; FOOD SAFETY; GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICE; HUMAN; MARKETING;

FOOD HANDLING; FOOD POISONING; FOOD SUPPLY; HISTORY, 15TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 16TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 17TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 18TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HISTORY, ANCIENT; HISTORY, MEDIEVAL; HISTORY, MODERN 1601-; HUMANS; LIABILITY, LEGAL; MODELS, THEORETICAL; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0032419606     PISSN: 1064590X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (407)

1. See generally Neil D. Hamilton, Tending the Seeds: The Emergence of a New Agriculture in the United States, 1 DRAKE J. AGRIC. L. 7 (1996); Michael Boehlje & Lee F. Schrader, The Industrialization of Agriculture: Questions of Coordination, Emerging Issues in the Agricultural Marketplace, PURDUE UNIV. DEP'T OF AGRIC. ECON., Staff Paper 94-13 (1994).
2. See generally Neil D. Hamilton, Tending the Seeds: The Emergence of a New Agriculture in the United States, 1 DRAKE J. AGRIC. L. 7 (1996); Michael Boehlje & Lee F. Schrader, The Industrialization of Agriculture: Questions of Coordination, Emerging Issues in the Agricultural Marketplace, PURDUE UNIV. DEP'T OF AGRIC. ECON., Staff Paper 94-13 (1994).
3. Margie Russell, Improving the Safety Net, CHILTON'S FOOD ENG'G, July 1, 1994, at 51.
4. Id.; Charles E. Morris, The State of Food Manufacturing: Cautious Confidence Marks Manufacturing Outlook, CHILTON'S FOOD ENG'G, June 1, 1996, at 68 (noting that food manufacturers now fall short on supply chain management); Boehlje & Schrader, supra note 1, at 10 (citing Farmland Industries prediction that there will be fewer than forty pork brands nationwide, each with specific genetics and designated feed rations and hormone injections).
5. Id.; Charles E. Morris, The State of Food Manufacturing: Cautious Confidence Marks Manufacturing Outlook, CHILTON'S FOOD ENG'G, June 1, 1996, at 68 (noting that food manufacturers now fall short on supply chain management); Boehlje & Schrader, supra note 1, at 10 (citing Farmland Industries prediction that there will be fewer than forty pork brands nationwide, each with specific genetics and designated feed rations and hormone injections).
6. Neil D. Hamilton, State Regulation of Agricultural Production Contracts, 25 U. MEM. L. REV. 1051, 1055 (1995).
7. JOHN M. CONNOR ET AL., THE FOOD MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 178 (1985) (discussing three traditional types of vertical food industry diversification).
8. Cf. Henry H. Perritt, Jr., Unbundling Value in Electronic Information Products, 20 RUTGERS COMPUTER & TECH. L.J. 415, 439 n.62 (1994) (noting that when non-vertically integrated producers use copyrighted works, they incur additional costs in royalty payments to copyright owners or in potential liability for infringement).
9. Christopher R. Kelley, Agricultural Production Contracts: Drafting Considerations, 18 HAMLINE L. REV. 397, 397 (1995) (explaining that production contracts "typically contain provisions often covering the [agricultural product's] entire production process, often specifying planting practices, husbandry practices, and other matters intended to ensure delivery of a certain quality and quantity of [the product] to the purchaser").
10. See Hamilton, supra note 4, at 1056; Russell, supra note 2, at 51.
11. See Hamilton, supra note 4, at 1056; Russell, supra note 2, at 51.
12. Russell, supra note 2, at 51; See also John Case, The Gamble, INC., July 1991, at 48, 50 (reviewing Coleman Natural Meats' marketing strategy and "unique methods of tracking cattle").
13. Russell, supra note 2, at 51; See also John Case, The Gamble, INC., July 1991, at 48, 50 (reviewing Coleman Natural Meats' marketing strategy and "unique methods of tracking cattle").
14. Thomas N. Urban, Agricultural Industrialization: It's Inevitable, CHOICES, Fourth Quarter 1991, at 4 (discussing Better-Life Grains label distinguishing cereals produced with identity-preserved, pesticide-free grain products).
15. Morris, supra note 3, at 68 (reporting results of 1996 survey of food manufacturing executives).
16. Kristen Allen, A View of Agriculture's Future Through a Wide-Angle Lens, CHOICES, Second Quarter 1993, at 34 (noting main reason for comprehensive integration is to enable more uniformity and predictability in consumer foods); see also John D. Lawrence, et al., Vertical Coordination in the US Pork Industry: Status, Motivations, and Expectations, 13 AGRIBUSINESS 21 (1997).
17. Kristen Allen, A View of Agriculture's Future Through a Wide-Angle Lens, CHOICES, Second Quarter 1993, at 34 (noting main reason for comprehensive integration is to enable more uniformity and predictability in consumer foods); see also John D. Lawrence, et al., Vertical Coordination in the US Pork Industry: Status, Motivations, and Expectations, 13 AGRIBUSINESS 21 (1997).
18. David A. Kessler, Remarks by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, 50 FOOD & DRUG L.J. 327, 332 ("Perhaps [FDA's] most important initiative in foods is apply HACCP to food safety . . . the agency will work closely with the food industry to extend HACCP, as appropriate, to [commodities other than seafood]"); see also Development of Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points for the Food Industry, 59 Fed. Reg. 39,888 (Aug. 4, 1994) (advanced notice of proposed HACCP rulemaking).
19. David A. Kessler, Remarks by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, 50 FOOD & DRUG L.J. 327, 332 ("Perhaps [FDA's] most important initiative in foods is apply HACCP to food safety . . . the agency will work closely with the food industry to extend HACCP, as appropriate, to [commodities other than seafood]"); see also Development of Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points for the Food Industry, 59 Fed. Reg. 39,888 (Aug. 4, 1994) (advanced notice of proposed HACCP rulemaking).
20. Margie Russell, HACCP: What's the Hang-Up?, CHILTON'S FOOD ENG'G, Dec. 1, 1995 at 48.
21. Id.
22. See Russell, supra note 2, at 51 (noting Coleman Natural Meats' HACCP program, "includes an electronic system that tracks an animal from birth to the time of slaughter . . . allow[ing] the company to track meat from the retailer back to its source, if necessary"); Boehlje & Schrader, supra note 1, at 21-22.
23. See Russell, supra note 2, at 51 (noting Coleman Natural Meats' HACCP program, "includes an electronic system that tracks an animal from birth to the time of slaughter . . . allow[ing] the company to track meat from the retailer back to its source, if necessary"); Boehlje & Schrader, supra note 1, at 21-22.
24. See Catherine E. Adams, ISO 9000 and HACCP Systems, 49 FOOD & DRUG L.J. 603, 603 (1994) (discussing potential for united food system that manages "the design, manufacture, storage, and distribution of safe food products intended to satisfy the customer"). But see Neil D. Hamilton, Agriculture Without Farmers? Is Industrialization Restructuring American Food Production and Threatening the Future of Sustainable Agriculture?, 14 N. ILL. U. L. REV. 613, 620 (1994) (suggesting that while consumers express concern for safety and nutrition, buying habits belie an understanding and commitment to it).
25. See Catherine E. Adams, ISO 9000 and HACCP Systems, 49 FOOD & DRUG L.J. 603, 603 (1994) (discussing potential for united food system that manages "the design, manufacture, storage, and distribution of safe food products intended to satisfy the customer"). But see Neil D. Hamilton, Agriculture Without Farmers? Is Industrialization Restructuring American Food Production and Threatening the Future of Sustainable Agriculture?, 14 N. ILL. U. L. REV. 613, 620 (1994) (suggesting that while consumers express concern for safety and nutrition, buying habits belie an understanding and commitment to it).
26. Hamilton, supra note 4, at 1061.
27. See Russell, supra note 2 (discussing extension of proactive food safety practices to "second tier" (agricultural production)).
28. For example, integration by a dominant food manufacturer desiring raw agricultural products produced under specified conditions might limit competition among input suppliers of products, such as seeds and farm chemicals, in a confined region. Cf. O.E. Williamson, The Vertical Integration of Production: Market Failure Considerations, 61 AMER. ECON. REV. 112 (1971) (discussing impact of restricted competition in vertical markets).
29. John Cady, FDA Reform: The Need for a Sound Science-Based Approach, 51 FOOD & DRUG L.J. 401, 411 (discussing HACCP and FDA's relationship with food industry).
30. Hamilton, supra note 1, at 7 n.1.
31. Cf. Adams, supra note 17 (noting that food safety efforts satisfy consumer demand); Jim Chen, The American Ideology, 48 VAND. L. REV. 809, 877 (arguing that legal apparatus erected during ascendancy of U.S. industrial agriculture will wither away and consumers will no longer be vulnerable to political impulses of narrow agrarian interest groups). But see Pat Roberts, Food Safety Reforms and Production Agriculture, 3 KAN. J.L. & PUB. POL'Y 148 (1993) (discussing traditional conflicts between industry and consumer welfare groups).
32. Cf. Adams, supra note 17 (noting that food safety efforts satisfy consumer demand); Jim Chen, The American Ideology, 48 VAND. L. REV. 809, 877 (arguing that legal apparatus erected during ascendancy of U.S. industrial agriculture will wither away and consumers will no longer be vulnerable to political impulses of narrow agrarian interest groups). But see Pat Roberts, Food Safety Reforms and Production Agriculture, 3 KAN. J.L. & PUB. POL'Y 148 (1993) (discussing traditional conflicts between industry and consumer welfare groups).
33. Cf. Adams, supra note 17 (noting that food safety efforts satisfy consumer demand); Jim Chen, The American Ideology, 48 VAND. L. REV. 809, 877 (arguing that legal apparatus erected during ascendancy of U.S. industrial agriculture will wither away and consumers will no longer be vulnerable to political impulses of narrow agrarian interest groups). But see Pat Roberts, Food Safety Reforms and Production Agriculture, 3 KAN. J.L. & PUB. POL'Y 148 (1993) (discussing traditional conflicts between industry and consumer welfare groups).
34. See Cady, supra note 21, at 411.
35. See Charles E. Morris, Food Regulation: How Much Does It Cost?, CHILTON'S FOOD ENG'G, Nov. 1, 1994, at 73; G.J. Kushner & M.J. Hahn, The Hazards of a Mandatory HACCP Program, 55 FOOD PROCESSING 73 (1994).
36. See Charles E. Morris, Food Regulation: How Much Does It Cost?, CHILTON'S FOOD ENG'G, Nov. 1, 1994, at 73; G.J. Kushner & M.J. Hahn, The Hazards of a Mandatory HACCP Program, 55 FOOD PROCESSING 73 (1994).
37. See A. Barkema & M. Drabenstott. The Many Paths of Vertical Coordination: Structural Implications for the US Food System, Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, II AGRIBUSINESS 1995 483 (1995) (explaining that shift to more tightly integrated market structure renders traditional food policies obsolete).
38. Hamilton, supra note 4, at 1056.
39. For a concise explanation of the economic theory of comparative law, see Thomas S. Ulen, The Comparative Law and Economics of Federalism 1-8 (1996) (unpublished manuscript)(on file with author).
40. See BRUCE E. MOON, THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF BASIC HUMAN NEEDS 5-19 (1991).
41. ADAM SMITH, AN INQUIRY INTO THE NATURE AND CAUSES OFTHE WEALTH OF NATIONS 82 (R.H. Campbell & A.S. Skinner eds. 1976).
42. See MOON, supra note 29, at 7-9.
43. Id. at 8; Christopher Bliss & Nicholas Stern, Productivity, Wages, and Nutrition, 5 J. DEV. ECON. 331 (1978).
44. See MOON, supra note 29, at 7, 9; JOHN RAWLS, THE THEORY OF JUSTICE 274-84, 302-03 (1971).
45. See MOON, supra note 29, at 7, 9; JOHN RAWLS, THE THEORY OF JUSTICE 274-84, 302-03 (1971).
46. RAWLS, supra note 33, at 277.
47. Peter Barton Hutt & Peter Barton Hutt II, A History of Government Regulation of Adulteration and Misbranding of Food, 39 FOOD DRUG COSM. L.J. 2, 3 (1984).
48. See Ferdinand F. Stone, Liability for Damage Caused by Things, XI INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF COMPARATIVE LAW (TORTS) 3 (1993) (noting that development of product liability concepts has been shaped by whether economy is agrarian or industrial).
49. See Editorial, Uncertainties of Food Safety, WASH. POST, Aug. 30, 1997, at A26.
50. See Michael R. Taylor, Preparing America's Safety System for the Twenty-First Century - Who is Responsible for What When It Comes to Meeting the Food Safety Challenges of the Consumer-Driven Global Economy? 52 FOOD & DRUG L.J. 13 (1997).
51. SMITH, supra note 30 and accompanying text.
52. UGO MATTEI, COMPARATIVE LAW AND ECONOMICS 1-2 (1997).
53. See Ulen, supra note 28, at 1-8.
54. MATTEI, supra note 40, at 27.
55. Id. at 28.
56. See CONNOR, supra note 5, at 23.
57. See id. at 36-40.
58. Stone, supra note 36, at 3.
59. Steven Shavell, Liability for Harm Versus Regulation of Safety, 8 J. LEG. STUD. 357, 359 (1984).
60. See CONNOR, supra note 5, at 23-26.
61. See RAWLS, supra note 33, at 136-42.
62. Shavell, supra note 47, at 363.
63. See RICHARD A. POSNER, ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF LAW 113-17 (4th ed. 1992).
64. KENNETH L. CASAVANT & CRAIG L. INFANGER, ECONOMICS AND AGRICULTURAL MANAGEMENT 170 (1984).
65. See Shavell, supra note 47, at 360.
66. CONNOR, supra note 5, at 35.
67. See id. at 34-36.
68. Ulen, supra note 28, at 8.
69. F. Leslie Hart, A History of the Adulteration of Food Before 1906, 7 FOOD DRUG COSM. L.J. 5, 6 (1952).
70. Id. at 5.
71. Hutt & Hutt, supra note 35, at 6.
72. Hart, supra note 57, at 7.
73. Id.
74. Id. at 5.
75. Peter Barton Hutt, Government Regulation of the Integrity of the Food Supply, 4 ANN. REV. NUTRITION 1 (1984), reprinted in PETER BARTON HUTT & RICHARD A. MERRILL, FOOD AND DRUG LAW 1-2 (2d ed. 1991).
76. Peter Barton Hutt, Government Regulation of the Integrity of the Food Supply, 4 ANN. REV. NUTRITION 1 (1984), reprinted in PETER BARTON HUTT & RICHARD A. MERRILL, FOOD AND DRUG LAW 1-2 (2d ed. 1991).
77. Leviticus 19:19.
78. Deuteronomy 25:15.
79. Id. at 28:30-31.
80. Stone, supra note 36, at 3.
81. See FRANCESCO PARISI, LIABILITY FOR NEGLIGENCE AND JUDICIAL DISCRETION 33-34 (2d ed. 1992).
82. Hart, supra note 57, at 7 (quoting THE INSTITUTES OF CHOU) [hereinafter CHOU].
83. See RALPH H. FOLSOM ET AL., LAW AND POLITICS IN THL PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA IN A NUTSHELL 13 (1992).
84. Hart, supra note 57, at 7 (quoting CHOU, supra note 69).
85. Hutt & Hutt, supra note 35, at 5.
86. Id. at 8.
87. Id.
88. Id.
89. See id. at 7.
90. See id. at 8 and accompanying text.
91. DAVID HACKETT FISCHER, THE GREAT WAVE: PRICE REVOLUTIONS AND THE RHYTHM OF HISTORY app. at 261, fig.5.3 (1996).
92. Id. at 261.
93. H.J. BERMAN, LAW AND REVOLUTION 335 (1993).
94. CONNOR, supra note 5, at 44.
95. Id. at 41.
96. Bill Grierson, Food Safety Through the Ages, 9 PRIORITIES (1997).
97. Hart, supra note 57, at 5,7.
98. See CHARLES O. SMITH, PRODUCTS LIABILITY 12 (1981).
99. BERMAN, supra note 80, at 334.
100. Gregory Clark, The Cost of Capital and Medieval Agricultural Technique 25 EXPLORATIONS IN ECON. HIST. 265, 292 (1988).
101. Id. at 300.
102. Id.
103. SMITH, supra note 85, at 12.
104. FISCHER, supra note 78, at 22.
105. Id. at 23.
106. Id. at 36.
107. Hart, supra note 57, at 8.
108. BERMAN, supra note 80, at 296.
109. Id. at 346.
110. Id. at 339.
111. Id. at 346-47.
112. Id. at 339.
113. Id. at 347.
114. Id. at 344.
115. Id. at 350.
116. Hutt & Hutt, supra note 35, at 26.
117. Id. at 27.
118. Hart, supra note 57, at 8.
119. Hutt & Hutt, supra note 35, at 26.
120. Id. at 19.
121. Id.
122. Hart, supra note 35, at 10 (reporting that most rigorous punishment was in Teutonic States, where saffron adulterer was burnt at stake by fire of his own saffron).
123. J.M. KELLY, A SHORT HISTORY OF WESTERN LEGAL THEORY 261 (1992).
124. FISCHER, supra note 78, at 35.
125. Hart, supra note 35, at 11.
126. See FISCHER, supra note 78, at 104.
127. CONNOR, supra note 5, at 44 ("Processing by farmers, merchant-importers, and consuming households was increasingly transferred to manufacturers.").
128. Id.
129. HUTT & MERRILL, supra note 63, at 6-7.
130. KELLY, supra note 110, at 303.
131. See id. at 186-89.
132. Stone, supra note 36, at 4.
133. KELLY, supra note 110, at 208.
134. Thus interventions and reforms which to a late twentieth-century eye seem to have been inadequate or scandalously delayed (if they were made at all), such as . . . reform of the landholding system which made the failure of a single crop (as in Ireland with the potato) the occasion of a devastating famine, or even timely measures to rescue a starving and diseased population, were resisted . . . from the conviction that the state had no business to interfere in any . . . contract. Id. at 305-06 (emphasis added).
135. Hutt & Hutt, supra note 35, at 22.
136. SMITH, supra note 85, at 3.
137. KONRAD ZWEIGERT & HEIN KOTZ, AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE LAW 497 (2d ed. 1992).
138. See Witterbottom v. Wright, 152 Eng. Rep. 402 (1842) (explaining distinction between negligent omission of contractual duty and affirmative negligent act outside of contractual relationship).
139. See SMITH, supra note 85, at 3.
140. C. civ. art. 1382-83 (France); see also B. NICHOLAS, THE FRENCH LAW OF CONTRACT 50 (Oxford 1992).
141. C. civ. art. 1382-83 (France); see also B. NICHOLAS, THE FRENCH LAW OF CONTRACT 50 (Oxford 1992).
142. Hart, supra note 57, at 15 (referring to public clamor against food adulteration in late 1700's and early 1800's).
143. See SMITH, supra note 85, at 3.
144. Hart, supra note 57, at 11.
145. Hutt & Hutt, supra note 35, at 17-18.
146. Id. at 18.
147. Id. at 19. Cf. Hart, supra note 57, at 13 (noting enactments of law for purpose of generating revenue in addition to controlling adulteration).
148. FISCHER, supra note 78, at 126.
149. Id. at 126.
150. Clark, supra note 87, at 292.
151. CONNOR, supra note 5, at 44.
152. Id. at 42.
153. See id. at 42-43.
154. Id. at 44.
155. Id.
156. Escola v. Coca-Cola Bottling Co. of Fresno, 150 P.2d 436, 467 (Cal. 1944) (Traynor, J., concurring).
157. SMITH, supra note 85, at 3 (citing D. L. Rados, Product Liability: Tougher Ground Rules. HARV. BUS. REV., July-Aug. 1969, at 144-152).
158. SMITH, supra note 85, at 3 (citing D. L. Rados, Product Liability: Tougher Ground Rules. HARV. BUS. REV., July-Aug. 1969, at 144-152).
159. Escola, 150 P.2d at 467 (Traynor, J. concurring).
160. CONNOR, supra note 15, at 44.
161. Hutt & Hutt, supra note 35, at 22 (citing LORD COKE, INSTITUTES ch. 54, 261-63 (1641)).
162. Hutt & Hutt, supra note 35, at 22 (citing LORD COKE, INSTITUTES ch. 54, 261-63 (1641)).
163. See id at 34; Hart, supra note 57, at 13; Grierson, supra note 83.
164. See id at 34; Hart, supra note 57, at 13; Grierson, supra note 83.
165. Hart, supra note 57, at 20.
166. Hutt & Hutt, supra note 35, at 34.
167. Hart, supra note 57, at 13.
168. Pub. L. No, 59-384, 34 Stat. 768 (codified at 21 U.S.C §§ 1-15 (1934)) (repealed in 1938 by 21 U.S.C. § 39(a)).
169. Woodrow Wilson, Inaugural Address (Mar. 4, 1913), reprinted in 27 PAPERS OF WOODROW WILSON 148, 151 (Arthur S. Link ed., 1978).
170. Linn v. Radio Ctr. Delicatessen, Inc., 9 N.Y.S. 110, 112 (N.Y. Mun. Ct. 1959) (disallowing disclaimer in direct food pastry sales where consumer sustained injury after biting on tack).
171. BRUCE L. BENSON, THE ENTERPRISE OF THE LAW 13 (1990).
172. See Peter Barton Hutt, Criminal Prosecution for Adulteration and Misbranding of Food at Common Law, 15 FOOD DRUG COSM. L.J. 382, 397 (1960) ("the nature of the danger to the public [from adulterated food] required criminal liability").
173. See Hutt & Hutt, supra note 35, at 49 ("As a result of the establishment of the Department of Agriculture in 1862, there already existed an agency in the federal government to focus on food adulteration . . . From its beginning, therefore, the Department included a Division of Chemistry that was to determine the future course of national protection against food adulteration in the United States.").
174. SMITH, supra note 85, at 3.
175. 158 6 N.Y. 397 (1852).
176. See SMITH, supra note 85, at 3.
177. See Neiman v. Channellene Oil & Mfg. Co., 127 N.W. 394 (Minn. 1910); Mazzeti v. Armour & Co., 135 P. 633 (Wash. 1913).
178. Mazzeti, 135 P. at 636.
179. See Donoghue v. Stevenson, 1932 App. Cas. 562 (appeal taken from Scotland).
180. Stone, supra note 36, at 74 (citing Cass., 25 may 1964, n.1270, Foro It. 1965, 1, 2098).
181. Id. at 72.
182. Escola, 150 P.2d at 436 (Traynor, J. concurring).
183. Id. at 441.
184. 45 So. 2d 671 (en banc).
185. Id. at 672.
186. Minpo [Civil code], art. 709 (1896).
187. Hiroshi Sarumida, United States and Japan: Alternative Approaches To Create Incentives for Product Safety, 29 CORNELL INT'L L.J. 79, 107-08 (1996).
188. Id. at 108 (citing Kubota, 866 HANJI 56 (Fukoka Dist. Court, Oct. 5, 1977)).
189. Id. at 107 n. 128 (citing Kubota, supra note 171).
190. Id. (citing 725 HANJI 19 (Gifu Dist. Ct., Dec. 27, 1973)).
191. See NICHOLAS, supra note 127, at 50.
192. Id. at 51 (citing Poitiers, Dec. 12, 1970, Gaz, Pal. 1971, 264).
193. Id. at 51-53.
194. Id.
195. Id. at 52.
196. Id. at 53-54 (citing JCP 1980, II, 19422).
197. Id. at 56; see supra note 174 and accompanying text.
198. Hartwin Bunger, Compensating Harm to the Defective Product Itself - A Comparative Analysis of American and German Products Liability Law, 66 TUL. L. REV. 1179, 1226 (1992) (citing Gesetzüber die Haftung fur fehlerhafte Produkte (Produkthaftungsgesetz), v.1989 Bundesgestzblatt (BGBI S.2198)).
199. Id. at 1266 (citing Gesetzüber, supra note 181).
200. Escola, 150 P.2d at 465 (Traynor, J. concurring) (citing Klein v. Duchess Sandwich Co., Ltd., 93 P.2d 799 (Cal. 1939)).
201. Sec Stone, supra note 36, at 77 n.701.
202. Food and agricultural production accounts for nearly ten percent of Denmark's gross domestic product, and employs about five percent of its total work force. FOREIGN AGRIC, SERVICE, U.S. DEP'T AGRIC., FOREIGN AGRICULTURE 38 (1992).
203. See Russell, supra note 2, at 51 (noting Coleman Natural Meats' HACCP program, which "includes an electronic system that tracks an animal from birth to the time of slaughter . . . allow[ing] the company to track meat from the retailer back to its source, if necessary"); Boehlje & Schrader, supra note 1, at 21-22.
204. See Russell, supra note 2, at 51 (noting Coleman Natural Meats' HACCP program, which "includes an electronic system that tracks an animal from birth to the time of slaughter . . . allow[ing] the company to track meat from the retailer back to its source, if necessary"); Boehlje & Schrader, supra note 1, at 21-22.
205. W. DAVID SLAWSON, THE NEW INFLATION 51 (1981).
206. Id.
207. FISCHER, supra note 78, at 203.
208. Hamilton, supra note 4, at 1061.
209. See Catherine E. Adams, supra note 17, at 603 (discussing potential for united food system that manages "design, manufacture, storage, and distribution of safe food products intended to satisfy the customer."). But see Hamilton, supra note 17, at 620 (suggesting that while consumers express concern for safety and nutrition, their buying habits belie understanding of issues and commitment to it).
210. See Catherine E. Adams, supra note 17, at 603 (discussing potential for united food system that manages "design, manufacture, storage, and distribution of safe food products intended to satisfy the customer."). But see Hamilton, supra note 17, at 620 (suggesting that while consumers express concern for safety and nutrition, their buying habits belie understanding of issues and commitment to it).
211. Taylor, supra note 38, at 14.
212. Id. at 14 n.5 (citing JOHN M. ANTLE, CHOICE AND EFFICIENCY IN FOOD SAFETY POLICY (1995)).
213. Jean Buzby & Tanya Roberts, Microbial Foodborne Illness: The Costs of Being Sick and the Benefits of New Prevention Policy, CHOICES, First Quarter 1996, at 14, 15.
214. Alan Turner, EU Food Law Under Review, FOOD MANUFACTURE, Sept. 1997, at 52.
215. Theodore C. Cronk, The Historic Evolution of HACCP: Better Questions, Safer Foods, 49 FOOD & DRUG L.J. 485, 491 (1994).
216. See Shavell, supra note 47, at 360.
217. See id. at 359-60, 364.
218. Harold Dernsetz, The Exchange and Enforcement of Property Rights, in HENRY G. MANNE THE ECONOMICS OF LEGAL RELATIONSHIPS 362, 374 (1975) (discussing preparation-method labeling on canned tuna).
219. Id.
220. POSNER, supra note 51, at 373.
221. M.L. Hayenga et al., U.S. Dep't, of Agric., Vertical Coordination in Hog Production, Report to Packers & Stockyards Administration (1995).
222. Steve W. Martinez & AI Reed, economic Research Service, U.S. Dep't. of Agric, From Farmers to Consumers; Vertical Coordination in the Food Industry, AGRIC. INFP. BULL., 1996, at 5 (No. 720).
223. Id.
224. Percent of total farm production that is vertically coordinated is calculated as the share of total farm receipts in the industry that are generated by food manufacturers' production and marketing contracts and ownership integration. Food & Consumer Economics Division, Economic Research Service, U.S. Dep't. of Agric., Food Marketing Review, 1994-1995, AGRIC. ECON. REPORT. No. 743 (Sept. 1996); Martinez & Reed, Vertical Coordination in the Food Industry, supra note 203, at 5.
225. Percent of total farm production that is vertically coordinated is calculated as the share of total farm receipts in the industry that are generated by food manufacturers' production and marketing contracts and ownership integration. Food & Consumer Economics Division, Economic Research Service, U.S. Dep't. of Agric., Food Marketing Review, 1994-1995, AGRIC. ECON. REPORT. No. 743 (Sept. 1996); Martinez & Reed, Vertical Coordination in the Food Industry, supra note 203, at 5.
226. Peter J. Barry, Industrialization of U.S. Agriculture: Policy. Research, and Education Needs, AGRIC. & RES. ECON. REV., April 1995, at 129, 130.
227. Id. at 130.
228. Id.
229. Id.
230. Id.
231. Id.
232. Id.
233. Id.
234. Id. at 132 (quoting Kate Clancy, The Industrialization of Agriculture: A Symposium, Council on Food, Agricultural, and Resource Economics (July 1994)); see infra discussion in Part II.C.1.
235. William Soucie, Efficient Consumer Response Meets the Industrialization of Agriculture, 13 AGRIBUSINESS 349, 350 (1997); P. Lynn Kennedy et al., Perspectives on Evaluating Competitiveness in Agribusiness Industries, 13 AGRIBUSINESS 385, 387 (1997).
236. William Soucie, Efficient Consumer Response Meets the Industrialization of Agriculture, 13 AGRIBUSINESS 349, 350 (1997); P. Lynn Kennedy et al., Perspectives on Evaluating Competitiveness in Agribusiness Industries, 13 AGRIBUSINESS 385, 387 (1997).
237. Lee F. Schrader & Michael Boehlje, PURDUE UNIV. DEP'T. OF AGRIC. ECON., Cooperative Coordination in the Hog-Pork System: Examples from Europe and the U.S., Staff Paper 96-21, Sept. 4, 1996, at 3.
238. See David A. Hennessy, Information Asymmetry as a Reason for Food industry Vertical Integration, 78 AM. J. AGRIC. ECON. 1034 (1996).
239. Id. at 1037.
240. Id. at 1036.
241. Id. at 1037.
242. Id. at 1037 (quoting J.A. Caswell et al., Opportunities to Market Food Safety, in L.P. SCHERTZ & L.M. DAFT, FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL MARKETS: THE QUIET REVOLUTION 229, 236 (1994)).
243. Id. at 1036, 1041.
244. See Soucie, supra note 215, at 351.
245. Azzeddine Azzam, Testing the Monopsony-Inefficiency Incentive for Backward Integration, 78 AM. J. AGRIC. ECON. 585, 589 (1996).
246. See generally Catherine Durham et al., Food Processing Industries, in PURDUE UNIV. COOP. EXTENSION SERV., FOOD SYSTEM 21: GEARING UP FOR THE NEW MILLENNIUM 185, ch. 8 at 191-95 (1997). From 1962 to 1972 and 1972 to 1982, "food processing plant numbers declined by . . . over 20% in each 10-year period . . . . [But] from 1982 to 1992, the trend slowed to less than 7 percent." Id. at 191.
247. Id. at 195.
248. Id.
249. Kennedy, supra note 215, at 386-87.
250. See, e.g., Frances Antonovitz et al, Vertical Integration Incentives in Meat Product Markets, UNIV. MINN. DEP'T. OF APPLIED ECONOMICS, Staff Paper P96-13 (Aug. 1996).
251. Patricia Aust, MICH. ST. UNIV. DEP'T. AGRIC. ECON., An Institutional Analysis of Vertical Coordination Verses Vertical Integration; The Case of the US Broiler Industry, Staff Paper 97-24 (June 1997).
252. See Lawrence et al., supra note 12, at 21.
253. Jill E. Hobbs, Transaction Costs and Slaughter Cattle Procurement: Processors' Selection of Supply Channels, 12 AGRIBUSINESS 509, 510-12 (1996).
254. Kaouthar Lajili et al., Farmers' Preferences for Crop Contracts, 22 J. AGRIC, & RES. ECON. 264 (1997).
255. Steve Martinez et al., Changing Pork Business Affects Pork Prices and Quality, FOODREVIEW, May-Aug. 1997, at 18.
256. Earnings Up 70% for Smithfield Foods, RICHMOND TIMES-DISPATCH (Va.), Nov. 13, 1997, at B12.
257. Cattle Feeders Group to Meet, AUSTIN AM.-STATESMAN (Tex.), Nov. 15 1997 at D2.
258. Id.
259. News in a Minute, FOOD INSTITUTE REPORT, July 14, 1997.
260. Id.
261. Id.
262. Schrader & Boehlje, supra note 216, at 19.
263. Id.
264. Id.
265. News in a Minute, supra note 238.
266. Food & Drug Admin., Dep't. of Agric., Envtl. Protection Agency, & Ctrs. for Disease Control and Prevention, Food Safety from Farm to Table: A National Food Safety Initiative (visited Oct 1, 1998) 〈http:// www.cdc.gov/ncidod/foodsafe/report.htm〉 (joint report to the President); see supra discussion in Part II.D.
267. Braum's Ice Cream Col.: A Different Kind of Dairy Company, DAIRY FOODS, Jan. 1. 1997, at 49.
268. Id.
269. One food quality executive defines safe food as having "no physical, chemical or microbiological hazards as part of its make up," Russell, supra note 2.
270. Ctrs. for Disease Control & Prevention, Surveillance for Foudborne-Disease Outbreaks - United States, 1988-1992, 45 CDC SURVEILLANCE SUMMARIES 1-2 (Oct. 25, 1996) (No. 22-5).
271. Id. at 3.
272. Id.
273. Id. at 31-35; Ctrs. for Disease Control & Prevention, Foodborne-Disease Outbreaks, 5-Year Summary, 1983-1987, 39 CDC SURVEILLANCE SUMMARIES 25-29 (1992) (No, SS-1) [hereinafter CDC 1983-87 Summary].
274. State and local health departments' relative commitment to surveillance of foodborne disease, however, admittedly affects the quality of CDC data, CDC 1983-1987 Summary, supra note 252, at 1-2.
275. Jean C. Buzby & Tanya Roberts, ERS updates U.S. Foodborne Disease Costs for Seven Pathogens, FOODREVIEW, Sept.-Dec. 1996, at 20.
276. Audrey Hingley, Rallying the Troops to Fight Food-Some Illness, FDA CONSUMER, Nov.-Dec. 1997, at 9.
277. See Julie A, Caswell & Helen H. Jensen, Food Safety and Nutrition Policy, (visited Jan, 16, 1998) 〈http://ianrwww.unl.edu/farmbill/foodsafe.htm〉(edited by Jean Kinsey & Ron Knutson).
278. Christopher Drew & Pam Belluck, Deadly Bacteria a New Threat to Fruit and Produce in the U.S., N.Y. TIMES, Jan. 4, 1998; Pam Belluck & Christopher Drew, From Farm in California to Outbreak of Food Poisoning in the East, N.Y. TIMES, Jan, 5, 1998; Gina Kolata, Detective Work and Science Reveal a New Lethal Bacteria, N.Y. TIMES, Jan, 6, 1998.
279. Christopher Drew & Pam Belluck, Deadly Bacteria a New Threat to Fruit and Produce in the U.S., N.Y. TIMES, Jan. 4, 1998; Pam Belluck & Christopher Drew, From Farm in California to Outbreak of Food Poisoning in the East, N.Y. TIMES, Jan, 5, 1998; Gina Kolata, Detective Work and Science Reveal a New Lethal Bacteria, N.Y. TIMES, Jan, 6, 1998.
280. Christopher Drew & Pam Belluck, Deadly Bacteria a New Threat to Fruit and Produce in the U.S., N.Y. TIMES, Jan. 4, 1998; Pam Belluck & Christopher Drew, From Farm in California to Outbreak of Food Poisoning in the East, N.Y. TIMES, Jan, 5, 1998; Gina Kolata, Detective Work and Science Reveal a New Lethal Bacteria, N.Y. TIMES, Jan, 6, 1998.
281. Caswell & Jensen, supra note 256.
282. Hingley, supra note 255, at 9.
283. Id. at 8.
284. Caswell & Jensen, supra note 256.
285. Id.
286. Telephone interview with Alden Manchester, Advisor, Food and Consumer Economics Division, Economic Research Service, Dep't of Agric. (Jan. 16, 1998).
287. Sanford A. Miller, Developing a New Food Wholesomeness Science to Ensure Food Safety, FOOD TECH., Dec. 1997, at 63.
288. See Barry, supra note 206, at 132.
289. Id. at 132. Note that this article defines the industrialization of agriculture as "refer[ing] to the increasing consolidation of agricultural production units, and to vertical coordination (contracting and integration) among the stages of the food and fiber system." Id. at 128.
290. Id.
291. Id.
292. Hobbs, supra note 232, at 513.
293. Id. at 522-23.
294. Dep't of Agric., Food & Safety inspection Serv., Food Safety Research Agenda (May 1997) (last modified Sept. 3, 1997) 〈http://www.fsis.usda.gov/ophs/fsragend.htm〉.
295. Id.
296. Id.
297. Barry, supra note 206, at 133.
298. President William J. Clinton, Protecting the Health and Safety of All Americans, Radio Address of the Presidents the Nation (Jan. 25, 1997), in FOOD TECH., Mar. 1997, at 132.
299. FOOD SAFETY JOINT REPORT, supra note 245, at 2, 5.
300. Id. at 2.
301. See, e.g., Miller, supra note 264, at 62-65.
302. Some authors have concluded that food safety legislation already is driving vertical coordination in the United Kingdom. See A. ZWART & A. FEARNE, STRATEGIC ALLIANCES IN THE EUROPEAN FOOD INDUSTRY (1994).
303. See supra note 20 and accompanying text.
304. See supra note 27 and accompanying text.
305. See, e.g., Coleman Natural Products, Inc., Natural - The Coleman Definition, (visited Mar. 24, 1997) http://www.colemannatural.com/natural.html#quality (claiming status as the only U.S. meat producer with processing certified by the Organic Crop Improvement Association," and explaining USDA audit trail analysis to verify accuracy and completeness of labels).
306. See generally Hamilton, supra note 4, at 1051.
307. See Donald A. Frederick, Legal Rights of Producers to Collectively Negotiate, 19 WM. MITCHELL L. REV. 433 (1993); John D. Burns, Comment, The Eight Million Little Pigs-A Cautionary Tale: Statutory and Regulatory Responses to Concentrated Hog Farming, 31 WAKE FOREST L. REV. 851 (1996).
308. See Donald A. Frederick, Legal Rights of Producers to Collectively Negotiate, 19 WM. MITCHELL L. REV. 433 (1993); John D. Burns, Comment, The Eight Million Little Pigs-A Cautionary Tale: Statutory and Regulatory Responses to Concentrated Hog Farming, 31 WAKE FOREST L. REV. 851 (1996).
309. B.A. Rasco, How a HACCP Plan Can Help in a Products Liability Action, in INST. FOR FOOD SCI. & TECH., 1996 IFT ANNUAL MEETING: BOOK OF ABSTRACTS 149 (1996); T. Scarlett, An HACCP Approach to Product Liability, 45 FOOD TECH. 128 (1991).
310. B.A. Rasco, How a HACCP Plan Can Help in a Products Liability Action, in INST. FOR FOOD SCI. & TECH., 1996 IFT ANNUAL MEETING: BOOK OF ABSTRACTS 149 (1996); T. Scarlett, An HACCP Approach to Product Liability, 45 FOOD TECH. 128 (1991).
311. See United States v. General Foods Corp., 446 F. Supp. 740, 753 (N.D.N.Y. 1978).
312. See Hamilton, supra note 1, at 18-20 (discussing preservation of agriculture's genetic heritage).
313. See supra text accompanying note 278; see also Richard A. Posner, The Economic Approach to Law, 53 TEX. L. REV. 757, 765, 776 (1975).
314. See supra text accompanying note 278; see also Richard A. Posner, The Economic Approach to Law, 53 TEX. L. REV. 757, 765, 776 (1975).
315. Cf. Sanjeev Agarwal & Sridhar N. Ramaswami, Choice of Foreign Market Entry Mode: Impact of Ownership, Location, and Internalization, 23 J. INT'L BUS. STUD. 1 (1992) (discussing market channel decisions in international markets).
316. The author's first experience with such a model demonstrated food manufacturers' decisions concerning alternative export marketing channels. See Jesse D. Lyon, Direct and Indirect Exports of Processed Fruit: An Industry and Firm Level Analysis 29-38 (1995) (unpublished M.S. thesis, Purdue University) (on file with author and Krannert School of Management Library, Purdue University).
317. Cf. Agarwal & Ramaswani, supra note 289, at 1.
318. WALTER NICHOLSON, MICROECONOMIC THEORY 635 (5th ed. 1992).
319. See Catherine A. Durham & Jesse D. Lyon, Manufacturers versus Trading Company Export Behavior: The US Processed Fruit Industries, 13 AGRIBUSINESS 59, 59-71 (1997) (discussing impact of yield variability and firm size on market channel decisions).
320. Tony Kornheiser, Paranoia Will Destroia, WASH. POST, Oct. 5, 1997, at F1.
321. See Julie A, Caswell & Eliza M. Mojduszka, Using Informational Labeling to Influence the Market for Quality in Food Products, 78 AM. J. AGRIC. ECON. 1248 (1996).
322. John M. Antle, Efficient Food Safety Regulation in the Food Manufacturing Sector, 78 AM. J. AGRIC. ECON. 1242, 1244 (1996).
323. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, Pub. L. No. 75-717, 52 Stat. 1040 (1938), § 403, (codified as amended at 21 U.S.C. §§ 300 et seq. (1994)), § 343(a)(1).
324. 21 U.S.C. § 321(n).
325. Frederick H. Degnan, The Food and Drug Administration's Regulation of Food Biotechnology, in BASIC OUTLINES ON FOOD LAW AND REGULATION 93, 97 (FDLI 1996) (emphasis in original); see also Judith E. Beach, No "Killer Tomatoes": Easing Federal Regulation of Genetically Engineered Plants, 53 FOOD & DRUG L.J. 181, 182 (1998).
326. Frederick H. Degnan, The Food and Drug Administration's Regulation of Food Biotechnology, in BASIC OUTLINES ON FOOD LAW AND REGULATION 93, 97 (FDLI 1996) (emphasis in original); see also Judith E. Beach, No "Killer Tomatoes": Easing Federal Regulation of Genetically Engineered Plants, 53 FOOD & DRUG L.J. 181, 182 (1998).
327. See Degnan, supra note 299, at 98 ("no significant difference has been shown between milk derived from rBST treated and non-rBST treated cows.").
328. See id. Independent certification of process claims is an efficient means to support claim truthfulness and the rationale for process choice. See Antle, supra note 296, at 1244. Given regulators' recent struggles to draft consensus standards for certified organic labeling, the relatively subjective means for evaluating production claims might be most desirable.
329. Luther C. McKinney, Workable Food Safety Regulation, CHOICES, Second Quarter 1994, at 10.
330. See Caswell & Mojduszka, supra note 295, at 1252.
331. See e.g., Paul B. Thompson, Food Labels and the Ethics of Consent, CHOICES, First Quarter 1996, at 11, 12.
332. See Hamilton, supra note 4, at 1059-62 (distinguishing production contracts from other agricultural contracts and discussing impetus for their regulation).
333. Mark Drabenstott, Industrialization: Steady Current or Tidal Wave?, CHOICES, Fourth Quarter 1994, at 4, 7.
334. Keith D, Haroldson, Two Issues in Corporate Agriculture: Anticorporate Farming Statutes and Production Contracts, 41 DRAKE L. REV. 393, 413 (1992).
335. Id.
336. See Neil D. Hamilton, Why Own the Farm If You Can Own the Farmer (and the Crop)? Contract Production and Intellectual Property Protection of Grain Crops, 73 NEB. L. REV. 48 (1994).
337. Minnesota, For example, limits manufacturers' ability to terminate or cancel production contracts requiring large initial investments in intermediate and long-term assets. See MINN. STAT. § 17.92 (1992).
338. Hamilton, supra note 4, at 1066-68.
339. Id. at 1068-69.
340. "The contracts might be written so that they are completely fair and cover all possibilities, . . . [but] if contracting practices are perceived as unfair to some parties in the system, there is greater likelihood for government intervention and regulation of practices." Id. at 1061 (discussing Feedstuffs editorial urging industrial self-regulation of agricultural production contracts to prevent government intervention).
341. For example, some jurisdictions now are aiming to make the contracting food manufacturer assume environmental liability for the disposal of animal waste and application of pesticides. See Hamilton, supra note 4, at 1074-82; Martha L. Noble & J.W. Looney, The Emerging Legal Framework for Animal Agricultural Waste Management in Arkansas, 47 ARK. L. REV. 159, 203-206 (1994).
342. For example, some jurisdictions now are aiming to make the contracting food manufacturer assume environmental liability for the disposal of animal waste and application of pesticides. See Hamilton, supra note 4, at 1074-82; Martha L. Noble & J.W. Looney, The Emerging Legal Framework for Animal Agricultural Waste Management in Arkansas, 47 ARK. L. REV. 159, 203-206 (1994).
343. See Boehlje & Schrader, supra note 1, at 14 (asserting that regulation will not influence coordination method unless it is federal or substantially uniform state regulation).
344. Steve W. Martinez, Vertical Coordination by Food Firms Rising, Along with Contract Production, FROZEN FOOD DIGEST, Oct. 1996, at 32.
345. Alan Barkema, et al., The Quiet Revolution in the U.S. Food Market, ECON. REV., May-June 1991, at 32-33.
346. Anthan George, Giant Ag Firms Spark Concerns, DES MOINES REG., Feb. 2, 1997, at 1.
347. Hearing before Senate Comm. on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, 104th Cong., 2d Sess. (June 11, 1996) (statement of David Turetsky, Deputy Assistant Attorney General Antitrust Division, Department of Justice), available in 1996 WL 10164902, Cong. Testimony.
348. Ch. 323,38 Stat. 730 (1914) (codified as amended at 15 U.S.C. §§ 12, 13, 14-19, 20, 21, 22-27, 18 (1994)). See United States v. Agri-Mark, Inc., 156 F.R.D. 87 (D. Vt. 1994) (modifying consent decree enjoining New England's largest dairy cooperative's acquisition of region's largest dairy assets fixed assets and subsequently entered long-term requirements contracts with the dairy).
349. Ch. 647, § 1, 26 Stat. 209 (1890) (codified as amended at 15 U.S.C. §§ 1-7, 1 (1994)).
350. 15 U.S.C, § 14. See Spartan Grain & Mill Co. v. Ayers, 581 F.2d 419 (5th Cir. 1978) (holding characterization of poultry feed and hatchery egg dealer's production contracts as tying or reciprocal dealing irrelevant, and key issue was whether defendant had sufficient economic power in one market to coerce purchases or sales in another).
351. Ch. 57, §§ 1-2, 42 Stat. 388 (1922) (codified at 7 U.S.C. §§ 291-92 (1994)).
352. See National Farmers Org. (NFO) v. Associated Milk Producers, Inc., 687 F.2d 1173 (8th Cir. 1981) (holding NFO not liable for price-fixing pursuant to supply contracts because milk marketing arrangements were exempt under Capper-Volstead Act).
353. See Frederick, supra note 284, at 441-43.
354. See DEP'T. OF JUSTICE & FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION MERGER GUIDELINES § 4 (requiring substantiation of efficiencies in clear, nonspeculative manner).
355. See Kennedy et al., supra note 215, at 386-88.
356. See Hamilton, supra note 309, at 68-72.
357. See Schrader & Boehlje, supra note 236, at 2-3 (discussing coordination alternatives to yield useful efficiency and pro-competitive
358. 466 U.S. 2, 15-16 (1984) (indicating that vertical market foreclosure up to 30% of the relevant market (by tying) was safe harbor for defendants).
359. See Tampa Elec. v. Nashville Coal, 365 U.S. 320, 335 (1961) (stating that "particularized considerations of the parties' operations are not irrelevant").
360. 337 U.S. 293 (1949).
361. Id. at 307.
362. See Roland Mach. v. Dresser Ind., 749 F.2d 380, 392 (7th Cir. 1984).
363. See PSI Repair Servs., Inc. v. Honeywell, Inc. 104 F.3d 811-20 (6th Cir. 1997).
364. See United States v. U.S. Steel Corp., 251 U.S. 417, 459 (1920).
365. See Martinez et al., supra note 228, at 19.
366. Kennedy et al., supra note 209, at 388.
367. Chris Hurt, Industrialization in the Pork Industry, CHOICES, Fourth Quarter 1994, at 9, 13.
368. Haroldson, supra note 309, at 409.
369. Id.
370. See id., at 411 (discussing Iowa and Kansas attempts to limit vertical coordination by meat processors into pork production and cattle feedlots).
371. Hurt, supra note 339, at 13.
372. Taylor, supra note 38, at 20.
373. Charles E. Morris, HACCP Update, FOOD ENG'G, July-Aug. 1997, at 51, 52 (citing survey of food manufacturers and Refrigerated Foods Association membership survey).
374. James M. MacDonald & Stephen Crutchfield, Modeling the Costs of Food Safety Regulation, 78 AM. J. AGRIC. ECON. 1285, 1289 (1996).
375. Inspection Process is Dangerous, AFGE Warns Congress, PR NEWSWIRE, May 20, 1998.
376. Id.
377. Audrey Hingley, FOOD & DRUG ADMIN., Focus on Food Safety: Initiative Calls on Government, Industry, Consumers to Stop Food-Related Illness, FDA CONSUMER, Sept.-Oct. 1997, at 8, 9 (quoting Joe Madden, Ph.D., strategic manager for microbiology at FDA's Center forFood Safety and Applied Nutrition).
378. Dale Hancock & David Dargatz, Implementation of HACCP on the Farm, Address at HACCP Symposium, 75th Annual Meeting of the Conference of Research Workers in Animal Diseases, (Nov. 12, 1995), in UNIV. OF ILL. C. OF VETERINARY MED., PROC. OF THE HACCP SYMP, 33 (undated) (reflecting resource estimates for inspections structured similar to dairy industry); Dale Hancock &, David Dargatz, Implementation of HACCP on the Farm (visited Jan, 16, 1998) 〈http://www.cvm.uiuc.edu/haccp/symposium/liancock.htm〉.
379. Dale Hancock & David Dargatz, Implementation of HACCP on the Farm, Address at HACCP Symposium, 75th Annual Meeting of the Conference of Research Workers in Animal Diseases, (Nov. 12, 1995), in UNIV. OF ILL. C. OF VETERINARY MED., PROC. OF THE HACCP SYMP, 33 (undated) (reflecting resource estimates for inspections structured similar to dairy industry); Dale Hancock &, David Dargatz, Implementation of HACCP on the Farm (visited Jan, 16, 1998) 〈http://www.cvm.uiuc.edu/haccp/symposium/liancock.htm〉.
380. Id.
381. Beth Lautner, Industry Perspectives, Address at HACCP Symposium, 75th Annual Meeting of the Conference of Research Workers in Animal Diseases, (Nov. 12, 1995), in University of Illinois College of Veterinary Medicine, UNIV. OF ILL, C. QF VETERINARY MED., PROC. OF THE HACCP SYMP. 44 (undated); Beth Lautner, HACCP - Its Application for the Pork Industry (visited Jan. 16, 1998) 〈http:/www.cvm.uiuc.edu/ haccp/symposium/lautner.htm〉.
382. Beth Lautner, Industry Perspectives, Address at HACCP Symposium, 75th Annual Meeting of the Conference of Research Workers in Animal Diseases, (Nov. 12, 1995), in University of Illinois College of Veterinary Medicine, UNIV. OF ILL, C. QF VETERINARY MED., PROC. OF THE HACCP SYMP. 44 (undated); Beth Lautner, HACCP - Its Application for the Pork Industry (visited Jan. 16, 1998) 〈http:/www.cvm.uiuc.edu/ haccp/symposium/lautner.htm〉.
383. See Christopher M's Hand Poured Fudge, Inc. v. Hennon, 699 A.2d 1272 (Pa, Super. 1997) (upholding trial court's production injunction following former employee defendant's misappropriation of customer and vendor lists, quality assurance information, HACCP plans, cost and market analyses, and business plans).
384. See Richard S. Silverman, Legal Implications of Risk Assessments in Food Processing Operations, FOOD TECH., Dec. 1996, at 65-66.
385. Id. at 66.
386. See id.
387. See United States v. General Foods Corp., 446 F. Supp. 740, 753 (N.D.N.Y. 1978) (holding evidence of FDA's earlier positive review of defendant's facilities and HACCP procedures irrelevant to subsequent FDA adulteration action because conditions and procedures change and because "the food industry is in a constant state of flux.")
388. Laurian J. Unnevehr & Helen H. Jensen, HACCP as a Regulatory Innovation to Improve Food Safety in the Meat Industry, 78 AM. J. AGRIC. ECON. 764, 768 (1996).
389. See Charles E. Morris, Government Regulations Drive Process Innovations, FOOD ENG'G, Sept. 1997, at 27 (discussing regulation-driven innovations that yield efficiencies beyond economic benefits of regulatory compliance).
390. Food & Drug Admin., Second Interim Report of Observations and Comments (last modified Dec. 18, 1997) 〈http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/haccp-3.html〉 (reporting on HACCP Pilot Program for Selected Food Manufacturers).
391. Michael A. Mazzocco, HACCP as a Business Management Tool, 78 AM. J. AGRIC. ECON. 770, 771 (1996).
392. Id. at 773.
393. See Eric Christensen, Genetic Ark: A Proposal to Preserve Genetic Diversity for Future Generations, 40 STAN. L. REV. 279,285-88 (1987); Hamilton, supra note 1, at 19 (claiming that preservation of number and diversity of rare livestock genetics protects safety and integrity of food system).
394. See Eric Christensen, Genetic Ark: A Proposal to Preserve Genetic Diversity for Future Generations, 40 STAN. L. REV. 279,285-88 (1987); Hamilton, supra note 1, at 19 (claiming that preservation of number and diversity of rare livestock genetics protects safety and integrity of food system).
395. See Burns, supra note 284, at 854.
396. See id. at 858-64.
397. See Hamilton, supra note 17, at 654.
398. Id.
399. Id. at 621.
400. Id. at 654.
401. Clement E. Ward. Vertical Integration Comparison: Beef, Pork, and Poultry, OKLA. ST. UNIV. DEPT. AGRIC. ECON. (Feb. 1997).
402. See supra notes 235-37 and accompanying text.
403. See David R. Purnell, International Implications of New Agricultural Biotechnology, 25 U. MEM. L. REV. 1189, 1193-96 (1995) (discussing environmental and health concerns with biotechnology).
404. See Beach, supra note 299, at 191.
405. See Purnell, supra note 372, at 1193-96.
406. David E. Ervin & Katherine R. Smith, Agricultural Industrialization and Environmental Quality, CHOICES, Fourth Quarter 1994, at 7.
407. See Gary L. Benjamin, Industrialization in Hog Production: Implications for Midwest Agriculture, ECON. PERSP., Jan. 11, 1997, at 2 & n. 14 (discussing implementation of environmental regulations to prevent hazards in large-scale livestock production).