Pulmonary host defences against Aspergillus fumigatus

Research in Immunology

Volumn 149, Issue 4-5, 1998, Pages 454-465

  Roilides, E ^a   Katsifa, H ^a   Walsh, T J ^b  

^a ARISTOTLE UNIVERSITY OF THESSALONIKI   (Greece)

^b NATIONAL CANCER INSTITUTE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COLONY STIMULATING FACTOR 1; CORTICOSTEROID; CYCLOSPORIN A; GLIOTOXIN; INTERLEUKIN 10; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR;

ASPERGILLUS FUMIGATUS; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; FLOW CYTOMETRY; HOST RESISTANCE; IMMUNE DEFICIENCY; IMMUNITY; IMMUNOREGULATION; MEDICAL CARE; MORBIDITY; OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTION; PHAGOCYTOSIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY;

EID: 0032078601     PISSN: 09232494     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0923-2494(98)80769-4     Document Type: Article

References (105)

1. Alspaugh, J.A. & Granger, D.L. (1991), Inhibition of Cryptococcus neoformans replication by nitrogen oxides supports the role of these molecules as effectors of macrophage-mediated cytostasis. Infect. Immun., 59, 2291-2296.
2. Annaix, V., Bouchara, J.P., Larcher, G., Chabasse, D. & Tronchin, G. (1992), Specific binding of human fibrinogen fragment D to Aspergillus fumigatus conidia. Infect. Immun., 60, 1747-1755.
3. Azghani, A.O., Connelly, J.C., Peterson, B.T., Gray, L.D., Collins, M.L. & Johnson, A.R. (1990), Effects of Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase on alveolar epithelial permeability in guinea pigs. Infect. Immun., 58, 433-438.
4. Berenguer, J., Walsh, T.J., Pizzo, P.A., Bacher, J., Ali, N.M., Lyman, C., Garrett, K., Lee, J.W. & Allende, M.C. (1995), Pathogenesis of pulmonary aspergillosis. Granulocytopenia versus cyclosporine and methyl-prednisolone-induced immunosuppression. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 152, 1079-1086.
5. Birch, M., Robson, G.D., Law, D. & Denning, D.W. (1996), Evidence of multiple extracellular phospholipase activities of Aspergillus fumigatus. Infect. Immun., 64, 751-755.
6. Bouchara, J.P., Chabasse, D., Tronchin, G., Lissitzky, J.C., Marot-Leblond, A., Chevallier, A. & Sanchez, M. (1997), Sialic acid-dependent recognition of laminin and fibrinogen by Aspergillus fumigatus conidia. Infect. Immun., 65, 2717-2724.
7. Bromley, I.M.J. & Donaldson, K. (1996), Binding of Aspergillus fumigatus spores to lung epithelial cells: relevance to the asthmatic lung. Thorax, 51, 1203-1209.
8. Brooks, R.G., Hofflin, J.M., Jamieson, S.W., Stinson, E.B. & Remington, J.S. (1985), Infectious complications in heart-lung transplant recipients. Am. J. Med., 79, 412-422.
9. Cenci, E., Perito, S., Enssle, K.-H., Mosci, P., Latge, J.-P., Romani, L. & Bistoni, F. (1997), Th1 and Th2 cytokines in mice with invasive aspergillosis. Infect. Immun., 65, 564-570.
10. Cenci, E., Romani, L., Mencacci, A., Spaccapelo, R., Schiaffella, E., Puccetti, P. & Bistoni, F. (1993), Interleukin-4 and interleukin-10 inhibit nitric oxide-dependent macrophage killing of Candida albicans. Eur. J. Immunol., 23, 1034-1038.
11. Chinn, R.Y.W. & Diamond, R.D. (1982), Generation of chemotactic factors by Rhizopus oryzae in the presence and absence of serum: relationship to hyphal damage mediated by human neutrophils and effects of hyperglycemia and ketoacidosis. Infect. Immun., 38, 1123-1129.
12. Chroneos, Z.C., Abdolrasulnia, R., Whitsett, A., Rice, W.R. & Shepherd, V.L. (1996), Purification of a cell-surface receptor for surfactant protein A. J. Biol. Chem., 271, 16375-16383.
13. Cohen, M.S., Isturiz, R.E., Malech, H.L., Root, R.K., Wilfert, C.M., Gutman, L. & Buckley, R.H. (1981), Fungal infection in chronic granulomatous disease. The importance of the phagocyte in defense against fungi. Am. J. Med., 71, 59-66.
14. Coulot, P., Bouchara, J.P., Renier, G., Annaix, V., Planchenault, C., Tronchin, G. & Chabasse, D. (1994), Specific interaction of Aspergillus fumigatus with fibrinogen and its role in cell adhesion. Infect. Immun., 62, 2169-2177.
15. De Hart, D., Agwu, D.E., Julian, N.C. & Washburn, R.G. (1997), Binding and germination of Aspergillus fumigatus conidia on cultured A549 pneumocytes. J. Infect. Dis., 175, 146-150.
16. De Lucca, A.J., Bland, J.M., Jacks, T.J., Grimm, C., Cleveland, T.E. & Walsh, T.J. (1997), Fungicidal activity of cecropin A. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 41, 481-483.
17. de Repentigny, L., Petitbois, S., Boushira, M., Michaliszyn, E., Senechal, S., Gendron, N. & Montplaisir, S. (1993), Acquired immunity in experimental murine aspergillosis is mediated by macrophages. Infect. Immun., 61, 3791-3802.
18. Denis, M. (1991), Tumor necrosis factor and granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor stimulate human macrophages to restrict growth of virulent Mycobacterium avium and to kill avirulent M. avium: killing effector mechanism depends on the generation of reactive oxygen intermediates. J. Leukoc. Biol., 49, 380-387.
19. Denis, M. (1994), Human monocytes/macrophages : NO or no NO? J. Leukoc. Biol., 55, 682-684.
20. Denning, D.W. (1994), Invasive aspergillosis in immunocompromised patients. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis., 7, 456-462.
21. Denning, D.W., Follansbee, S.E., Scolaro, M., Norris, S., Edelstein, H. & Stevens, D.A. (1991), Pulmonary aspergillosis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med., 324, 654-662.
22. Diamond, R.D. (1983), Inhibition of monocyte-mediated damage to fungal hyphae by steroid hormones (letter). J. Infect. Dis., 147, 160.
23. Diamond, R.D. & Clark, R.A. (1982), Damage to Aspergillus fumigatus and Rhizopus oryzae hyphae by oxidative and nonoxidative microbicidal products of human neutrophils in vitro. Infect. Immun., 38, 487-495.
24. Diamond, R.D., Haudenschild, C.C. & Erickson, N.F. (1982), Monocyte-mediated damage to Rhizopus oryzae hyphae in vitro. Infect. Immun., 38, 292-297.
25. Diamond, R.D., Huber, E. & Haudenschild, C.C. (1983), Mechanisms of destruction of Aspergillus fumigatus hyphae mediated by human monocytes. J. Infect. Dis., 147, 474-483.
26. Diamond, R.D., Krzesicki, R., Epstein, B. & Jao, W. (1978), Damage to hyphal forms of fungi by human leukocytes in vitro: a possible host defense mechanism in aspergillosis and mucormycosis. Am. J. Pathol., 91, 313-328.
27. DiRosa, M., Radomski, M., Carnuccio, R. & Moncada, S. (1990), Glucocorticoids inhibit the induction of nitric oxide synthase in macrophages. Bioch. Biophys. Res, Comm., 172, 1246-1252.
28. Dixon, D.M., Polak, A. & Walsh, T.J. (1989), Fungus dose-dependent primary pulmonary aspergillosis in immunosuppressed mice. Infect. Immun., 57, 1452-1456.
29. Eichner, R.D., Salaami, A., Wood, P.R. & Mullbacher, A. (1986), The effects of gliotoxin upon macrophage function. Int. J. Immunopharmacol., 8, 789-797.
30. Elstad, A., Douglas, H. & Braude, E. (1991), Aspergillosis and lung defenses. Semin. Resp. Infect., 6, 27-37.
31. Epstein, S.M., Verney, E., Miale, T.D. & Sidransky, H. (1967), Studies on the pathogenesis of experimental pulmonary aspergillosis. Am. J. Pathol., 51, 769-788.
32. Ezekowitz, R.A.B., Dinauer, M.C., Jaffe, H.S., Orkin, S.H. & Newburger, P.E. (1988), Partial correction of the phagocyte defect in patients with X-linked chronic granulomatous disease by subcutaneous interferon gamma. N. Engl. J. Med., 319, 146-151.
33. Ezekowitz, R.A.B., Orkin, S.H. & Newburger, P.E. (1987), Recombinant interferon gamma augments phagocyte superoxide production and X-chronic granulomatous disease gene expression in X-linked variant chronic granulomatous disease. J. Clin. Invest., 80, 1009-1016.
34. Francis, P., Lee, J.W., Hoffman, A., Peter, J., Francesconi, A., Bacher, J., Shelhamer, J., Pizzo, P. & Walsh, T.J. (1994), Efficacy of unilamellar liposomal amphotericin B in treatment of pulmonary aspergillosis in persistently granulocytopenic rabbits: the potential role of bronchoalveolar lavage D-mannitol and galactomannan as markers of infection. J. Infect. Dis., 169, 356-368.
35. Gernez Rieux, C., Voisin, C., Aerts, C., Wattel, F. & Gosselin, B. (1967), Experimental aspergillosis in the guinea pig. Dynamic study of the role of alveolar macrophages in the defense of the respiratory tract, after massive inhalation. Rev. Tuberc. Pneumol., 31, 705-725.
36. Grazziutti, M.L., Savary, C.A., Ford, A., Anaissie, E.J., Cowart, R.E. & Rex, J.H. (1997), Aspergillus fumigatus conidia induce a Th1-type cytokine response. J. Infect. Dis., 176, 1579-1583.
37. Hearn, V.M. & Sietsma, J.H. (1994), Chemical and immunological analysis of the Aspergillus fumigatus cell wall. Microbiology, 140, 789-795.
38. Holmskov, U., Lawson, P., Teisner, B., Tornoe, I., Willis, A.C., Morgan, C., Koch, C. & Reid, K.B.M. (1997), Isolation and characterization of a new member of scavenger receptor superfamily, glycoprotein-340 (gp-340) as a lung surfactant protein D binding molecule. J. Biol. Chem., 272, 13743-13749.
39. Jahn, B., Brakhage, A.A., Bhakdi, S., Gehringer, H., Wanner, G., Schmidt, A. & Koch, A. (1997), Isolation and characterization of a pigmentless-conidium mutant of Aspergillus fumigatus with altered conidial surface and reduced virulence. Infect. Immun., 65, 5110-5117.
40. Kan, V.L. & Bennett, J.E. (1988), Lectin-like attachment sites on murine pulmonary alveolar macrophages bind Aspergillus fumigatus conidia. J. Infect. Dis., 158, 407-414.
41. Kan, V.L. & Bennett, J.E. (1991), Beta-1, 4-oligogluco-sides inhibit the binding of Aspergillus fumigatus conidia to human monocytes. J. Infect. Dis., 163, 1154-1156.
42. + Th2-like T-cell lines in allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 94, 215-221.
43. Kolattukudy, P.E., Lee, J.D., Rogers, L.M., Zimmerman, P., Ceselski, S., Fox, B., Stein, B. & Copelan, E.A. (1993), Evidence for possible involvement of an elastolytic serine protease in aspergillosis. Infect. Immun., 61, 2357-2368.
44. Kozel, T.R., Wilson, M.A., Farrell, T.P. & Levitz, S.M. (1989), Activation of C3 and binding to Aspergillus fumigatus conidia and hyphae. Infect. Immun., 57, 3412-3417.
45. Kurup, V.P. (1984), Interaction of Aspergillus fumigatus spores and pulmonary alveolar macrophages of rabbits. Immunobiology, 166, 54-61.
46. Kurup, V.P., Seymour, B.W.P., Choi, H. & Coffman, R.L. (1994), Particulate Aspergillus fumigatus antigens elicit a TH2 response in BALB/c mice. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 93, 1013-1020.
47. Levitz, S., Selsted, M.E., Ganz, T., Lehrer, R.I. & Diamond, R.D. (1986), In vitro killing of spores and hyphae of Aspergillus fumigatus and Rhizopus oryzae by rabbit neutrophil cationic peptides and bronchoalveolar macrophages. J. Infect. Dis., 154, 483-489.
48. Levitz, S.M. & Diamond, R.D. (1985), Mechanisms of resistance of Aspergillus fumigatus conidia to killing by neutrophils in vitro. J. Infect. Dis., 152, 33-42.
49. Lopez-Merdrano, R., Ovejero, M.C., Calvera, J.A., Puente, P. & Leal, F. (1995), An immunodominant 90 kDa Aspergillus fumigatus antigen is the subunit of a catalase. Infect. Immun., 63, 4774-4780.
50. Madan, T., Reid, K.B., Sarma, P.U., Aggrawal, S.S., Strong, P., Kishore, U. & Eggleton, P. (1997), Binding of pulmonary surfactant proteins A and D to Aspergillus fumigatus conidia enhances phagocytosis and killing by human neutrophils and alveolar macrophages. Infect. Immun., 65, 3171-3179.
51. Meier-Osusky, I., Schaffner, A., Schneemann, M., Blauer, F. & Schoedon, G. (1996), Comparison of the antimicrobial activity of deactivated human macrophages challenged with Aspergillus fumigatus and Listeria monocytogenes. J. Infect. Dis., 174, 651-654.
52. Merkow, L.P., Epstein, S.M., Sidransky, H., Verney, E. & Pardo, M. (1971), The pathogenesis of experimental pulmonary aspergillosis. An ultrastructural study of alveolar macrophages after phagocytosis of a flavus spores in vivo. Am. J. Pathol., 62, 57-74.
53. Michaliszyn, E., Senechal, S., Martel, P. & de Repentigny, L. (1995), Lack of involvement of nitric oxide in killing of Aspergillus fumigatus conidia by pulmonary alveolar macrophages. Infect. Immun., 63, 2075-2078.
54. Mitchell, C.G., Donaldson, K. & Slight, J. (1997), Diffusible component from the spore surface of the fungus Aspergillus fumigatus which inhibits the macrophage oxidative burst is distinct from gliotoxin and other hyphal toxins. Thorax, 52, 796-801.
55. Moncada, S. & Higgs, A. (1993), The L-arginine-nitric oxide pathway. N. Engl. J. Med., 329, 2002-2012.
56. Monod, M., Paris, S., Sarfati, J., Jaton-Ogay, K., Ave, P. & Latge, J.P. (1993), Virulence of alkaline protease-deficient mutants of Aspergillus fumigatus. FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 80, 39-46.
57. Morgenstern, D.E., Dinauer, M.C., Doerschuk, C.M., Li, L.L. & Gifford, M.A. (1997), Absence of respiratory burst in X-linked chronic granulomatous disease mice leads to abnormalities in both host defense and inflammatory response to Aspergillus fumigatus. J. Exp. Med., 185, 207-218.
58. Morrison, V.A., Haake, R.J. & Weisdorf, D.J. (1993), The spectrum of non-Candida fungal infections following bone marrow transplantation. Medicine, 72, 78-89.
59. Mullbacher, A. & Eichner, R.D. (1984). Immunosuppression in vitro by a metabolite of a human pathogenic fungus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 81, 3835-3837.
60. Murayama, T., Kuze, F., Lee, W.J., Nawada, R., Ikegami, Y. & Amitani, R. (1996), Suppressive effects of Aspergillus fumigatus culture filtrates on human alveolar macrophages and polymorphonuclear leucocytes. Eur. Respir., J 9, 293-300.
61. Nagai, H., Guo, J., Choi, H. & Kurup, V. (1995), Interferon-γ and tumor necrosis factor-a protect mice from invasive aspergillosis. J. Infect. Dis., 172, 1554-1560.
62. Nicholson, W.J., Slight, J. & Donaldson, K. (1996), Inhibition of the transcription factors NF-kB and AP-1 underlies loss of cytokine expression in rat alveolar macrophages treated with a diffusible product from the spores of Aspergillus fumigatus. Am. J. Respir. Cell. Mol. Biol., 15, 88-96.
63. Penalver, M.C., O'Connor, J.E., Martinez, J.P. & Gil, M.L. (1996), Binding of human fibronectin to Aspergillus fumigatus conidia. Infect. Immun., 64, 1146-1153.
64. Polak-Wyss, A. (1991), Protective effect of human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor on Cryptococcus and Aspergillus infections in normal and immunosuppressed mice. Mycoses, 34, 205-215.
65. Rex, J.H., Bennett, J.E., Gallin, J.I., Malech, H.L. & Melnick, D.A. (1990), Normal and deficient neutrophils can cooperate to damage Aspergillus fumigatus hyphae. J. Infect. Dis., 162, 523-528.
66. Richardson, M.D., Shankland, G.S. & Gray, C.A. (1991), Opsonizing activity of C-reactive protein in phagocytosis of Aspergillus fumigatus conidia by human neutrophils. Mycoses, 34, 141-143.
67. Rodriguez, E., Bastide, M., Bastide, J.M., Mallie, M. & Boudard, F. (1997), Murine macrophage elastolytic activity induced by Aspergillus fumigatus strains in vitro: evidence of the expression of two macrophage-induced protease genes. Can. J. Microbiol., 43, 649-657.
68. Roilides, E., Anastasiou, A., Dimitriadou, A., Sein, T., Kadiltsoglou, I. & Walsh, T.J. (1996a), Effects of tumor necrosis factor-α on antifungal activities of polymorphonuclear and mononuclear phagocytes against Aspergillus fumigatus (Abstr. G25). Program and Abstracts of the 36th Interscience Conference Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. New Orleans, USA. p. 147.
69. Roilides, E., Blake, C., Holmes, A., Pizzo, P.A. & Walsh, T.J. (1996b), Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor and interferon-γ prevent dexamethasone-induced imunosuppression of antifungal monocyte activity against Aspergillus fumigatus hyphae. J. Med. Vet. Mycol., 34, 63-69.
70. Roilides, E., Clerici, M., DePalma, L., Rubin, M., Pizzo, P.A. & Shearer, G.M. (1991), T helper cell responses in children infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J. Pediatr., 118, 724-730.
71. Roilides, E., Dimitriadou, A., Kadiltsoglou, I., Pizzo, P., Karpouzas, J. & Walsh, T.J. (1995a), Effects of interleukin-4 on antifungal activity of mononuclear phagocytes against hyphae and conidia of Aspergillus fumigatus. 7th European Congress of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. Vienna Austria.
72. Roilides, E., Dimitriadou, A., Kadiltsoglou, I., Pizzo, P.A. & Walsh, T.J. (1995b), Lack of effects of transforming growth factor β1 (TGFß) on antifungal activity of mononuclear phagocytes against conidia and hyphae of Aspergillus fumigatus in vitro. Program and Abstracts of the 35th Interscience Conference Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. San Francisco, USA.
73. Roilides, E., Dimitriadou, A., Kadiltsoglou, I., Sein, T., Karpouzas, J., Pizzo, P.A. & Walsh, T.J. (1997), IL-10 exerts suppressive and enhancing effects on antifungal activity of mononuclear phagocytes against Aspergillus fumigatus, J. Immunol., 158, 322-329.
74. Roilides, E., Holmes, A., Blake, C., Pizzo, P.A. & Walsh, T.J. (1993a), Defective antifungal activity of monocyte-derived macrophages from HIV-infected children against Aspergillus fumigatus. J. Infect. Dis., 168, 1562-1565.
75. Roilides, E., Holmes, A., Blake, C., Venzon, D., Pizzo, P.A. & Walsh, T.J. (1994a), Antifungal activity of elutriated human monocytes against Aspergillus fumigatus hyphae: enhancement by granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor and interferon-γ J. Infect. Dis., 170, 894-899.
76. Roilides, E., Lyman, C.A., Merlins, S.D., Cole, D.J., Venzon, D., Pizzo, P.A., Chanock, S.J. & Walsh, T.J. (1996c), Ex vivo effects of macrophage colony-stimulating factor on human monocyte activity against fungal and bacterial pathogens. Cytokine, 8, 42-48.
77. Roilides, E., Robinson, T., Sein, T., Pizzo, P.A. & Walsh, T.J. (1994b), In vitro and ex vivo effects of cyclosporine A on phagocytic host defenses against Aspergillus fumigatus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 38, 2883-2888.
78. Roilides, E., Sein, T., Holmes, A., Blake, C., Pizzo, P.A. & Walsh, T.J. (1995c), Effects of macrophage colony-stimulating factor on antifungal activity of mononuclear phagocytes against Aspergillus fumigatus. J. Infect. Dis., 172, 1028-1034.
79. Roilides, E., Uhlig, K., Venzon, D., Pizzo, P.A. & Walsh, T.J. (1993b), Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor and interferon-γ enhance the oxidative responses and the damage caused by human neutrophils to Aspergillus fumigatus hyphae in vitro. Infect. Immun., 61, 1185-1193.
80. Roilides, E., Uhlig, K., Venzon, D., Pizzo, P.A. & Walsh, T.J. (1993c), Prevention of corticosteroid-induced suppression of human polymorphonuclear leukocyte-induced damage of Aspergillus fumigatus hyphae by granulocyte colony-stimulating factor and interferon-γ Infect. Immun., 61, 4870-4877.
81. Rowen, J.L., Correa, A.G., Sokol, D.M., Hawkins, H.K., Levy, M.L. & Edwards, M.S. (1992), Invasive aspergillosis in neonates : report of five cases and literature review. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J., 11, 576-582.
82. Schaffner, A. (1985), Therapeutic concentrations of glucocorticoids suppress the antimicrobial activity of human macrophages without impairing their responsiveness to gamma interferon. J. Clin. Invest., 76, 1755-1764.
83. Schaffner, A. (1994), Macrophage-Aspergillus interactions. Immunol. Ser., 60, 545-552.
84. Schaffner, A., Douglas, H. & Braude, A. (1982), Selective protection against conidia by mononuclear and against mycelia by polymorphonuclear phagocytes in resistance to Aspergillus : observations on these two lines of defense in vivo and in vitro with human and mouse phagocytes. J. Clin. Invest., 69, 617-631.
85. Schaffner, A., Douglas, H., Braude, A. & Davis, C. (1983), Killing of Aspergillus spores depends on the anatomical source of the macrophage. Infect. Immun., 42, 1109-1115.
86. Schaffner, A. & Rellstab, P. (1988), Gamma-interferon restores listericidal activity and concurrently enhances release of reactive oxygen metabolites in dexamethasone-treated human monocytes. J. Clin. Invest., 82, 913-919.
87. Schneemann, M., Schoedon, G., Hofer, S., Blau, N., Guerrero, L. & Schaffner, A. (1993), Nitric oxide synthase is not a constituent of the antimicrobial armature of human mononuclear phagocytes. J. Infect. Dis., 167, 1358-1363.
88. Sechler, J.M.G., Malech, H.L., White, C.J. & Gallin, J.I. (1988), Recombinant human interferon-gamma reconstitutes defective phagocyte function in patients with chronic granulomatous disease of childhood. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 85, 4874-4878.
89. Slight, J., Nicholson, W.J., Mitchell, C.G., Pouilly, N., Beswick, P.H. & Seaton, A. (1996), Inhibition of the alveolar macrophage oxidative burst by a diffusible component from the surface of the spores of the fungus Aspergillus fumigatus. Thorax, 51, 389-396.
90. Sturtevant, J.E. & Latge, J.P. (1992), Interactions between conidia of Aspergillus fumigatus and human complement component C3. Infect. Immun., 60, 1913-1918.
91. Sutton, P., Newcombe, N.R., Waring, P. & Mullbacher, A. (1994), In vivo immunosuppressive activity of gliotoxin, a metabolite produced by human pathogenic fungi. Infect. Immun., 62, 1192-1198.
92. Szefler, S.J., Norton, C.E., Ball, B., Gross, J.M., Aida, Y. & Pabst, M.J. (1989), IFN-gamma and LPS overcome glucocorticoid inhibition of priming for superoxide release in human monocytes. J. Immunol., 142, 3985-3992.
93. Taramelli, D., Cocuzza, G., Basilico, N., Sala, G. & Malabarba, M.G. (1996), Production of cytokines by alveolar and peritoneal macrophages stimulated by Aspergillus fumigatus conidia or hyphae. J. Med. Vet. Mycol., 34, 49-56.
94. Tronchin, G., Esnault, K., Renier, K., Filmon, R., Chabasse, D. & Bouchara, P. (1997), Expression and identification of a laminin-binding protein in Aspergillus fumigatus conidia. Infect. Immun., 65, 9-15.
95. Tsai, H.F., Washburn, R.G., Chang, Y.C. & Kwon-Chung, K.J. (1997), Aspergillus fumigatus arp 1 modulates conidial pigmentation and complement deposition. Mol. Microbiol., 26, 175-183.
96. Vazquez-Torres, A., Jones-Carson, J. & Balish, E. (1996), Peroxynitrite contributes to the candidacidal activity of nitric oxide-producing macrophages. Infect. Immun., 64, 3127-3133.
97. Waldorf, A. (1989), Pulmonary defense mechanisms against opportunistic fungal infections. Immunol. Ser., 47, 243-271.
98. Waldorf, A.R. & Diamond, R.D. (1989), Aspergillosis and mucormycosis, in "Immunology of the fungal diseases" (Cox, R.A., ed.) (pp. 29-55). CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton.
99. Waldorf, A.R., Levitz, S. & Diamond, R.D. (1984), In vivo bronchoalveolar macrophage defense against Rhizopus oryzae and Aspergillus fumigatus. J. Infect. Dis., 150, 752-760.
100. Walsh, T., Gonzalez, C., Lyman, C., Lee, S., Del Guercio, C., Gehrt, A., Sein, T., Roilides, E., Schafele, R., Francesconi, A. & Pizzo, P. (1994), Human recombinant macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF) augments pulmonary host defense against Aspergillus fumigatus [abstract no. F-27]. Abstracts of the Annual Meeting of the American Society of Microbiology. Washington, D.C.
101. Walsh, T.J. (1990), Invasive aspergillosis in patients with neoplastic diseases. Sem. Resp. Infect., 5, 111-122.
102. Wang, J.M., Laviolette, M., Boutet, M., St-Pierre, J., Bosse, M. & Chu, H.W. (1996), Dexamethasone and cyclosporin A modulation of cytokine expression and specific antibody synthesis in an allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis murine model. Eur. J. Clin. Invest., 26, 951-959.
103. Washburn, R.G., Gallin, J.I. & Bennett, J.E. (1987), Oxidative killing of Aspergillus fumigatus proceeds by parallel myeloperoxidase-dependent and -independent pathways. Infect. Immun., 55, 2088.
104. Weinberger, M., Elattar, I., Marshall, D., Steinberg, S.M., Redner, R.L., Young, N.S. & Pizzo, P.A. (1992), Patterns of infection in patients with aplastic anemia and the emergence of Aspergillus as a major cause of death. Medicine, 71, 24-43.
105. Young, R.C., Bennett, J.E., Vogel, C.L., Carbone, P.P. & DeVita, V.T. (1970), Aspergillosis. The spectrum of the disease in 98 patients. Medicine, 49, 147-172.