Making things the same: Representation, tolerance and the end of the Ancien Régime in France

Social Studies of Science

Volumn 28, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 499-545

  Alder, Ken ^a  

^a NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0032348653     PISSN: 03063127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/030631298028004001     Document Type: Article

References (193)

1. Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1979); David Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983); Ken Alder, Engineering the Revolution: Arms and Enlightenment in France, 1763-1815 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997).
2. Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1979); David Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983); Ken Alder, Engineering the Revolution: Arms and Enlightenment in France, 1763-1815 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997).
3. Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1979); David Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983); Ken Alder, Engineering the Revolution: Arms and Enlightenment in France, 1763-1815 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997).
4. Daniel Headrick, 'Information Systems and the History of Technology in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries', paper given at 1997 SHOT conference (Pasadena, CA, October); Shoshana Zuboff, In the Age of the Smart Machine: The Future of Work and Power (New York: Basic Books, 1988). See also Kathryn Henderson, 'Flexible Sketches and Inflexible Data Bases: Visual Communication, Conscription Devices, and Boundary Objects in Design Engineering', Science, Technology, & Human Values, Vol. 16, No. 4 (Autumn 1991), 448-73.
5. Daniel Headrick, 'Information Systems and the History of Technology in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries', paper given at 1997 SHOT conference (Pasadena, CA, October); Shoshana Zuboff, In the Age of the Smart Machine: The Future of Work and Power (New York: Basic Books, 1988). See also Kathryn Henderson, 'Flexible Sketches and Inflexible Data Bases: Visual Communication, Conscription Devices, and Boundary Objects in Design Engineering', Science, Technology, & Human Values, Vol. 16, No. 4 (Autumn 1991), 448-73.
6. Daniel Headrick, 'Information Systems and the History of Technology in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries', paper given at 1997 SHOT conference (Pasadena, CA, October); Shoshana Zuboff, In the Age of the Smart Machine: The Future of Work and Power (New York: Basic Books, 1988). See also Kathryn Henderson, 'Flexible Sketches and Inflexible Data Bases: Visual Communication, Conscription Devices, and Boundary Objects in Design Engineering', Science, Technology, & Human Values, Vol. 16, No. 4 (Autumn 1991), 448-73.
7. The classic collection outlining the social constructivist agenda is Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes and Trevor Pinch (eds), The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987); see also the follow-up volume, edited by Bijker and John Law, Shaping Technology/Building Society: Studies in Sociotechnical Change (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). For perhaps the two best realizations of this programme, see Donald MacKenzie, Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990), and Wiebe E. Bijker, Bicycles, Bulbs and Bakelite: Toward a Theory of Sociotechnical Change (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995).
8. The classic collection outlining the social constructivist agenda is Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes and Trevor Pinch (eds), The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987); see also the follow-up volume, edited by Bijker and John Law, Shaping Technology/Building Society: Studies in Sociotechnical Change (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). For perhaps the two best realizations of this programme, see Donald MacKenzie, Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990), and Wiebe E. Bijker, Bicycles, Bulbs and Bakelite: Toward a Theory of Sociotechnical Change (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995).
9. The classic collection outlining the social constructivist agenda is Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes and Trevor Pinch (eds), The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987); see also the follow-up volume, edited by Bijker and John Law, Shaping Technology/Building Society: Studies in Sociotechnical Change (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). For perhaps the two best realizations of this programme, see Donald MacKenzie, Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990), and Wiebe E. Bijker, Bicycles, Bulbs and Bakelite: Toward a Theory of Sociotechnical Change (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995).
10. The classic collection outlining the social constructivist agenda is Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes and Trevor Pinch (eds), The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987); see also the follow-up volume, edited by Bijker and John Law, Shaping Technology/Building Society: Studies in Sociotechnical Change (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). For perhaps the two best realizations of this programme, see Donald MacKenzie, Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990), and Wiebe E. Bijker, Bicycles, Bulbs and Bakelite: Toward a Theory of Sociotechnical Change (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995).
11. Arjun Appadurai (ed.), The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
12. Langdon Winner, 'Upon Opening the Black Box and Finding It Empty: Social Constructivism and the Philosophy of Technology', Science, Technology, & Human Values, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Summer 1993), 362-78. See, however, Gabrielle Hecht, The Radiance of France: Nuclear Power and National Identity after World War II (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998, forthcoming); Hecht, 'Rebels and Pioneers: Technocratic Ideologies and Social Identities in the French Nuclear Workplace', Social Studies of Science,Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 483-530.
13. Langdon Winner, 'Upon Opening the Black Box and Finding It Empty: Social Constructivism and the Philosophy of Technology', Science, Technology, & Human Values, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Summer 1993), 362-78. See, however, Gabrielle Hecht, The Radiance of France: Nuclear Power and National Identity after World War II (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998, forthcoming); Hecht, 'Rebels and Pioneers: Technocratic Ideologies and Social Identities in the French Nuclear Workplace', Social Studies of Science,Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 483-530.
14. Langdon Winner, 'Upon Opening the Black Box and Finding It Empty: Social Constructivism and the Philosophy of Technology', Science, Technology, & Human Values, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Summer 1993), 362-78. See, however, Gabrielle Hecht, The Radiance of France: Nuclear Power and National Identity after World War II (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998, forthcoming); Hecht, 'Rebels and Pioneers: Technocratic Ideologies and Social Identities in the French Nuclear Workplace', Social Studies of Science,Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 483-530.
15. For two different approaches to taking this potency into account, see: Daniel Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981); and Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989). Norton Wise has recently focused on the importance of 'travelling' to account for the claim of technical and scientific universalism: see M. Norton Wise (ed.), Values of Precision (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), esp. 92-100.
16. For two different approaches to taking this potency into account, see: Daniel Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981); and Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989). Norton Wise has recently focused on the importance of 'travelling' to account for the claim of technical and scientific universalism: see M. Norton Wise (ed.), Values of Precision (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), esp. 92-100.
17. For two different approaches to taking this potency into account, see: Daniel Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981); and Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989). Norton Wise has recently focused on the importance of 'travelling' to account for the claim of technical and scientific universalism: see M. Norton Wise (ed.), Values of Precision (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), esp. 92-100.
18. The relationship between the two revolutions in France has been systematically ignored for the past 20 years, principally because of the anti-Marxist 'revisionist' school on the French Revolution, which has shied away from materialist-social causes of the French Revolution and has focused exclusively on its political cultural preconditions: see George Taylor, 'Non-Capitalist Wealth and the Origins of the French Revolution', American Historical Review, Vol. 72 (1967), 469-96; François Furet, Penser la Révolution française (Paris: Gallimard, 1978). There is, however, a revival of interest in material culture as a site for the examination of tensions within the ancien regime: see Colin Jones, 'Bourgeois Revolution Revivified: 1789 and Social Change', in Colin Lucas (ed.), Rewriting the French Revolution (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991). 69-118.
19. The relationship between the two revolutions in France has been systematically ignored for the past 20 years, principally because of the anti-Marxist 'revisionist' school on the French Revolution, which has shied away from materialist-social causes of the French Revolution and has focused exclusively on its political cultural preconditions: see George Taylor, 'Non-Capitalist Wealth and the Origins of the French Revolution', American Historical Review, Vol. 72 (1967), 469-96; François Furet, Penser la Révolution française (Paris: Gallimard, 1978). There is, however, a revival of interest in material culture as a site for the examination of tensions within the ancien regime: see Colin Jones, 'Bourgeois Revolution Revivified: 1789 and Social Change', in Colin Lucas (ed.), Rewriting the French Revolution (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991). 69-118.
20. The relationship between the two revolutions in France has been systematically ignored for the past 20 years, principally because of the anti-Marxist 'revisionist' school on the French Revolution, which has shied away from materialist-social causes of the French Revolution and has focused exclusively on its political cultural preconditions: see George Taylor, 'Non-Capitalist Wealth and the Origins of the French Revolution', American Historical Review, Vol. 72 (1967), 469-96; François Furet, Penser la Révolution française (Paris: Gallimard, 1978). There is, however, a revival of interest in material culture as a site for the examination of tensions within the ancien regime: see Colin Jones, 'Bourgeois Revolution Revivified: 1789 and Social Change', in Colin Lucas (ed.), Rewriting the French Revolution (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991). 69-118.
21. On ancien regime particularism, and challenges to it from the legal profession, see David A. Bell, Lawyers and Citizens: The Making of a Political Elite in Old Regime France (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994). On ancien régime particularism, and the challenge to it from the new ideal of civil society, see Daniel Gordon, Citizens without Sovereignty: Equality and Sociability in French Thought, 1670-1789 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994). The best account of the modernizing monarchy remains Alexis de Tocqueville, trans. Stuart Gilbert, The Old Regime and the French Revolution (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1955).
22. On ancien regime particularism, and challenges to it from the legal profession, see David A. Bell, Lawyers and Citizens: The Making of a Political Elite in Old Regime France (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994). On ancien régime particularism, and the challenge to it from the new ideal of civil society, see Daniel Gordon, Citizens without Sovereignty: Equality and Sociability in French Thought, 1670-1789 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994). The best account of the modernizing monarchy remains Alexis de Tocqueville, trans. Stuart Gilbert, The Old Regime and the French Revolution (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1955).
23. On ancien regime particularism, and challenges to it from the legal profession, see David A. Bell, Lawyers and Citizens: The Making of a Political Elite in Old Regime France (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994). On ancien régime particularism, and the challenge to it from the new ideal of civil society, see Daniel Gordon, Citizens without Sovereignty: Equality and Sociability in French Thought, 1670-1789 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994). The best account of the modernizing monarchy remains Alexis de Tocqueville, trans. Stuart Gilbert, The Old Regime and the French Revolution (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1955).
24. John Locke, A Letter Concerning Toleration (London: Churchill, 1689); Pierre Bayle, De la tolération: Commentaire philosophique sur ces paroles de Jésus Christ (Paris: Presses pocket, 1992); Voltaire, Dictionnaire philosophique, ed. Raymond Naves and Julien Brenda (Paris: Barnior, 1967), 401-07; Immanuel Kant, An Answer to the Question, What is Enlightenment?, in On History, trans. Lewis White Beck, Robert E. Anchor and Emil L. Fackenheim (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1963). For a general analysis, see Susan Menus, Toleration and the Limits of Liberalism (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, 1989). For a historical study, see Geoffrey Adams, The Huguenots and French Opinion, 1685-1787: The Enlightenment Debate on Toleration (Waterloo, Ontario: Canadian Corporation for Studies in Religion, 1991). For Voltaire in action, see David Bien, The Calas Affair: Persecution, Toleration, and Heresy in Eighteenth-Century Toulouse (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1960).
25. John Locke, A Letter Concerning Toleration (London: Churchill, 1689); Pierre Bayle, De la tolération: Commentaire philosophique sur ces paroles de Jésus Christ (Paris: Presses pocket, 1992); Voltaire, Dictionnaire philosophique, ed. Raymond Naves and Julien Brenda (Paris: Barnior, 1967), 401-07; Immanuel Kant, An Answer to the Question, What is Enlightenment?, in On History, trans. Lewis White Beck, Robert E. Anchor and Emil L. Fackenheim (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1963). For a general analysis, see Susan Menus, Toleration and the Limits of Liberalism (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, 1989). For a historical study, see Geoffrey Adams, The Huguenots and French Opinion, 1685-1787: The Enlightenment Debate on Toleration (Waterloo, Ontario: Canadian Corporation for Studies in Religion, 1991). For Voltaire in action, see David Bien, The Calas Affair: Persecution, Toleration, and Heresy in Eighteenth-Century Toulouse (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1960).
26. John Locke, A Letter Concerning Toleration (London: Churchill, 1689); Pierre Bayle, De la tolération: Commentaire philosophique sur ces paroles de Jésus Christ (Paris: Presses pocket, 1992); Voltaire, Dictionnaire philosophique, ed. Raymond Naves and Julien Brenda (Paris: Barnior, 1967), 401-07; Immanuel Kant, An Answer to the Question, What is Enlightenment?, in On History, trans. Lewis White Beck, Robert E. Anchor and Emil L. Fackenheim (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1963). For a general analysis, see Susan Menus, Toleration and the Limits of Liberalism (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, 1989). For a historical study, see Geoffrey Adams, The Huguenots and French Opinion, 1685-1787: The Enlightenment Debate on Toleration (Waterloo, Ontario: Canadian Corporation for Studies in Religion, 1991). For Voltaire in action, see David Bien, The Calas Affair: Persecution, Toleration, and Heresy in Eighteenth-Century Toulouse (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1960).
27. John Locke, A Letter Concerning Toleration (London: Churchill, 1689); Pierre Bayle, De la tolération: Commentaire philosophique sur ces paroles de Jésus Christ (Paris: Presses pocket, 1992); Voltaire, Dictionnaire philosophique, ed. Raymond Naves and Julien Brenda (Paris: Barnior, 1967), 401-07; Immanuel Kant, An Answer to the Question, What is Enlightenment?, in On History, trans. Lewis White Beck, Robert E. Anchor and Emil L. Fackenheim (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1963). For a general analysis, see Susan Menus, Toleration and the Limits of Liberalism (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, 1989). For a historical study, see Geoffrey Adams, The Huguenots and French Opinion, 1685-1787: The Enlightenment Debate on Toleration (Waterloo, Ontario: Canadian Corporation for Studies in Religion, 1991). For Voltaire in action, see David Bien, The Calas Affair: Persecution, Toleration, and Heresy in Eighteenth-Century Toulouse (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1960).
28. John Locke, A Letter Concerning Toleration (London: Churchill, 1689); Pierre Bayle, De la tolération: Commentaire philosophique sur ces paroles de Jésus Christ (Paris: Presses pocket, 1992); Voltaire, Dictionnaire philosophique, ed. Raymond Naves and Julien Brenda (Paris: Barnior, 1967), 401-07; Immanuel Kant, An Answer to the Question, What is Enlightenment?, in On History, trans. Lewis White Beck, Robert E. Anchor and Emil L. Fackenheim (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1963). For a general analysis, see Susan Menus, Toleration and the Limits of Liberalism (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, 1989). For a historical study, see Geoffrey Adams, The Huguenots and French Opinion, 1685-1787: The Enlightenment Debate on Toleration (Waterloo, Ontario: Canadian Corporation for Studies in Religion, 1991). For Voltaire in action, see David Bien, The Calas Affair: Persecution, Toleration, and Heresy in Eighteenth-Century Toulouse (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1960).
29. John Locke, A Letter Concerning Toleration (London: Churchill, 1689); Pierre Bayle, De la tolération: Commentaire philosophique sur ces paroles de Jésus Christ (Paris: Presses pocket, 1992); Voltaire, Dictionnaire philosophique, ed. Raymond Naves and Julien Brenda (Paris: Barnior, 1967), 401-07; Immanuel Kant, An Answer to the Question, What is Enlightenment?, in On History, trans. Lewis White Beck, Robert E. Anchor and Emil L. Fackenheim (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1963). For a general analysis, see Susan Menus, Toleration and the Limits of Liberalism (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, 1989). For a historical study, see Geoffrey Adams, The Huguenots and French Opinion, 1685-1787: The Enlightenment Debate on Toleration (Waterloo, Ontario: Canadian Corporation for Studies in Religion, 1991). For Voltaire in action, see David Bien, The Calas Affair: Persecution, Toleration, and Heresy in Eighteenth-Century Toulouse (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1960).
30. John Locke, A Letter Concerning Toleration (London: Churchill, 1689); Pierre Bayle, De la tolération: Commentaire philosophique sur ces paroles de Jésus Christ (Paris: Presses pocket, 1992); Voltaire, Dictionnaire philosophique, ed. Raymond Naves and Julien Brenda (Paris: Barnior, 1967), 401-07; Immanuel Kant, An Answer to the Question, What is Enlightenment?, in On History, trans. Lewis White Beck, Robert E. Anchor and Emil L. Fackenheim (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1963). For a general analysis, see Susan Menus, Toleration and the Limits of Liberalism (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, 1989). For a historical study, see Geoffrey Adams, The Huguenots and French Opinion, 1685-1787: The Enlightenment Debate on Toleration (Waterloo, Ontario: Canadian Corporation for Studies in Religion, 1991). For Voltaire in action, see David Bien, The Calas Affair: Persecution, Toleration, and Heresy in Eighteenth-Century Toulouse (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1960).
31. Theodore Porter, Trust in Numbers: Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995). See also Lorraine J. Daston, 'Objectivity and the Escape from Perspective', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 22, No. 4 (November 1992), 597-618; Daston, 'The Moral Economy of Science', Osiris, Second Series, Vol. 10 (1995), 3-24.
32. Theodore Porter, Trust in Numbers: Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995). See also Lorraine J. Daston, 'Objectivity and the Escape from Perspective', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 22, No. 4 (November 1992), 597-618; Daston, 'The Moral Economy of Science', Osiris, Second Series, Vol. 10 (1995), 3-24.
33. Theodore Porter, Trust in Numbers: Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995). See also Lorraine J. Daston, 'Objectivity and the Escape from Perspective', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 22, No. 4 (November 1992), 597-618; Daston, 'The Moral Economy of Science', Osiris, Second Series, Vol. 10 (1995), 3-24.
34. François Blondel, L'art de jetter les bombes (Leyden: n.p., 1685), Preface.
35. Geertz himself borrowed the term from Gilbert Ryle: see Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973), 3-30.
36. Gaston Bachelard, Le nouvel esprit scientifique (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 3rd edn, 1980), esp. 55, 65-67, 136-40. As Peter Galison points out, Bachelard's view that instruments are reified theories underestimates the autonomous history of such instruments and their makers. Indeed, Galison's work suggests that modern physics, too, relies in part on a material culture which is amenable to a 'thick' analysis of how diverse and contending actors are able to reach partial agreement and make exchanges: see Peter Galison, Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1997), 18.
37. Gaston Bachelard, Le nouvel esprit scientifique (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 3rd edn, 1980), esp. 55, 65-67, 136-40. As Peter Galison points out, Bachelard's view that instruments are reified theories underestimates the autonomous history of such instruments and their makers. Indeed, Galison's work suggests that modern physics, too, relies in part on a material culture which is amenable to a 'thick' analysis of how diverse and contending actors are able to reach partial agreement and make exchanges: see Peter Galison, Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1997), 18.
38. Thomas P. Hughes, 'The Evolution of Large Technological Systems', and John Law, 'Technology and Heterogeneous Engineering: The Case of Portuguese Expansion', in Bijker, Hughes & Pinch (eds), op. cit. note 3, 51-82, 111-34.
39. Thomas P. Hughes, 'The Evolution of Large Technological Systems', and John Law, 'Technology and Heterogeneous Engineering: The Case of Portuguese Expansion', in Bijker, Hughes & Pinch (eds), op. cit. note 3, 51-82, 111-34.
40. Bruno Latour, 'Drawing Things Together', in Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (eds), Representations in Scientific Practice (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990), 20-69, esp. 26-35.
41. David Landes, The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969); Joel Mokyr, The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).
42. David Landes, The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969); Joel Mokyr, The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).
43. Alfred Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977).
44. For one influential statement regarding proto-industrialization, see Peter Kriedte, Hans Medick and Jürgen Schlumbohn, Industrialization before Industrialization: Rural Industry in the Genesis of Capitalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).
45. Considerable empirical evidence suggests that a well-defined entrepreneurial role was slow to develop in much of continental Europe: see William Reddy, The Rise of Market Culture: The Textile Trade and French Society, 1750-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984). Recently, Liu and Berg have noted that proto-industrialization theory takes for granted that industrializing capitalists will triumph over artisanal producers: Tessie P. Liu, The Weaver's Knot: The Contradictions of Class Struggle and Family Solidarity in Western France, 1750-1914 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), 22-44; Maxine Berg, The Age of Manufactures: Industry, Innovation, and Work in Britain, 1700-1820 (Totowa, NJ: Barnes & Noble Books, 1985), 77-86.
46. Considerable empirical evidence suggests that a well-defined entrepreneurial role was slow to develop in much of continental Europe: see William Reddy, The Rise of Market Culture: The Textile Trade and French Society, 1750-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984). Recently, Liu and Berg have noted that proto-industrialization theory takes for granted that industrializing capitalists will triumph over artisanal producers: Tessie P. Liu, The Weaver's Knot: The Contradictions of Class Struggle and Family Solidarity in Western France, 1750-1914 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), 22-44; Maxine Berg, The Age of Manufactures: Industry, Innovation, and Work in Britain, 1700-1820 (Totowa, NJ: Barnes & Noble Books, 1985), 77-86.
47. Considerable empirical evidence suggests that a well-defined entrepreneurial role was slow to develop in much of continental Europe: see William Reddy, The Rise of Market Culture: The Textile Trade and French Society, 1750-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984). Recently, Liu and Berg have noted that proto-industrialization theory takes for granted that industrializing capitalists will triumph over artisanal producers: Tessie P. Liu, The Weaver's Knot: The Contradictions of Class Struggle and Family Solidarity in Western France, 1750-1914 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), 22-44; Maxine Berg, The Age of Manufactures: Industry, Innovation, and Work in Britain, 1700-1820 (Totowa, NJ: Barnes & Noble Books, 1985), 77-86.
48. Charles Sabel and Jonathan Zeitlin, 'Historical Alternatives to Mass Production: Politics, Markets and Technology in Nineteenth-Century Industrialization', Past and Present, Vol. 108 (1986), 133-76. See their revised version of this argument in Sabel and Zeitlin (eds), Worlds of Possibility: Flexibility and Mass Production in Western Industrialization (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 1-33.
49. Charles Sabel and Jonathan Zeitlin, 'Historical Alternatives to Mass Production: Politics, Markets and Technology in Nineteenth-Century Industrialization', Past and Present, Vol. 108 (1986), 133-76. See their revised version of this argument in Sabel and Zeitlin (eds), Worlds of Possibility: Flexibility and Mass Production in Western Industrialization (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 1-33.
50. William H. Sewell, Jr, Work and Revolution: The Language of Labour in France from the Old Regime to 1848 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).
51. Michael Sonenscher, The Hatters of Eighteenth-Century France (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1987); Sonenscher, Work and Wages: Natural Law, Politics and the Eighteenth-Century French Trades (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
52. Michael Sonenscher, The Hatters of Eighteenth-Century France (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1987); Sonenscher, Work and Wages: Natural Law, Politics and the Eighteenth-Century French Trades (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
53. See also Liliane Hilaire-Pérez, 'Invention and the State in 18th-Century France', Technology and Culture, Vol. 32, No. 4 (October 1991), 911-31.
54. Sonenscher, Hatters (1987), op. cit. note 22; see also Leora Auslander, Taste and Power: Furnishing France (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1996). On measures and their transformation in this period, see Ken Alder, 'A Revolution to Measure: The Political Economy of the Metric System in France', in Wise (ed.), op. cit. note 6, 37-71.
55. Sonenscher, Hatters (1987), op. cit. note 22; see also Leora Auslander, Taste and Power: Furnishing France (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1996). On measures and their transformation in this period, see Ken Alder, 'A Revolution to Measure: The Political Economy of the Metric System in France', in Wise (ed.), op. cit. note 6, 37-71.
56. Sonenscher, Hatters (1987), op. cit. note 22; see also Leora Auslander, Taste and Power: Furnishing France (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1996). On measures and their transformation in this period, see Ken Alder, 'A Revolution to Measure: The Political Economy of the Metric System in France', in Wise (ed.), op. cit. note 6, 37-71.
57. Simone Meyssonnier, La balance et l'horloge: La genèse de la pensée libérale en France au XVIIIe siècle (Montreuil: Editions de la Passion, 1989); Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, The Origins of Physiocracy: Economic Revolution and Social Order in Eighteenth-Century France (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1976), 61-62, 100-03, 304-06. For the distinction between market principle and marketplace, see Steven L. Kaplan, Provisioning Paris: Merchants and Millers in the Grain and Flour Trade during the Eighteenth Century (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984), 25-33.
58. Simone Meyssonnier, La balance et l'horloge: La genèse de la pensée libérale en France au XVIIIe siècle (Montreuil: Editions de la Passion, 1989); Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, The Origins of Physiocracy: Economic Revolution and Social Order in Eighteenth-Century France (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1976), 61-62, 100-03, 304-06. For the distinction between market principle and marketplace, see Steven L. Kaplan, Provisioning Paris: Merchants and Millers in the Grain and Flour Trade during the Eighteenth Century (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984), 25-33.
59. Simone Meyssonnier, La balance et l'horloge: La genèse de la pensée libérale en France au XVIIIe siècle (Montreuil: Editions de la Passion, 1989); Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, The Origins of Physiocracy: Economic Revolution and Social Order in Eighteenth-Century France (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1976), 61-62, 100-03, 304-06. For the distinction between market principle and marketplace, see Steven L. Kaplan, Provisioning Paris: Merchants and Millers in the Grain and Flour Trade during the Eighteenth Century (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984), 25-33.
60. Diderot, 'Art', in Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, Vol. 1 (Paris, 1751), 713-18, at 716. For his attacks on secrecy, see Diderot, 'Encyclopédie', Encyclopédie, Vol. 5 (1755), 635-48, at 647.
61. Diderot, 'Art', in Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, Vol. 1 (Paris, 1751), 713-18, at 716. For his attacks on secrecy, see Diderot, 'Encyclopédie', Encyclopédie, Vol. 5 (1755), 635-48, at 647.
62. On the critique of private justice and demand for a public sphere, see Sarah Maza, Private Lives and Public Affairs: The Cause Célèbres of Prerevolutionary France (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993). Diderot's critique of private technological knowledge is one of the few ways in which the philosophes extended Francis Bacon's programme. For the present distinction between current open science and proprietary technology, see Partha Dasgupta and Paul A. David, 'Toward a New Economics of Science', Research Policy, Vol. 23 (1994), 47-521.
63. On the critique of private justice and demand for a public sphere, see Sarah Maza, Private Lives and Public Affairs: The Cause Célèbres of Prerevolutionary France (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993). Diderot's critique of private technological knowledge is one of the few ways in which the philosophes extended Francis Bacon's programme. For the present distinction between current open science and proprietary technology, see Partha Dasgupta and Paul A. David, 'Toward a New Economics of Science', Research Policy, Vol. 23 (1994), 47-521.
64. Ken Alder, 'French Engineers Become Professionals, Or, Meritocracy Makes Knowledge Objective', in William Clark, Jan Golinski and Simon Schaffer (eds), The Sciences in Enlightened Europe (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, forthcoming [1998]).
65. On the relationship between state structure, military power, and forms of production, see Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990-1992 (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, rev. edn, 1992); William McNeill, The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force, and Society since AD 1000 (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1982); and Thomas Ertman, Birth of the Leviathan: Building States and Regimes in Medieval and Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
66. On the relationship between state structure, military power, and forms of production, see Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990-1992 (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, rev. edn, 1992); William McNeill, The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force, and Society since AD 1000 (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1982); and Thomas Ertman, Birth of the Leviathan: Building States and Regimes in Medieval and Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
67. On the relationship between state structure, military power, and forms of production, see Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990-1992 (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, rev. edn, 1992); William McNeill, The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force, and Society since AD 1000 (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1982); and Thomas Ertman, Birth of the Leviathan: Building States and Regimes in Medieval and Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
68. Lorraine J. Daston and Peter Galison, 'The Image of Objectivity', Representations, Vol. 40 (1992), 81-128; see also their Images of Objectivity (forthcoming).
69. Lorraine J. Daston and Peter Galison, 'The Image of Objectivity', Representations, Vol. 40 (1992), 81-128; see also their Images of Objectivity (forthcoming).
70. Michael Lynch, 'Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 15, No. 1 (February 1985), 37-65.
71. Latour turns briefly and insightfully to engineering drawings, without explaining the particular historical circumstances which led engineers to seek this form of representation: see Latour, op. cit. note 15, 52-54.
72. Diderot, 'Art', op. cit. note 26.
73. Cynthia Koepp, 'The Alphabetical Order: Work in Diderot's Encyclopédie', and William H. Sewell, Jr, 'Visions of Labor: Illustrations of the Mechanical Arts before, in, and after Diderot's Encyclopédie', in Steven Kaplan and Koepp (eds), Work in France: Representations, Meaning, Organization, and Practice (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986), 229-57 and 258-86; Antoine Picon, 'Gestes ouvriers, opération et processus technique: La vision de travail des encyclopédistes', Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, Vol. 13 (1992), 131-47.
74. Cynthia Koepp, 'The Alphabetical Order: Work in Diderot's Encyclopédie', and William H. Sewell, Jr, 'Visions of Labor: Illustrations of the Mechanical Arts before, in, and after Diderot's Encyclopédie', in Steven Kaplan and Koepp (eds), Work in France: Representations, Meaning, Organization, and Practice (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986), 229-57 and 258-86; Antoine Picon, 'Gestes ouvriers, opération et processus technique: La vision de travail des encyclopédistes', Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, Vol. 13 (1992), 131-47.
75. Cynthia Koepp, 'The Alphabetical Order: Work in Diderot's Encyclopédie', and William H. Sewell, Jr, 'Visions of Labor: Illustrations of the Mechanical Arts before, in, and after Diderot's Encyclopédie', in Steven Kaplan and Koepp (eds), Work in France: Representations, Meaning, Organization, and Practice (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986), 229-57 and 258-86; Antoine Picon, 'Gestes ouvriers, opération et processus technique: La vision de travail des encyclopédistes', Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, Vol. 13 (1992), 131-47.
76. John R. Pannabecker, 'Representing Mechanical Arts in Diderot's Encyclopédie', Technology and Culture, Vol. 39, No. 1 (January 1998), 33-73.
77. On the importance and variety of drawing education in France, see Yves Deforge, Le graphisme technique: Son histoire et son enseignement (Seyssel: Vallon, 1981); and Antoine Léon, La Révolution française et l'education technique (Paris: Société des Etudes Robespierristes, 1968).
78. On the importance and variety of drawing education in France, see Yves Deforge, Le graphisme technique: Son histoire et son enseignement (Seyssel: Vallon, 1981); and Antoine Léon, La Révolution française et l'education technique (Paris: Société des Etudes Robespierristes, 1968).
79. Michael E. Gorman and W. Bernard Carlson, 'Interpreting Invention as a Cognitive Process: The Case of Alexander Graham Bell, Thomas Edison, and the Telephone', Science, Technology, & Human Values, Vol. 15, No. 2 (Spring 1990), 131-64.
80. Auslander, op. cit. note 24, 88, 111-17.
81. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, trans. Allan Bloom, Emile, or on Education (New York: Basic Books, 1979), 143-46, 195-203.
82. [Jean-Jacques Bachelier]. Détails sur l'origine et l'administration de l'École Royale Gratuite de Dessin (Paris, 1768). Enrolment is calculated from AN F17 2499: Bachelier to Min. Interior (19 December 1792). On the artisanal drawing schools, see Arthur Birembaut, 'Les écoles gratuites de dessin', in Roger Hahn and René Taton (eds), Écoles techniques et militaires au XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Hermann, 1986), 441-76. On the paradoxical Enlightenment attitudes toward popular education, see Harvey Chisick, The Limits of Reform in the Enlightenment: Attitudes toward the Education of the Lower Classes in Eighteenth-Century France (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981).
83. [Jean-Jacques Bachelier]. Détails sur l'origine et l'administration de l'École Royale Gratuite de Dessin (Paris, 1768). Enrolment is calculated from AN F17 2499: Bachelier to Min. Interior (19 December 1792). On the artisanal drawing schools, see Arthur Birembaut, 'Les écoles gratuites de dessin', in Roger Hahn and René Taton (eds), Écoles techniques et militaires au XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Hermann, 1986), 441-76. On the paradoxical Enlightenment attitudes toward popular education, see Harvey Chisick, The Limits of Reform in the Enlightenment: Attitudes toward the Education of the Lower Classes in Eighteenth-Century France (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981).
84. [Jean-Jacques Bachelier]. Détails sur l'origine et l'administration de l'École Royale Gratuite de Dessin (Paris, 1768). Enrolment is calculated from AN F17 2499: Bachelier to Min. Interior (19 December 1792). On the artisanal drawing schools, see Arthur Birembaut, 'Les écoles gratuites de dessin', in Roger Hahn and René Taton (eds), Écoles techniques et militaires au XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Hermann, 1986), 441-76. On the paradoxical Enlightenment attitudes toward popular education, see Harvey Chisick, The Limits of Reform in the Enlightenment: Attitudes toward the Education of the Lower Classes in Eighteenth-Century France (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981).
85. Jean-Jacques Bachelier, Discours sur l'utilité des écoles élémentaires en faveur des arts mécaniques (10 September 1766), 7-8; Bachelier, Collection des discours (Paris: Imprimerie Royale, 1790), 39.
86. Jean-Jacques Bachelier, Discours sur l'utilité des écoles élémentaires en faveur des arts mécaniques (10 September 1766), 7-8; Bachelier, Collection des discours (Paris: Imprimerie Royale, 1790), 39.
87. Lettres patentes du roi portant établissement d'une Ecole Gratuite de Dessin à Paris (20 October 1767); J.-J. Bachelier, Collection des discours [1771], 19.
88. Lettres patentes du roi portant établissement d'une Ecole Gratuite de Dessin à Paris (20 October 1767); J.-J. Bachelier, Collection des discours [1771], 19.
89. The classic essay on the new Renaissance grammar of visualization is W.M. Ivins, On the Rationalization of Sight (New York: Metropolitan Museum, 1938). On the translatability of Renaissance perspective, see Samuel Y. Edgerton, The Renaissance Discovery of Linear Perspective (New York: Harper & Row, 1976).
90. The classic essay on the new Renaissance grammar of visualization is W.M. Ivins, On the Rationalization of Sight (New York: Metropolitan Museum, 1938). On the translatability of Renaissance perspective, see Samuel Y. Edgerton, The Renaissance Discovery of Linear Perspective (New York: Harper & Row, 1976).
91. For an excellent technical discussion of the different forms of mechanical drawing, see Peter Geoffrey Booker, A History of Engineering Drawing (London: Northgate, 1979). For a general history of technical drawing and its bearing on engineering, see Eugene Ferguson, Engineering and the Mind's Eye (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992), 87-96.
92. For an excellent technical discussion of the different forms of mechanical drawing, see Peter Geoffrey Booker, A History of Engineering Drawing (London: Northgate, 1979). For a general history of technical drawing and its bearing on engineering, see Eugene Ferguson, Engineering and the Mind's Eye (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992), 87-96.
93. René Descartes, La dioptrique, les météores et la géométrie, in Discours de la méthode (Paris: Fayard [1637], 1987), 71-208. One of Monge's exercises was to show how the descriptive geometry can be used to transform projective views into perspective views. The reverse transformation, however, is not possible.
94. Daston, 'Objectivity' (1992), op. cit. note 10; Daston & Galison (1992), op. cit. note 30; Bosse quoted in Mark Schneider, Gerard Desargues, The Architectural and Perspective Geometry: A Study in the Rationalization of Figure (unpublished PhD dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, 1984), 142. The phrase 'view from nowhere' comes from Thomas Nagel, The View from Nowhere (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985).
95. Daston, 'Objectivity' (1992), op. cit. note 10; Daston & Galison (1992), op. cit. note 30; Bosse quoted in Mark Schneider, Gerard Desargues, The Architectural and Perspective Geometry: A Study in the Rationalization of Figure (unpublished PhD dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, 1984), 142. The phrase 'view from nowhere' comes from Thomas Nagel, The View from Nowhere (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985).
96. Daston, 'Objectivity' (1992), op. cit. note 10; Daston & Galison (1992), op. cit. note 30; Bosse quoted in Mark Schneider, Gerard Desargues, The Architectural and Perspective Geometry: A Study in the Rationalization of Figure (unpublished PhD dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, 1984), 142. The phrase 'view from nowhere' comes from Thomas Nagel, The View from Nowhere (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985).
97. Daston, 'Objectivity' (1992), op. cit. note 10; Daston & Galison (1992), op. cit. note 30; Bosse quoted in Mark Schneider, Gerard Desargues, The Architectural and Perspective Geometry: A Study in the Rationalization of Figure (unpublished PhD dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, 1984), 142. The phrase 'view from nowhere' comes from Thomas Nagel, The View from Nowhere (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985).
98. Amédée-François Frézier, Elémens de stéréotomie à l'usage de l'architecture pour la coupe des pierres, Vol. 1 (Paris: Jombert, 1760), ix-x. On drawing in the schools of the fortification engineers, see Bruno Belhoste, Antoine Picon and Joël Sakarovitch, 'Les exercises dans les écoles d'ingénieurs sous l'ancien régime et la révolution', Histoire de l'éducation, Vol. 46 (1990), 53-109.
99. Amédée-François Frézier, Elémens de stéréotomie à l'usage de l'architecture pour la coupe des pierres, Vol. 1 (Paris: Jombert, 1760), ix-x. On drawing in the schools of the fortification engineers, see Bruno Belhoste, Antoine Picon and Joël Sakarovitch, 'Les exercises dans les écoles d'ingénieurs sous l'ancien régime et la révolution', Histoire de l'éducation, Vol. 46 (1990), 53-109.
100. SHAT 2a59: Le Pelletier, 'Instructions qui seront données sur le dessein à l'École d'Artillerie de Metz' (1749); Joseph Du Teil, 'Salle de dessin' (1786); 'École d'Artillerie de Metz' (October 1767); Saint-Auban, 'Instruction' (25 October 1765).
101. SHAT 2a59: Le Pelletier, 'Instructions qui seront données sur le dessein à l'École d'Artillerie de Metz' (1749); Joseph Du Teil, 'Salle de dessin' (1786); 'École d'Artillerie de Metz' (October 1767); Saint-Auban, 'Instruction' (25 October 1765).
102. SHAT 2a59: Le Pelletier, 'Instructions qui seront données sur le dessein à l'École d'Artillerie de Metz' (1749); Joseph Du Teil, 'Salle de dessin' (1786); 'École d'Artillerie de Metz' (October 1767); Saint-Auban, 'Instruction' (25 October 1765).
103. SHAT 2a59: Le Pelletier, 'Instructions qui seront données sur le dessein à l'École d'Artillerie de Metz' (1749); Joseph Du Teil, 'Salle de dessin' (1786); 'École d'Artillerie de Metz' (October 1767); Saint-Auban, 'Instruction' (25 October 1765).
104. Gaspard Monge, 'Stéréotomie', Journal de l'École Polytechnique, Vol. 1 (year III [1795]), 1-14, at 1;
105. Monge, Géométrie descriptive, Leçons de l'an III (Paris, year VII [1799]), xvi.
106. On the methods of masons, see Lon Shelby, 'The Geometrical Knowledge of the Medieval Master Masons', Speculum, Vol. 47 (1972), 395-421.
107. Gaspard Monge, 'Développements sur l'enseignement adopté pour l'École Centrale des Travaux Publics', 21 ventôse, year II [11 March 1794], in Janis Langins, La République avait besoin des savants; Les débuts de l'École Polytechnique: L'École Centrale des Travaux Publics et les cours Révolutionnaires de l'an III (Paris: Belin, 1987), 227-47, at 245.
108. Harold Belofsky notes that the descriptive geometry comes in two 'dialects', which are the product of distinct and contingent historical developments: H. Belofsky, 'Engineering Drawing - A Universal Language in Two Dialects', Technology and Culture, Vol. 32, No. 1 (January 1991), 23-46, at 32-34.
109. SHAT 2a59: Joseph Du Teil, 'Salle de dessin' (1786). For a text on shadows used by students at the military engineering school at Mézières in the late ancien régime, see [Monge?], 'Traité des ombres dans le dessin géométral' [1774], in Théodore Olivier (ed.), Applications de la géométrie descriptive (Paris: Carillian-Goeury, 1847), 6-8. For a text from the Revolutionary period, see Monge, 'Stéréotomie', op. cit. note 49, 9. Today, manuals still warn students of the difficulties of reading technical drawings: see, for example, W. Abbott, Technical Drawing (London: Blackie, 1962), 14. Auslander points out that while artisans produced shaded drawings for potential customers, they did not shade the private drawings they used in production: Auslander, op. cit. note 24, 334-37.
110. SHAT 2a59: Joseph Du Teil, 'Salle de dessin' (1786). For a text on shadows used by students at the military engineering school at Mézières in the late ancien régime, see [Monge?], 'Traité des ombres dans le dessin géométral' [1774], in Théodore Olivier (ed.), Applications de la géométrie descriptive (Paris: Carillian-Goeury, 1847), 6-8. For a text from the Revolutionary period, see Monge, 'Stéréotomie', op. cit. note 49, 9. Today, manuals still warn students of the difficulties of reading technical drawings: see, for example, W. Abbott, Technical Drawing (London: Blackie, 1962), 14. Auslander points out that while artisans produced shaded drawings for potential customers, they did not shade the private drawings they used in production: Auslander, op. cit. note 24, 334-37.
111. SHAT 2a59: Joseph Du Teil, 'Salle de dessin' (1786). For a text on shadows used by students at the military engineering school at Mézières in the late ancien régime, see [Monge?], 'Traité des ombres dans le dessin géométral' [1774], in Théodore Olivier (ed.), Applications de la géométrie descriptive (Paris: Carillian-Goeury, 1847), 6-8. For a text from the Revolutionary period, see Monge, 'Stéréotomie', op. cit. note 49, 9. Today, manuals still warn students of the difficulties of reading technical drawings: see, for example, W. Abbott, Technical Drawing (London: Blackie, 1962), 14. Auslander points out that while artisans produced shaded drawings for potential customers, they did not shade the private drawings they used in production: Auslander, op. cit. note 24, 334-37.
112. SHAT 2a59: Joseph Du Teil, 'Salle de dessin' (1786). For a text on shadows used by students at the military engineering school at Mézières in the late ancien régime, see [Monge?], 'Traité des ombres dans le dessin géométral' [1774], in Théodore Olivier (ed.), Applications de la géométrie descriptive (Paris: Carillian-Goeury, 1847), 6-8. For a text from the Revolutionary period, see Monge, 'Stéréotomie', op. cit. note 49, 9. Today, manuals still warn students of the difficulties of reading technical drawings: see, for example, W. Abbott, Technical Drawing (London: Blackie, 1962), 14. Auslander points out that while artisans produced shaded drawings for potential customers, they did not shade the private drawings they used in production: Auslander, op. cit. note 24, 334-37.
113. SHAT 2a59: Joseph Du Teil, 'Salle de dessin' (1786). For a text on shadows used by students at the military engineering school at Mézières in the late ancien régime, see [Monge?], 'Traité des ombres dans le dessin géométral' [1774], in Théodore Olivier (ed.), Applications de la géométrie descriptive (Paris: Carillian-Goeury, 1847), 6-8. For a text from the Revolutionary period, see Monge, 'Stéréotomie', op. cit. note 49, 9. Today, manuals still warn students of the difficulties of reading technical drawings: see, for example, W. Abbott, Technical Drawing (London: Blackie, 1962), 14. Auslander points out that while artisans produced shaded drawings for potential customers, they did not shade the private drawings they used in production: Auslander, op. cit. note 24, 334-37.
114. A.L. Lavoisier, Réflexions sur l'instruction publique (August 1793), in Oeuvres de Lavoisier, Vol. 6 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1862-93), 516-58, at 523.
115. See the argument and original documents collected in Langins, République (1987), op. cit. note 50; and Belhoste, Picon & Sakarovitch, op. cit. note 47.
116. See the argument and original documents collected in Langins, République (1987), op. cit. note 50; and Belhoste, Picon & Sakarovitch, op. cit. note 47.
117. See Léon, op. cit. note 36. On technical drawing as a tool for social advancement, see Patrice Bourdelais, 'Employés de la grande industrie: Les dessinateurs du Creusot, Formations et carrières (1850-1914)', Annales: histoire, économie et société, Vol. 8 (1989), 437-46. And for drawing as a tool to organize the 19th-century machine shop, see James M. Edmonson, From Mécanicien to Ingénieur: Technical Education and Machine Building in Nineteenth-Century France (New York: Garland, 1987).
118. See Léon, op. cit. note 36. On technical drawing as a tool for social advancement, see Patrice Bourdelais, 'Employés de la grande industrie: Les dessinateurs du Creusot, Formations et carrières (1850-1914)', Annales: histoire, économie et société, Vol. 8 (1989), 437-46. And for drawing as a tool to organize the 19th-century machine shop, see James M. Edmonson, From Mécanicien to Ingénieur: Technical Education and Machine Building in Nineteenth-Century France (New York: Garland, 1987).
119. See Léon, op. cit. note 36. On technical drawing as a tool for social advancement, see Patrice Bourdelais, 'Employés de la grande industrie: Les dessinateurs du Creusot, Formations et carrières (1850-1914)', Annales: histoire, économie et société, Vol. 8 (1989), 437-46. And for drawing as a tool to organize the 19th-century machine shop, see James M. Edmonson, From Mécanicien to Ingénieur: Technical Education and Machine Building in Nineteenth-Century France (New York: Garland, 1987).
120. Zuboff, op. cit. note 2.
121. Henderson, op. cit. note 2.
122. Desargues quoted in Schneider, op. cit. note 46, 100.
123. Booker, op. cit. note 44, 185-97.
124. A parallel story might be told about the uses and limits of technical drawings by examining the history of Watt's engines, as he moved from free-hand sketches for his own use to his increasingly formalized drawings for production to the fully projective views for the sale and assembly of steam engines abroad in France: see Ken Baynes and Francis Pugh, The Art of the Engineer (Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press, 1981), 36-37, 60 69 ; Jacques Payen, Capital et machine à vapeur au XVIIIe siècle: Les frères Périer et l'introduction en France de la machine à vapeur de Watt (Paris: Mouton, 1969).
125. A parallel story might be told about the uses and limits of technical drawings by examining the history of Watt's engines, as he moved from free-hand sketches for his own use to his increasingly formalized drawings for production to the fully projective views for the sale and assembly of steam engines abroad in France: see Ken Baynes and Francis Pugh, The Art of the Engineer (Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press, 1981), 36-37, 60 69 ; Jacques Payen, Capital et machine à vapeur au XVIIIe siècle: Les frères Périer et l'introduction en France de la machine à vapeur de Watt (Paris: Mouton, 1969).
126. Jean-Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval, Tables de construction des principaux attirails de l'artillerie proposées ou approuvées depuis 1764 jusqu'en 1789 (Paris: n.p., 1792). The 1732 law proclaiming the Vallière system artillery had also been accompanied by official plans and hence had been sanctioned with the force of law: Ordonnance royale du 7 octobre 1732, in Pierre Surirey de Saint-Rémy (ed.), Mémoires d'artillerie, recueillis, Vol. 3 (Paris: Rollin, 3rd edn, 1745), 450-62.
127. Jean-Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval, Tables de construction des principaux attirails de l'artillerie proposées ou approuvées depuis 1764 jusqu'en 1789 (Paris: n.p., 1792). The 1732 law proclaiming the Vallière system artillery had also been accompanied by official plans and hence had been sanctioned with the force of law: Ordonnance royale du 7 octobre 1732, in Pierre Surirey de Saint-Rémy (ed.), Mémoires d'artillerie, recueillis, Vol. 3 (Paris: Rollin, 3rd edn, 1745), 450-62.
128. Gaspard Monge, Description de l'art de fabriquer les canons (Paris: Imprimerie du Comité de Salut Public, year II [1795-94]). On military secrecy, see SHAT 9a11: Gribeauval to Manson (7 March 1765). On the need for flexibility, see SHAT 4c3/2: Gribeauval, 'Additions et corrections proposées aux Tables de construction' (September 1767).
129. Gaspard Monge, Description de l'art de fabriquer les canons (Paris: Imprimerie du Comité de Salut Public, year II [1795-94]). On military secrecy, see SHAT 9a11: Gribeauval to Manson (7 March 1765). On the need for flexibility, see SHAT 4c3/2: Gribeauval, 'Additions et corrections proposées aux Tables de construction' (September 1767).
130. Gaspard Monge, Description de l'art de fabriquer les canons (Paris: Imprimerie du Comité de Salut Public, year II [1795-94]). On military secrecy, see SHAT 9a11: Gribeauval to Manson (7 March 1765). On the need for flexibility, see SHAT 4c3/2: Gribeauval, 'Additions et corrections proposées aux Tables de construction' (September 1767).
131. SHAT 9a11: Gribeauval to Manson (7 March 1765).
132. One exception is Robert B. Gordon, 'Who Turned the Mechanical Ideal into Mechanical Reality?', Technology and Culture, Vol. 29, No. 4 (October 1988), 744-78; see also Gordon and Patrick Malone, The Texture of Industry: An Archeological View of the Industrialization of North America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 373-80, 380-88.
133. One exception is Robert B. Gordon, 'Who Turned the Mechanical Ideal into Mechanical Reality?', Technology and Culture, Vol. 29, No. 4 (October 1988), 744-78; see also Gordon and Patrick Malone, The Texture of Industry: An Archeological View of the Industrialization of North America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 373-80, 380-88.
134. For an account of the role of tolerances in late-19th-century interchangeable parts production, see Gustave Ply, 'Etude sur l'organisation du service technique dans les manufactures d'armes', Revue d'artillerie, Vol. 32 (1888), 344-90; Vol. 33 (1888-89), 5-47, 101-42, 211-43, 297-332. For an account of tolerancing in modern Fordist production, see Earle Buckingham, Principles of Interchangeable Manufacturing (New York: The Industrial Press, 2nd edn, 1941), 1-17. For a theoretical account of contemporary computerized tolerances, see Øyvind Bjørke, Computer-Aided Tolerancing (New York: ASME Press, 2nd edn, 1989).
135. For an account of the role of tolerances in late-19th-century interchangeable parts production, see Gustave Ply, 'Etude sur l'organisation du service technique dans les manufactures d'armes', Revue d'artillerie, Vol. 32 (1888), 344-90; Vol. 33 (1888-89), 5-47, 101-42, 211-43, 297-332. For an account of tolerancing in modern Fordist production, see Earle Buckingham, Principles of Interchangeable Manufacturing (New York: The Industrial Press, 2nd edn, 1941), 1-17. For a theoretical account of contemporary computerized tolerances, see Øyvind Bjørke, Computer-Aided Tolerancing (New York: ASME Press, 2nd edn, 1989).
136. For an account of the role of tolerances in late-19th-century interchangeable parts production, see Gustave Ply, 'Etude sur l'organisation du service technique dans les manufactures d'armes', Revue d'artillerie, Vol. 32 (1888), 344-90; Vol. 33 (1888-89), 5-47, 101-42, 211-43, 297-332. For an account of tolerancing in modern Fordist production, see Earle Buckingham, Principles of Interchangeable Manufacturing (New York: The Industrial Press, 2nd edn, 1941), 1-17. For a theoretical account of contemporary computerized tolerances, see Øyvind Bjørke, Computer-Aided Tolerancing (New York: ASME Press, 2nd edn, 1989).
137. For an account of the role of tolerances in late-19th-century interchangeable parts production, see Gustave Ply, 'Etude sur l'organisation du service technique dans les manufactures d'armes', Revue d'artillerie, Vol. 32 (1888), 344-90; Vol. 33 (1888-89), 5-47, 101-42, 211-43, 297-332. For an account of tolerancing in modern Fordist production, see Earle Buckingham, Principles of Interchangeable Manufacturing (New York: The Industrial Press, 2nd edn, 1941), 1-17. For a theoretical account of contemporary computerized tolerances, see Øyvind Bjørke, Computer-Aided Tolerancing (New York: ASME Press, 2nd edn, 1989).
138. On gun-making gauges in the early 18th century, see Cesar Fiosconi and Jordam Gusero, trans. Rainier Daehnhardt and W. Keith Neil, Espiarda Perfeyta, or The Perfect Gun (London: Sotheby [1718], 1974), 47, 51-55, 195. For calipers and many other guides to machining, see the plates and text of appropriate sections of Diderot's Encyclopédie, op. cit. note 26.
139. On gun-making gauges in the early 18th century, see Cesar Fiosconi and Jordam Gusero, trans. Rainier Daehnhardt and W. Keith Neil, Espiarda Perfeyta, or The Perfect Gun (London: Sotheby [1718], 1974), 47, 51-55, 195. For calipers and many other guides to machining, see the plates and text of appropriate sections of Diderot's Encyclopédie, op. cit. note 26.
140. From the point of view of die shop floor, engineers and managers invariably come to production as outsiders, imposing standards, novel work procedures and new production schedules. Even within a modern firm, relations between employer and employees are in some sense a highly controlled exchange: see Michael Buroway, Manufacturing Consent: Changes in the Labor Process under Monopoly Capitalism (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1979), 5-56.
141. Porter, op. cit. note 10.
142. E.P. Thompson, 'Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism', Past and Present, Vol. 38 (1967), 56-97.
143. Peter Linebaugh, The London Hanged: Crime and Civil Society in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 371-401.
144. Alder, op. cit. note 24.
145. See any of the standard works on the Gribeauvalist reforms: Pierre Chalmin, 'La querelle des Bleus et des Rouges dans l'artillerie française à la fin du XVIIIe siècle', Revue d'histoire économique et sociale, Vol. 46 (1968), 465-505; Howard Rosen, The Système Gribeauval: A Study of Technological Development and Institutional Change in Eighteenth-Century France (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Chicago, 1981); Pierre Nardin, Gribeauval, Lieutenant-general des armées du roi, 1715-1789 (Paris: La Fondation pour les Etudes de Défense Nationale, 1982).
146. See any of the standard works on the Gribeauvalist reforms: Pierre Chalmin, 'La querelle des Bleus et des Rouges dans l'artillerie française à la fin du XVIIIe siècle', Revue d'histoire économique et sociale, Vol. 46 (1968), 465-505; Howard Rosen, The Système Gribeauval: A Study of Technological Development and Institutional Change in Eighteenth-Century France (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Chicago, 1981); Pierre Nardin, Gribeauval, Lieutenant-general des armées du roi, 1715-1789 (Paris: La Fondation pour les Etudes de Défense Nationale, 1982).
147. See any of the standard works on the Gribeauvalist reforms: Pierre Chalmin, 'La querelle des Bleus et des Rouges dans l'artillerie française à la fin du XVIIIe siècle', Revue d'histoire économique et sociale, Vol. 46 (1968), 465-505; Howard Rosen, The Système Gribeauval: A Study of Technological Development and Institutional Change in Eighteenth-Century France (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Chicago, 1981); Pierre Nardin, Gribeauval, Lieutenant-general des armées du roi, 1715-1789 (Paris: La Fondation pour les Etudes de Défense Nationale, 1982).
148. Heinrich Othon von Scheel, Mémoires d'artillerie contenant l'artillerie nouvelle, ou les changements faits dans l'artillerie française depuis 1765 (Copenhagen: Philibert, 1777), 143-46; Philippe-Charles-Jean-Baptiste Tronson Du Coudray, L'artillerie nouvelle ou examen des changements fans dans l'artillerie française depuis 1765 (Amsterdam: n.p., 1773), 58. SHAT 9a11: Gribeauval to Manson (7 March 1765).
149. Heinrich Othon von Scheel, Mémoires d'artillerie contenant l'artillerie nouvelle, ou les changements faits dans l'artillerie française depuis 1765 (Copenhagen: Philibert, 1777), 143-46; Philippe-Charles-Jean-Baptiste Tronson Du Coudray, L'artillerie nouvelle ou examen des changements fans dans l'artillerie française depuis 1765 (Amsterdam: n.p., 1773), 58. SHAT 9a11: Gribeauval to Manson (7 March 1765).
150. Heinrich Othon von Scheel, Mémoires d'artillerie contenant l'artillerie nouvelle, ou les changements faits dans l'artillerie française depuis 1765 (Copenhagen: Philibert, 1777), 143-46; Philippe-Charles-Jean-Baptiste Tronson Du Coudray, L'artillerie nouvelle ou examen des changements fans dans l'artillerie française depuis 1765 (Amsterdam: n.p., 1773), 58. SHAT 9a11: Gribeauval to Manson (7 March 1765).
151. Charles M.S. Dartein, Traité élémentaire sur les procédés en usage dans les fonderies pour la fabrication des bouches à feu d'artillerie (Strasbourg: Levrault, 1810), 260.
152. 'Réglement pour la visite, l'épreuve et la réception des canons de fer pour l'artillerie de mer' (1786) and 'Règlement pour la visite, l'épreuve et la réception des canons de bronze pour l'artillerie de terre' (1791), in Monge, op. cit. note 62, 217-25, 226-30.
153. 'Réglement pour la visite, l'épreuve et la réception des canons de fer pour l'artillerie de mer' (1786) and 'Règlement pour la visite, l'épreuve et la réception des canons de bronze pour l'artillerie de terre' (1791), in Monge, op. cit. note 62, 217-25, 226-30.
154. SHAT 9a11: Gribeauval to Manson (7 March 1765). SHAT 4d4: Choiseul to Chateaufer (31 March 1765).
155. Du Coudray, op. cit. note 73, 80.
156. Du Coudray, op. cit. note 73, 66-67. SHAT 4d4: Choiseul to Chateaufer (12 January 1765); Maritz to Choiseul (24 January 1765).
157. Du Coudray, op. cit. note 73, 66. SHAT 4d4: Choiseul to Chateaufer (31 March 1765).
158. Du Coudray, op. cit. note 73, 58, 62; Alder, op. cit. note 24.
159. Du Coudray, op. cit. note 73, 58, 62; Alder, op. cit. note 24.
160. Wise (ed.), op. cit. note 6.
161. SHAT 9a11: Gribeauval to Manson (7 March 1765).
162. Jean-Louis Lombard, Traité du mouvement des projectiles (Dijon: Frantin, year V [1796-97]), xiv.
163. SHAT 9a11: Gribeauval to Ségur (16 April 1783). For a general description of the Klingenthal armoury, see François Bonnefoy, Les armes de guerre portatives en France du début du règne de Louis XIV à la veille de la Révolution (1660-1789): De l'indépendance à la primauté (Paris: Libraire de l'Inde, 1991), 287-334.
164. SHAT 9a11: Gribeauval to Ségur (16 April 1783). For a general description of the Klingenthal armoury, see François Bonnefoy, Les armes de guerre portatives en France du début du règne de Louis XIV à la veille de la Révolution (1660-1789): De l'indépendance à la primauté (Paris: Libraire de l'Inde, 1991), 287-334.
165. For complaints about the rings in Saint-Etienne, see SHATT591(1/2): Givry to Fyard (12 February 1783). See also Honoré Blanc, Mémoire important sur les fabrications des armes de guerre (Paris: Cellot, 1790).
166. For complaints about the rings in Saint-Etienne, see SHATT591(1/2): Givry to Fyard (12 February 1783). See also Honoré Blanc, Mémoire important sur les fabrications des armes de guerre (Paris: Cellot, 1790).
167. For the artisans' original complaint, see ANT591(1/2): Jean Schmidt et al., 'Aujourd'hui' (29 January 1783). For the government correspondence on this matter, see ANT591(1/2): Givry to Ségur (22 October 1782); Givry to Gribeauval (23 January 1783); Givry, 'Mémoire' (3 February 1783); Gribeauval to Ségur (29 January 1783); Ségur to Gribeauval (11 March 1783).
168. For the artisans' original complaint, see ANT591(1/2): Jean Schmidt et al., 'Aujourd'hui' (29 January 1783). For the government correspondence on this matter, see ANT591(1/2): Givry to Ségur (22 October 1782); Givry to Gribeauval (23 January 1783); Givry, 'Mémoire' (3 February 1783); Gribeauval to Ségur (29 January 1783); Ségur to Gribeauval (11 March 1783).
169. SHAT 9a11: Villeneuve to Gribeauval (4 April 1783).
170. Ibid.; also SHATT591(1/2): Givry to Agoult (15 March 1783).
171. SHAT Bib. MS175: Comité Militaire (2 April 1783), 3: fol. pp. 194-206.
172. SHAT 9a11: Villeneuve to Gribeauval (4 April 1783).
173. Loc. cit. note 89; also SHAT 9a11: Givry to Ségur (24 April 1783).
174. SHAT Bib. MS175: Comité Militaire (2, 9, 16 & 23 April 1783), 3: fol. pp. 194-206, 222, 234-44.
175. ANT591(1/2): Givry to Villeneuve (22 April & 31 July 1783). ANT591(3): Givry and Bisch, 'Notes de ce que l'on peut tolérer sur les dimensions de la baïonnettes du modèle 1777' (30 January 1784); 'Ordonnance portant règlement' (1 April 1784); Givry to Gau, fils (21, 23 August & 22 September 1784); Givry to Ségur (25 August & 17 September 1784); Givry to Gribeauval (1 September 1784); Givry to Gomer (22 September 1784).
176. ANT591(1/2): Givry to Villeneuve (22 April & 31 July 1783). ANT591(3): Givry and Bisch, 'Notes de ce que l'on peut tolérer sur les dimensions de la baïonnettes du modèle 1777' (30 January 1784); 'Ordonnance portant règlement' (1 April 1784); Givry to Gau, fils (21, 23 August & 22 September 1784); Givry to Ségur (25 August & 17 September 1784); Givry to Gribeauval (1 September 1784); Givry to Gomer (22 September 1784).
177. Alexandre-Théophile Vandermonde, Procédés de la fabrication des armes blanches (Paris: Imprimerie de la Département de la Guerre, year II [1793-94]).
178. Alder, op. cit. note 1, 330-40. SHAT 4f7: Sirodin, 'Mémoire sur les proportions dans les armes' (year XIII [1804-05]).
179. William H. Sewell, Jr, A Rhetoric of Bourgeois Revolution: The Abbé Sieyes and 'What is the Third Estate?' (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1994).
180. Political and religious toleration was one of the central tropes of the Enlightenment, and the literature on the subject is enormous: see note 9.
181. For patents, see Yves Plesseraud and François Savignon, L'état et l'invention: Histoire des brevets (Paris: Documentation française, 1986). For the Conservatoire, see Alder, op. cit. note 1, 315-17. For the metric system, see Alder, op. cit. note 24. For the standards of production, see Gail Bossenga, 'La Révolution française et les corporations: Trois examples lillois', Annales: Economies, sociétés, civilisatians, Vol. 43 (1988), 405-26.
182. For patents, see Yves Plesseraud and François Savignon, L'état et l'invention: Histoire des brevets (Paris: Documentation française, 1986). For the Conservatoire, see Alder, op. cit. note 1, 315-17. For the metric system, see Alder, op. cit. note 24. For the standards of production, see Gail Bossenga, 'La Révolution française et les corporations: Trois examples lillois', Annales: Economies, sociétés, civilisatians, Vol. 43 (1988), 405-26.
183. For patents, see Yves Plesseraud and François Savignon, L'état et l'invention: Histoire des brevets (Paris: Documentation française, 1986). For the Conservatoire, see Alder, op. cit. note 1, 315-17. For the metric system, see Alder, op. cit. note 24. For the standards of production, see Gail Bossenga, 'La Révolution française et les corporations: Trois examples lillois', Annales: Economies, sociétés, civilisatians, Vol. 43 (1988), 405-26.
184. For patents, see Yves Plesseraud and François Savignon, L'état et l'invention: Histoire des brevets (Paris: Documentation française, 1986). For the Conservatoire, see Alder, op. cit. note 1, 315-17. For the metric system, see Alder, op. cit. note 24. For the standards of production, see Gail Bossenga, 'La Révolution française et les corporations: Trois examples lillois', Annales: Economies, sociétés, civilisatians, Vol. 43 (1988), 405-26.
185. Alexandre Vandermonde, 'Economie politique: Programme', in Daniel Nordman (ed.), L'École normale de l'an III: Leçons d'histoire, de géographie, d'économie politique, Edition annotée des cours de Volney, Buache de La Neuville, Mentelle, et Vandermonde (Paris: Dunod [1795], 1992); Charles R. Sullivan, 'The First Chair of Political Economy in France: Alexandre Vandermonde and the Principles of Sir James Steuart at the École Normale of the Year III', French Historical Studies, Vol. 20 (1997), 635-64. See also Alder, op. cit. note 1, 277, 318.
186. Alexandre Vandermonde, 'Economie politique: Programme', in Daniel Nordman (ed.), L'École normale de l'an III: Leçons d'histoire, de géographie, d'économie politique, Edition annotée des cours de Volney, Buache de La Neuville, Mentelle, et Vandermonde (Paris: Dunod [1795], 1992); Charles R. Sullivan, 'The First Chair of Political Economy in France: Alexandre Vandermonde and the Principles of Sir James Steuart at the École Normale of the Year III', French Historical Studies, Vol. 20 (1997), 635-64. See also Alder, op. cit. note 1, 277, 318.
187. See Eda Kranakis, 'Social Determinants of Engineering Practice: A Comparative View of France and America in the Nineteenth Century', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 19, No. 1 (February 1989), 5-70. Each stratum of the hierarchy has been studied: Terry Shinn, L'École Polytechnique, 1794-1914 (Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1980); John Hubbel Weiss, The Making of Technological Man: The Social Origins of French Engineering Education (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982); and Charles R. Day, Education for the Industrial World: The Écoles d'Arts et Métiers and the Rise of French Industrial Engineering (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987).
188. See Eda Kranakis, 'Social Determinants of Engineering Practice: A Comparative View of France and America in the Nineteenth Century', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 19, No. 1 (February 1989), 5-70. Each stratum of the hierarchy has been studied: Terry Shinn, L'École Polytechnique, 1794-1914 (Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1980); John Hubbel Weiss, The Making of Technological Man: The Social Origins of French Engineering Education (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982); and Charles R. Day, Education for the Industrial World: The Écoles d'Arts et Métiers and the Rise of French Industrial Engineering (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987).
189. See Eda Kranakis, 'Social Determinants of Engineering Practice: A Comparative View of France and America in the Nineteenth Century', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 19, No. 1 (February 1989), 5-70. Each stratum of the hierarchy has been studied: Terry Shinn, L'École Polytechnique, 1794-1914 (Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1980); John Hubbel Weiss, The Making of Technological Man: The Social Origins of French Engineering Education (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982); and Charles R. Day, Education for the Industrial World: The Écoles d'Arts et Métiers and the Rise of French Industrial Engineering (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987).
190. See Eda Kranakis, 'Social Determinants of Engineering Practice: A Comparative View of France and America in the Nineteenth Century', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 19, No. 1 (February 1989), 5-70. Each stratum of the hierarchy has been studied: Terry Shinn, L'École Polytechnique, 1794-1914 (Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1980); John Hubbel Weiss, The Making of Technological Man: The Social Origins of French Engineering Education (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982); and Charles R. Day, Education for the Industrial World: The Écoles d'Arts et Métiers and the Rise of French Industrial Engineering (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987).
191. MacKenzie, op. cit. note 3; David Noble, Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation (New York: Knopf, 1984); Zuboff, op. cit. note 2.
192. MacKenzie, op. cit. note 3; David Noble, Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation (New York: Knopf, 1984); Zuboff, op. cit. note 2.
193. MacKenzie, op. cit. note 3; David Noble, Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation (New York: Knopf, 1984); Zuboff, op. cit. note 2.