The evidence does not speak for itself: Expert witnesses and the organization of DNA-typing companies

Social Studies of Science

Volumn 28, Issue 5-6, 1998, Pages 741-772

  Daemmrich, Arthur ^a  

^a Department of Obstetrics Gynecology   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0032261041     PISSN: 03063127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/030631298028005004     Document Type: Article

References (87)

1. Legal analysts, including US Supreme Court Justice Stephen Breyer, have proposed court-appointed independent experts as a solution to unseemly battles between 'hired gun' experts representing each side of a case. In response, the American Association for the Advancement of Science has begun compiling lists of 'neutral' experts. See Anon., 'Science in Court', The Washington Post (19 February 1998), A16. For a review of scientific expertise and the law, see Sheila Jasanoff, Science at the Bar (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), esp. Chapter 3.
2. Legal analysts, including US Supreme Court Justice Stephen Breyer, have proposed court-appointed independent experts as a solution to unseemly battles between 'hired gun' experts representing each side of a case. In response, the American Association for the Advancement of Science has begun compiling lists of 'neutral' experts. See Anon., 'Science in Court', The Washington Post (19 February 1998), A16. For a review of scientific expertise and the law, see Sheila Jasanoff, Science at the Bar (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), esp. Chapter 3.
3. Companies were selected from biotechnology firm registries: see James Coombs and Yvonne R. Alston, The Biotechnology Directory 1994 (New York: Stockton Press, 1993); Mark D. Dibner, Biotechnology Guide USA (New York: Stockton Press, rev. 3rd edn, 1995). I draw throughout this paper on the interviews conducted as part of our NSF-funded team project: for further details, see the 'Introduction' to this Special Issue by Michael Lynch and Sheila Jasanoff, 'Contested Identities: Science, Law and Forensic Practice', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 28, Nos 5-6 (October-December 1998), 675-86, at 681-82.
4. Companies were selected from biotechnology firm registries: see James Coombs and Yvonne R. Alston, The Biotechnology Directory 1994 (New York: Stockton Press, 1993); Mark D. Dibner, Biotechnology Guide USA (New York: Stockton Press, rev. 3rd edn, 1995). I draw throughout this paper on the interviews conducted as part of our NSF-funded team project: for further details, see the 'Introduction' to this Special Issue by Michael Lynch and Sheila Jasanoff, 'Contested Identities: Science, Law and Forensic Practice', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 28, Nos 5-6 (October-December 1998), 675-86, at 681-82.
5. Companies were selected from biotechnology firm registries: see James Coombs and Yvonne R. Alston, The Biotechnology Directory 1994 (New York: Stockton Press, 1993); Mark D. Dibner, Biotechnology Guide USA (New York: Stockton Press, rev. 3rd edn, 1995). I draw throughout this paper on the interviews conducted as part of our NSF-funded team project: for further details, see the 'Introduction' to this Special Issue by Michael Lynch and Sheila Jasanoff, 'Contested Identities: Science, Law and Forensic Practice', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 28, Nos 5-6 (October-December 1998), 675-86, at 681-82.
6. For more on 'fact construction', see Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, rev. 2nd edn, 1986), esp. Chapter 3; for more on 'translation', see Latour, Science in Action (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987), esp. 108-44.
7. For more on 'fact construction', see Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, rev. 2nd edn, 1986), esp. Chapter 3; for more on 'translation', see Latour, Science in Action (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987), esp. 108-44.
8. Alfred D. Chandler, Jr, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977), esp. 285-376.
9. Frederic M. Scherer, Industrial Market Structure and Economic Performance (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1980), 78.
10. Gary P. Pisano, 'The Governance of Innovation: Vertical Integration and Collaborative Arrangements in the Biotechnology Industry', Research Policy, Vol. 20, No. 3 (June 1991), 237-49.
11. The quotation is taken from John Eatwell, Murray Milgate and Peter Newman (eds), The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, Vol. 4 (London: Macmillan, 1987), 809.
12. Robert K. Merton, 'The Normative Structure of Science', in Merton (ed. Norman Storer), The Sociology of Science (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1973), 267-78.
13. US Federal Bureau of Investigation, Crime in the United States (annual); US Federal Bureau of Investigation, Population-at-Risk Rates and Selected Crime Indicators (annual). The number of murders and rapes declined by 1996 to 19,645 and 95,769, respectively.
14. US Federal Bureau of Investigation, Crime in the United States (annual); US Federal Bureau of Investigation, Population-at-Risk Rates and Selected Crime Indicators (annual). The number of murders and rapes declined by 1996 to 19,645 and 95,769, respectively.
15. Howard Coleman, interviewed by Simon Cole (Seattle, WA, 21 March 1995). Following a similar logic, conservative proponents of the 'Personal Responsibility Act' have recently sought to deny US federal support to children whose paternity was not clearly established: see 104th Congress, 'Personal Responsibility Act of 1995', H.R. 4 (Washington, DC: US GPO, 1995), esp. Section 101: 'Reduction or Denial of AFDC for certain children whose paternity is not established'. See also Ed Gillespie and Bob Schellhas (eds), Contract with America (New York: Times Books, 1994).
16. Figures taken from Cellmark Diagnostics, GeneLex Corporation and Lifecodes, Inc. advertising materials (1995-98).
17. For more on the deconstruction of scientific evidence in American courts, see Jasanoff, op. cit. note 1, esp. 20, 52-59, 210-15. Peter Huber discusses the same deconstructive tendency, but blames experts from 'marginal' groups for undermining scientific authority: see Huber, Galileo's Revenge: Junk Science in the Courtroom (New York: Basic Books, 1991).
18. For works describing widely shared boundaries to scepticism, means of managing disputes and the rôle of trust in scientific discourse, see Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985), esp. 72-76; Shaping Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994), esp. 3-41; Peter Dear, Discipline and Experience: The Mathematical Way in the Scientific Revolution (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1995), esp. 161-79; Sheila Jasanoff, The Fifth Branch: Science Advisers as Policymakers (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), esp. 61-83; and Gerald Holton, 'On Doing One's Damnedest: The Evolution of Trust in Scientific Findings', in David H. Guston and Kenneth Keniston (eds), The Fragile Contract: University Science and the Federal Government (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1994), 59-81. For pointed suggestions by three lawyers on how not to respect 'bounded questioning' in US court cases (originally published in 1973, but still timely), see: J.S. Oteri, M.G. Weinberg and M.S. Pinales, 'Cross-examination of Chemists in Drugs Cases', in Barry Barnes and David Edge (eds), Science in Context: Readings in the Sociology of Science (Milton Keynes, Bucks.: The Open University Press; Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1982), 250-59.
19. For works describing widely shared boundaries to scepticism, means of managing disputes and the rôle of trust in scientific discourse, see Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985), esp. 72-76; Shaping Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994), esp. 3-41; Peter Dear, Discipline and Experience: The Mathematical Way in the Scientific Revolution (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1995), esp. 161-79; Sheila Jasanoff, The Fifth Branch: Science Advisers as Policymakers (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), esp. 61-83; and Gerald Holton, 'On Doing One's Damnedest: The Evolution of Trust in Scientific Findings', in David H. Guston and Kenneth Keniston (eds), The Fragile Contract: University Science and the Federal Government (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1994), 59-81. For pointed suggestions by three lawyers on how not to respect 'bounded questioning' in US court cases (originally published in 1973, but still timely), see: J.S. Oteri, M.G. Weinberg and M.S. Pinales, 'Cross-examination of Chemists in Drugs Cases', in Barry Barnes and David Edge (eds), Science in Context: Readings in the Sociology of Science (Milton Keynes, Bucks.: The Open University Press; Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1982), 250-59.
20. For works describing widely shared boundaries to scepticism, means of managing disputes and the rôle of trust in scientific discourse, see Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985), esp. 72-76; Shaping Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994), esp. 3-41; Peter Dear, Discipline and Experience: The Mathematical Way in the Scientific Revolution (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1995), esp. 161-79; Sheila Jasanoff, The Fifth Branch: Science Advisers as Policymakers (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), esp. 61-83; and Gerald Holton, 'On Doing One's Damnedest: The Evolution of Trust in Scientific Findings', in David H. Guston and Kenneth Keniston (eds), The Fragile Contract: University Science and the Federal Government (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1994), 59-81. For pointed suggestions by three lawyers on how not to respect 'bounded questioning' in US court cases (originally published in 1973, but still timely), see: J.S. Oteri, M.G. Weinberg and M.S. Pinales, 'Cross-examination of Chemists in Drugs Cases', in Barry Barnes and David Edge (eds), Science in Context: Readings in the Sociology of Science (Milton Keynes, Bucks.: The Open University Press; Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1982), 250-59.
21. For works describing widely shared boundaries to scepticism, means of managing disputes and the rôle of trust in scientific discourse, see Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985), esp. 72-76; Shaping Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994), esp. 3-41; Peter Dear, Discipline and Experience: The Mathematical Way in the Scientific Revolution (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1995), esp. 161-79; Sheila Jasanoff, The Fifth Branch: Science Advisers as Policymakers (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), esp. 61-83; and Gerald Holton, 'On Doing One's Damnedest: The Evolution of Trust in Scientific Findings', in David H. Guston and Kenneth Keniston (eds), The Fragile Contract: University Science and the Federal Government (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1994), 59-81. For pointed suggestions by three lawyers on how not to respect 'bounded questioning' in US court cases (originally published in 1973, but still timely), see: J.S. Oteri, M.G. Weinberg and M.S. Pinales, 'Cross-examination of Chemists in Drugs Cases', in Barry Barnes and David Edge (eds), Science in Context: Readings in the Sociology of Science (Milton Keynes, Bucks.: The Open University Press; Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1982), 250-59.
22. For works describing widely shared boundaries to scepticism, means of managing disputes and the rôle of trust in scientific discourse, see Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985), esp. 72-76; Shaping Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994), esp. 3-41; Peter Dear, Discipline and Experience: The Mathematical Way in the Scientific Revolution (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1995), esp. 161-79; Sheila Jasanoff, The Fifth Branch: Science Advisers as Policymakers (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), esp. 61-83; and Gerald Holton, 'On Doing One's Damnedest: The Evolution of Trust in Scientific Findings', in David H. Guston and Kenneth Keniston (eds), The Fragile Contract: University Science and the Federal Government (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1994), 59-81. For pointed suggestions by three lawyers on how not to respect 'bounded questioning' in US court cases (originally published in 1973, but still timely), see: J.S. Oteri, M.G. Weinberg and M.S. Pinales, 'Cross-examination of Chemists in Drugs Cases', in Barry Barnes and David Edge (eds), Science in Context: Readings in the Sociology of Science (Milton Keynes, Bucks.: The Open University Press; Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1982), 250-59.
23. For works describing widely shared boundaries to scepticism, means of managing disputes and the rôle of trust in scientific discourse, see Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985), esp. 72-76; Shaping Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994), esp. 3-41; Peter Dear, Discipline and Experience: The Mathematical Way in the Scientific Revolution (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1995), esp. 161-79; Sheila Jasanoff, The Fifth Branch: Science Advisers as Policymakers (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), esp. 61-83; and Gerald Holton, 'On Doing One's Damnedest: The Evolution of Trust in Scientific Findings', in David H. Guston and Kenneth Keniston (eds), The Fragile Contract: University Science and the Federal Government (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1994), 59-81. For pointed suggestions by three lawyers on how not to respect 'bounded questioning' in US court cases (originally published in 1973, but still timely), see: J.S. Oteri, M.G. Weinberg and M.S. Pinales, 'Cross-examination of Chemists in Drugs Cases', in Barry Barnes and David Edge (eds), Science in Context: Readings in the Sociology of Science (Milton Keynes, Bucks.: The Open University Press; Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1982), 250-59.
24. State of Florida v. Tommie Lee Andrews, Trial Proceedings, Information No. CR87-1400, Orange County Courthouse, Orlando, FL (20 October 1987).
25. See also the papers in this Special Issue by Sheila Jasanoff and Michael Lynch: Jasanoff, 'The Eye of Everyman: Witnessing DNA in the Simpson Trial', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 28, Nos 5-6 (October-December 1998), 713-40; Lynch, 'The Discursive Production of Uncertainty: The OJ Simpson 'Dream Team' and the Sociology of Knowledge Machine', ibid., 829-68.
26. See also the papers in this Special Issue by Sheila Jasanoff and Michael Lynch: Jasanoff, 'The Eye of Everyman: Witnessing DNA in the Simpson Trial', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 28, Nos 5-6 (October-December 1998), 713-40; Lynch, 'The Discursive Production of Uncertainty: The OJ Simpson 'Dream Team' and the Sociology of Knowledge Machine', ibid., 829-68.
27. Barry Barnes and David Edge argue that convergence of institutional, historical, political, legal, economic and cultural factors are necessary to establish the credibility of expertise: see Barnes and Edge, 'Science as Expertise', in Barnes & Edge (eds), op. cit. note 13, 233-49.
28. Daniel Garner, interviewed by Arthur Daemmrich (Germantown, MD, 20 June 1994).
29. See Thomas F. Gieryn, 'Boundaries of Science', in Sheila Jasanoff, Gerald E. Markle, James C. Petersen and Trevor Pinch (eds), Handbook of Science and Technology Studies (Thousand Oaks, CA: 4S/Sage Publications, 1994), 393-443; Jasanoff (1990), op. cit. note 13, esp. 14, 95-97, 234-49; Louis Galambos (ed.), The New American State: Bureaucracies and Policies since World War II (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), esp. 1-20.
30. See Thomas F. Gieryn, 'Boundaries of Science', in Sheila Jasanoff, Gerald E. Markle, James C. Petersen and Trevor Pinch (eds), Handbook of Science and Technology Studies (Thousand Oaks, CA: 4S/Sage Publications, 1994), 393-443; Jasanoff (1990), op. cit. note 13, esp. 14, 95-97, 234-49; Louis Galambos (ed.), The New American State: Bureaucracies and Policies since World War II (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), esp. 1-20.
31. The brief description of DNA typing offered here is extracted from John I. Thornton, 'DNA Profiling: New Tool Links Evidence to Suspects with High Certainty', Chemical and Engineering News (20 November 1989), 18-30; Alec J. Jeffreys, 'DNA Typing: Approaches and Applications', Journal of the Forensic Science Society, Vol. 33 (1993), 204-11.
32. The brief description of DNA typing offered here is extracted from John I. Thornton, 'DNA Profiling: New Tool Links Evidence to Suspects with High Certainty', Chemical and Engineering News (20 November 1989), 18-30; Alec J. Jeffreys, 'DNA Typing: Approaches and Applications', Journal of the Forensic Science Society, Vol. 33 (1993), 204-11.
33. This community standard was reinforced by the US Supreme Court in 1993: see Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 U.S. 579 (1993).
34. See Arlene R. Wyman and Ray L. White, 'A Highly Polymorphic Locus in Human DNA', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), Vol. 77 (November 1980), 6754-58; Yusuke Nakamura et al., 'Variable Number of Tandem Repeat (VNTR) Markers for Human Gene Mapping', Science, Vol. 235 (27 March 1987), 1616-22.
35. See Arlene R. Wyman and Ray L. White, 'A Highly Polymorphic Locus in Human DNA', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), Vol. 77 (November 1980), 6754-58; Yusuke Nakamura et al., 'Variable Number of Tandem Repeat (VNTR) Markers for Human Gene Mapping', Science, Vol. 235 (27 March 1987), 1616-22.
36. The two most widely-used probes covered by this patent (US Patent 4,963,663) are D2S34 for RFLP tests, and D1S80 for PCR typing.
37. Michael Baird, interviewed by Arthur Daemmrich and Saul Halfon (Stamford, CT, 14 July 1994).
38. Alec J. Jeffreys, Victoria Wilson and Swee Lay Thein, 'Hypervariable "Minisatellite" Regions in Human DNA', Nature, Vol. 314 (7 March 1985), 67-73; Jeffreys, Wilson and Thein, 'Individual-Specific "Fingerprints" of Human DNA', Nature, Vol. 316 (4 July 1985), 76-79; Peter Gill, Jeffreys and David J. Werrett, 'Forensic Application of DNA "Fingerprints" ', Nature, Vol. 318 (12 December 1985), 577-79.
39. Alec J. Jeffreys, Victoria Wilson and Swee Lay Thein, 'Hypervariable "Minisatellite" Regions in Human DNA', Nature, Vol. 314 (7 March 1985), 67-73; Jeffreys, Wilson and Thein, 'Individual-Specific "Fingerprints" of Human DNA', Nature, Vol. 316 (4 July 1985), 76-79; Peter Gill, Jeffreys and David J. Werrett, 'Forensic Application of DNA "Fingerprints" ', Nature, Vol. 318 (12 December 1985), 577-79.
40. Alec J. Jeffreys, Victoria Wilson and Swee Lay Thein, 'Hypervariable "Minisatellite" Regions in Human DNA', Nature, Vol. 314 (7 March 1985), 67-73; Jeffreys, Wilson and Thein, 'Individual-Specific "Fingerprints" of Human DNA', Nature, Vol. 316 (4 July 1985), 76-79; Peter Gill, Jeffreys and David J. Werrett, 'Forensic Application of DNA "Fingerprints" ', Nature, Vol. 318 (12 December 1985), 577-79.
41. Promega Corporation, DNA Typing 1992-1993 (Madison, WI: Promega Corporation, 1992), 5.
42. This is one way to get around the strategy of unpacking science by demonstrating a lack of fit between practice and textbook. For strategies available to lawyers wishing to cast doubt on scientists' research methods and technical conclusions, see Oteri, Weinberg & Finales, op. cit. note 13.
43. Cellmark Diagnostics, advertising brochure (Germantown, MD, 1994).
44. Richard Cunningham, interviewed by Arthur Daemmrich and Saul Halfon (Stamford, CT, 14 July 1994).
45. See also the paper in this Special Issue by Kathleen Jordan and Michael Lynch: 'The Dissemination, Standardization and Routinization of a Molecular Biological Technique', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 28, Nos 5-6 (October-December 1998), 773-800.
46. Michael Baird, interviewed by Arthur Daemmrich (Stamford, CT, 21 March 1995).
47. H.M. Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985), esp. 79-111; Harry Collins and Trevor Pinch, The Golem: What Everyone Should Know about Science (Cambridge, New York & Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1993), esp. 97-107.
48. H.M. Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985), esp. 79-111; Harry Collins and Trevor Pinch, The Golem: What Everyone Should Know about Science (Cambridge, New York & Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1993), esp. 97-107.
49. Bruno Latour, 'Give Me a Laboratory and I will Raise the World', in Karin Knorr-Cetina and Michael Mulkay (eds), Science Observed (London: Sage Publications, 1983), 141-70.
50. Leslie Roberts, 'Science in Court: A Culture Clash', Science, Vol. 257 (7 August 1992), 732-36, at 734.
51. 'Bob Nelson', interviewed by Saul Halfon (17 April 1994). See the paper in this Special Issue by Saul Halfon: 'Collecting, Testing and Convincing: Forensic DNA Experts in the Courts', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 28, Nos 5-6 (October-December 1998), 801-28.
52. American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 47th Annual Meeting: Advance Program (Colorado Springs, CO: AAFS, 13-18 February 1995), xxxvi.
53. Baird, interview, loc. cit note 30.
54. N.Y. v. Castro 545 N.Y.S. 2d 985 (Sup. 1989), at 986.
55. Barry Meier, 'Simpson Team Taking Aim at DNA Laboratory', New York Times (7 September 1994), B10.
56. For the article stemming from the Castro case, see Eric Lander, 'DNA Fingerprinting on Trial', Mature, Vol. 339 (15 June 1989), 501-05. Support for testing labs to continue reporting population statistics as they had been, can be found in Ranajit Chakraborty and Kenneth K. Kidd, 'The Utility of DNA Typing in Forensic Work', Science, Vol. 254 (20 December 1991), 1735-39. On the other hand, an argument for revamping the approach to population statistics can be found in Richard C. Lewontin and Daniel L. Hartl, 'Population Genetics in Forensic DNA Typing', Science, Vol. 254 (20 December 1991), 1745-50. For a review of the controversy up to 1992, see Roberts, op. cit. note 33. In 1994, Eric Lander declared that the controversy had been resolved: see E.S. Lander and Bruce Budowle, 'DNA Fingerprinting Dispute Laid to Rest', Nature, Vol. 371 (27 October 1594), 735-38.
57. For the article stemming from the Castro case, see Eric Lander, 'DNA Fingerprinting on Trial', Mature, Vol. 339 (15 June 1989), 501-05. Support for testing labs to continue reporting population statistics as they had been, can be found in Ranajit Chakraborty and Kenneth K. Kidd, 'The Utility of DNA Typing in Forensic Work', Science, Vol. 254 (20 December 1991), 1735-39. On the other hand, an argument for revamping the approach to population statistics can be found in Richard C. Lewontin and Daniel L. Hartl, 'Population Genetics in Forensic DNA Typing', Science, Vol. 254 (20 December 1991), 1745-50. For a review of the controversy up to 1992, see Roberts, op. cit. note 33. In 1994, Eric Lander declared that the controversy had been resolved: see E.S. Lander and Bruce Budowle, 'DNA Fingerprinting Dispute Laid to Rest', Nature, Vol. 371 (27 October 1594), 735-38.
58. For the article stemming from the Castro case, see Eric Lander, 'DNA Fingerprinting on Trial', Mature, Vol. 339 (15 June 1989), 501-05. Support for testing labs to continue reporting population statistics as they had been, can be found in Ranajit Chakraborty and Kenneth K. Kidd, 'The Utility of DNA Typing in Forensic Work', Science, Vol. 254 (20 December 1991), 1735-39. On the other hand, an argument for revamping the approach to population statistics can be found in Richard C. Lewontin and Daniel L. Hartl, 'Population Genetics in Forensic DNA Typing', Science, Vol. 254 (20 December 1991), 1745-50. For a review of the controversy up to 1992, see Roberts, op. cit. note 33. In 1994, Eric Lander declared that the controversy had been resolved: see E.S. Lander and Bruce Budowle, 'DNA Fingerprinting Dispute Laid to Rest', Nature, Vol. 371 (27 October 1594), 735-38.
59. For the article stemming from the Castro case, see Eric Lander, 'DNA Fingerprinting on Trial', Mature, Vol. 339 (15 June 1989), 501-05. Support for testing labs to continue reporting population statistics as they had been, can be found in Ranajit Chakraborty and Kenneth K. Kidd, 'The Utility of DNA Typing in Forensic Work', Science, Vol. 254 (20 December 1991), 1735-39. On the other hand, an argument for revamping the approach to population statistics can be found in Richard C. Lewontin and Daniel L. Hartl, 'Population Genetics in Forensic DNA Typing', Science, Vol. 254 (20 December 1991), 1745-50. For a review of the controversy up to 1992, see Roberts, op. cit. note 33. In 1994, Eric Lander declared that the controversy had been resolved: see E.S. Lander and Bruce Budowle, 'DNA Fingerprinting Dispute Laid to Rest', Nature, Vol. 371 (27 October 1594), 735-38.
60. Lander (1989), op. cit. note 39, 502.
61. Ibid., 505.
62. Eric Lander, 'DNA Fingerprinting: Science, Law and the Ultimate Identifier', in Daniel Kevles and Leroy Hood (eds), The Code of Codes: Scientific and Social Issues in the Human Genome Project (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), 191-210, at 208.
63. National Research Council/National Academy of Sciences, DNA Technology in Forensic Science (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1992), esp. 97-109.
64. US Congress, Joint Hearing before the Subcommittee on Civil and Constitutional Rights of the House Committee on the Judiciary, and the Subcommittee on the Constitution of the Senate on the Judiciary, Forensic DNA Analysis (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1992), 146.
65. Lawrence J. Lad, Current Principles and Practices in Association Self-Regulation (Washington, DC: American Society of Association Executives, 1992), esp. Chapter 1.
66. Quoted from ASCLD brochure (St Petersburg, FL: ASCLD, 1996), 1.
67. College of American Paihologists, AABB/CAP Parentage Testing Survey: Participant Summary (Northfield, IL: CAP, 1995).
68. Ibid., 8.
69. College of American Pathologists, Anatomic Pathology Excellence Programs: Forensic Identity - Participant Survey (Northfield, IL: CAP, 1995), 3-5.
70. Dennis Reeder, interviewed by Arthur Daemmrich (Gaithersburg, MD, 4 January 1995).
71. James L. Mudd et al., 'Interlaboratory Comparison of Autoradiographic DNA Profiling Measurements: 1. Data and Summary Statistics', Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 66, No. 20 (15 October 1994), 3303-17.
72. Baird, interview, loc. cit. note 30.
73. Federal Bureau of Investigation, A Resource Manual: Legal Aspects of Forensic DNA Analysis (Quantico, VA: FBI, 1990).
74. This DNA database is analogous to the FBI's fingerprint database. See the paper in this Special Issue by Simon Cole: 'Witnessing Identification: Latent Fingerprinting Evidence and Expert Knowledge', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 28, Nos 5-6 (October-December 1998), 687-712.
75. Jay V. Miller, 'The FBI's Forensic DNA Analysis Program', FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, Vol. 60 (July 1991), 11-15, at 12-13.
76. Anon., 'Statement of the Working Group on Statistical Standards for DNA Analysis', Crime Laboratory Digest, Vol. 17 (1990), 53-58.
77. Baird, interview, loc. cit note 30.
78. Baird, interview, loc. cit. note 23.
79. Robin Cotton, interviewed by Arthur Daemmrich (Germantown, MD, 20 June 1994).
80. Standardization is a growing area of sociological and historical inquiry. See, for example: Simon Schaffer, 'Late Victorian Metrology and its Instrumentation: A Manufactory of Ohms', in Robert Bud and Susan E. Cozzens (eds), Invisible Connections: Instruments, Institutions, and Science (Bellingham, WA: SPIE Optical Engineering Press, 1992), 23-56; Joseph O'Connell, 'Metrology: The Creation of Universality by the Circulation of Particulars', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 23, No. 1 (February 1993), 129-73; Ken Alder, 'Making Things the Same: Representation, Tolerance and the End of the Ancien Régime in France', ibid., No. 28, No. 4 (August 1998), 499-545; Bruce Curtis, 'From the Moral Thermometer to Money: Metrological Reform in Pre-Confederation Canada', ibid., 547-70; Alexandre Mallard, 'Compare, Standardize and Settle Agreement: On some Usual Metrological Problems', ibid., 571-601.
81. Standardization is a growing area of sociological and historical inquiry. See, for example: Simon Schaffer, 'Late Victorian Metrology and its Instrumentation: A Manufactory of Ohms', in Robert Bud and Susan E. Cozzens (eds), Invisible Connections: Instruments, Institutions, and Science (Bellingham, WA: SPIE Optical Engineering Press, 1992), 23-56; Joseph O'Connell, 'Metrology: The Creation of Universality by the Circulation of Particulars', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 23, No. 1 (February 1993), 129-73; Ken Alder, 'Making Things the Same: Representation, Tolerance and the End of the Ancien Régime in France', ibid., No. 28, No. 4 (August 1998), 499-545; Bruce Curtis, 'From the Moral Thermometer to Money: Metrological Reform in Pre-Confederation Canada', ibid., 547-70; Alexandre Mallard, 'Compare, Standardize and Settle Agreement: On some Usual Metrological Problems', ibid., 571-601.
82. Standardization is a growing area of sociological and historical inquiry. See, for example: Simon Schaffer, 'Late Victorian Metrology and its Instrumentation: A Manufactory of Ohms', in Robert Bud and Susan E. Cozzens (eds), Invisible Connections: Instruments, Institutions, and Science (Bellingham, WA: SPIE Optical Engineering Press, 1992), 23-56; Joseph O'Connell, 'Metrology: The Creation of Universality by the Circulation of Particulars', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 23, No. 1 (February 1993), 129-73; Ken Alder, 'Making Things the Same: Representation, Tolerance and the End of the Ancien Régime in France', ibid., No. 28, No. 4 (August 1998), 499-545; Bruce Curtis, 'From the Moral Thermometer to Money: Metrological Reform in Pre-Confederation Canada', ibid., 547-70; Alexandre Mallard, 'Compare, Standardize and Settle Agreement: On some Usual Metrological Problems', ibid., 571-601.
83. Standardization is a growing area of sociological and historical inquiry. See, for example: Simon Schaffer, 'Late Victorian Metrology and its Instrumentation: A Manufactory of Ohms', in Robert Bud and Susan E. Cozzens (eds), Invisible Connections: Instruments, Institutions, and Science (Bellingham, WA: SPIE Optical Engineering Press, 1992), 23-56; Joseph O'Connell, 'Metrology: The Creation of Universality by the Circulation of Particulars', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 23, No. 1 (February 1993), 129-73; Ken Alder, 'Making Things the Same: Representation, Tolerance and the End of the Ancien Régime in France', ibid., No. 28, No. 4 (August 1998), 499-545; Bruce Curtis, 'From the Moral Thermometer to Money: Metrological Reform in Pre-Confederation Canada', ibid., 547-70; Alexandre Mallard, 'Compare, Standardize and Settle Agreement: On some Usual Metrological Problems', ibid., 571-601.
84. Standardization is a growing area of sociological and historical inquiry. See, for example: Simon Schaffer, 'Late Victorian Metrology and its Instrumentation: A Manufactory of Ohms', in Robert Bud and Susan E. Cozzens (eds), Invisible Connections: Instruments, Institutions, and Science (Bellingham, WA: SPIE Optical Engineering Press, 1992), 23-56; Joseph O'Connell, 'Metrology: The Creation of Universality by the Circulation of Particulars', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 23, No. 1 (February 1993), 129-73; Ken Alder, 'Making Things the Same: Representation, Tolerance and the End of the Ancien Régime in France', ibid., No. 28, No. 4 (August 1998), 499-545; Bruce Curtis, 'From the Moral Thermometer to Money: Metrological Reform in Pre-Confederation Canada', ibid., 547-70; Alexandre Mallard, 'Compare, Standardize and Settle Agreement: On some Usual Metrological Problems', ibid., 571-601.
85. National Research Council, The Evaluation of Forensic DNA Evidence (Washington, DC: NRC Press, 1996).
86. See also the paper by Sheila Jasanoff in this Special Issue: Jasanoff, op. cit. note 15.
87. See Shapin & Schaffer (1985), op. cit. note 13, esp. 60-65