Cell and Molecular Biological Challenges of ICSI: ART before Science?

Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics

Volumn 26, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 29-37

  Schatten, Gerald ^a   Hewitson, Laura ^a   Simerly, Calvin ^a   Sutovsky, Peter ^a   Huszar, Gabor ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; ANIMAL EXPERIMENT; EMBRYO; FEMALE; FERTILIZATION; GENETIC DISORDER; GENETICS AND REPRODUCTION; HUMAN; INTRACYTOPLASMIC SPERM INJECTION; MALE; MALE INFERTILITY; PHYSIOLOGY; PREGNANCY; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SAFETY; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR;

GENETICS AND REPRODUCTION;

ANIMAL EXPERIMENTATION; ANIMALS; EMBRYO; FEMALE; FERTILIZATION; GENETIC DISEASES, INBORN; HUMANS; INFERTILITY, MALE; MALE; PREGNANCY; RISK ASSESSMENT; SAFETY; SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY; SPERM INJECTIONS, INTRACYTOPLASMIC;

EID: 0032008890     PISSN: 10731105     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-720X.1998.tb01903.x     Document Type: Article

References (68)

1. See M. Bonduelle et al., "Prospective Follow-Up Study of 55 Children Born after Subzonal Inseminations and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Human Reproduction, 9 (1994): 1765-67.
2. See G. Palermo et al., "Pregnancies after Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection of Single Spermatozoon into an Oocyte," Lancet, 340 (1992): 17-18; G. Palermo et al., "Sperm Characteristics and Outcome of Human Assisted Fertilization by Subzonal Insemination and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Fertility and Sterility, 59 (1993): 826-35; P. Devroey et al., "Normal Fertilization of Human Oocytes after Testicular Sperm Extraction and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Fertility and Sterility, 62 (1994): 639-41; P. Devroey et al., "Pregnancies after Testicular Sperm Extraction and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection in Non-Obstructive Azoospermia," Human Reproduction, 10 (1995): 1457-60; and S. Silber "The Use of Epididymal Sperm in Assisted Reproduction," in J. Tesarik, ed., Male Factor in Human Infertility (Rome: Ares-Serono Symposia, 1994): 335- 68. A few reports have noted an increased frequency of sex chromosome anomalies. These need to be confirmed, but do not raise cautionary warnings sufficient to undermine this most significant advance in the treatment of male infertility. See, for example, P. In't Veld et al., "Sex Chromosomal Abnormalities and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Lancet, 773 (1995): 346; M. Bonduelle et al., "Comparative Follow-Up Study of 130 Children Born after ICSI and 130 Children Born after IVF," Human Reproduction, 10 (1995): 3327-31; and H. Tournaye et al., "Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI): The Brussels Experience," Reproduction, Fertility and Development, 7 (1995): 269-79.
3. See G. Palermo et al., "Pregnancies after Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection of Single Spermatozoon into an Oocyte," Lancet, 340 (1992): 17-18; G. Palermo et al., "Sperm Characteristics and Outcome of Human Assisted Fertilization by Subzonal Insemination and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Fertility and Sterility, 59 (1993): 826-35; P. Devroey et al., "Normal Fertilization of Human Oocytes after Testicular Sperm Extraction and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Fertility and Sterility, 62 (1994): 639-41; P. Devroey et al., "Pregnancies after Testicular Sperm Extraction and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection in Non-Obstructive Azoospermia," Human Reproduction, 10 (1995): 1457-60; and S. Silber "The Use of Epididymal Sperm in Assisted Reproduction," in J. Tesarik, ed., Male Factor in Human Infertility (Rome: Ares-Serono Symposia, 1994): 335- 68. A few reports have noted an increased frequency of sex chromosome anomalies. These need to be confirmed, but do not raise cautionary warnings sufficient to undermine this most significant advance in the treatment of male infertility. See, for example, P. In't Veld et al., "Sex Chromosomal Abnormalities and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Lancet, 773 (1995): 346; M. Bonduelle et al., "Comparative Follow-Up Study of 130 Children Born after ICSI and 130 Children Born after IVF," Human Reproduction, 10 (1995): 3327-31; and H. Tournaye et al., "Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI): The Brussels Experience," Reproduction, Fertility and Development, 7 (1995): 269-79.
4. See G. Palermo et al., "Pregnancies after Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection of Single Spermatozoon into an Oocyte," Lancet, 340 (1992): 17-18; G. Palermo et al., "Sperm Characteristics and Outcome of Human Assisted Fertilization by Subzonal Insemination and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Fertility and Sterility, 59 (1993): 826-35; P. Devroey et al., "Normal Fertilization of Human Oocytes after Testicular Sperm Extraction and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Fertility and Sterility, 62 (1994): 639-41; P. Devroey et al., "Pregnancies after Testicular Sperm Extraction and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection in Non-Obstructive Azoospermia," Human Reproduction, 10 (1995): 1457-60; and S. Silber "The Use of Epididymal Sperm in Assisted Reproduction," in J. Tesarik, ed., Male Factor in Human Infertility (Rome: Ares-Serono Symposia, 1994): 335- 68. A few reports have noted an increased frequency of sex chromosome anomalies. These need to be confirmed, but do not raise cautionary warnings sufficient to undermine this most significant advance in the treatment of male infertility. See, for example, P. In't Veld et al., "Sex Chromosomal Abnormalities and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Lancet, 773 (1995): 346; M. Bonduelle et al., "Comparative Follow-Up Study of 130 Children Born after ICSI and 130 Children Born after IVF," Human Reproduction, 10 (1995): 3327-31; and H. Tournaye et al., "Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI): The Brussels Experience," Reproduction, Fertility and Development, 7 (1995): 269-79.
5. See G. Palermo et al., "Pregnancies after Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection of Single Spermatozoon into an Oocyte," Lancet, 340 (1992): 17-18; G. Palermo et al., "Sperm Characteristics and Outcome of Human Assisted Fertilization by Subzonal Insemination and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Fertility and Sterility, 59 (1993): 826-35; P. Devroey et al., "Normal Fertilization of Human Oocytes after Testicular Sperm Extraction and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Fertility and Sterility, 62 (1994): 639-41; P. Devroey et al., "Pregnancies after Testicular Sperm Extraction and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection in Non-Obstructive Azoospermia," Human Reproduction, 10 (1995): 1457-60; and S. Silber "The Use of Epididymal Sperm in Assisted Reproduction," in J. Tesarik, ed., Male Factor in Human Infertility (Rome: Ares-Serono Symposia, 1994): 335- 68. A few reports have noted an increased frequency of sex chromosome anomalies. These need to be confirmed, but do not raise cautionary warnings sufficient to undermine this most significant advance in the treatment of male infertility. See, for example, P. In't Veld et al., "Sex Chromosomal Abnormalities and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Lancet, 773 (1995): 346; M. Bonduelle et al., "Comparative Follow-Up Study of 130 Children Born after ICSI and 130 Children Born after IVF," Human Reproduction, 10 (1995): 3327-31; and H. Tournaye et al., "Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI): The Brussels Experience," Reproduction, Fertility and Development, 7 (1995): 269-79.
6. See G. Palermo et al., "Pregnancies after Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection of Single Spermatozoon into an Oocyte," Lancet, 340 (1992): 17-18; G. Palermo et al., "Sperm Characteristics and Outcome of Human Assisted Fertilization by Subzonal Insemination and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Fertility and Sterility, 59 (1993): 826-35; P. Devroey et al., "Normal Fertilization of Human Oocytes after Testicular Sperm Extraction and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Fertility and Sterility, 62 (1994): 639-41; P. Devroey et al., "Pregnancies after Testicular Sperm Extraction and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection in Non-Obstructive Azoospermia," Human Reproduction, 10 (1995): 1457-60; and S. Silber "The Use of Epididymal Sperm in Assisted Reproduction," in J. Tesarik, ed., Male Factor in Human Infertility (Rome: Ares-Serono Symposia, 1994): 335-68. A few reports have noted an increased frequency of sex chromosome anomalies. These need to be confirmed, but do not raise cautionary warnings sufficient to undermine this most significant advance in the treatment of male infertility. See, for example, P. In't Veld et al., "Sex Chromosomal Abnormalities and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Lancet, 773 (1995): 346; M. Bonduelle et al., "Comparative Follow-Up Study of 130 Children Born after ICSI and 130 Children Born after IVF," Human Reproduction, 10 (1995): 3327-31; and H. Tournaye et al., "Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI): The Brussels Experience," Reproduction, Fertility and Development, 7 (1995): 269-79.
7. See G. Palermo et al., "Pregnancies after Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection of Single Spermatozoon into an Oocyte," Lancet, 340 (1992): 17-18; G. Palermo et al., "Sperm Characteristics and Outcome of Human Assisted Fertilization by Subzonal Insemination and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Fertility and Sterility, 59 (1993): 826-35; P. Devroey et al., "Normal Fertilization of Human Oocytes after Testicular Sperm Extraction and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Fertility and Sterility, 62 (1994): 639-41; P. Devroey et al., "Pregnancies after Testicular Sperm Extraction and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection in Non-Obstructive Azoospermia," Human Reproduction, 10 (1995): 1457-60; and S. Silber "The Use of Epididymal Sperm in Assisted Reproduction," in J. Tesarik, ed., Male Factor in Human Infertility (Rome: Ares-Serono Symposia, 1994): 335- 68. A few reports have noted an increased frequency of sex chromosome anomalies. These need to be confirmed, but do not raise cautionary warnings sufficient to undermine this most significant advance in the treatment of male infertility. See, for example, P. In't Veld et al., "Sex Chromosomal Abnormalities and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Lancet, 773 (1995): 346; M. Bonduelle et al., "Comparative Follow-Up Study of 130 Children Born after ICSI and 130 Children Born after IVF," Human Reproduction, 10 (1995): 3327-31; and H. Tournaye et al., "Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI): The Brussels Experience," Reproduction, Fertility and Development, 7 (1995): 269-79.
8. See G. Palermo et al., "Pregnancies after Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection of Single Spermatozoon into an Oocyte," Lancet, 340 (1992): 17-18; G. Palermo et al., "Sperm Characteristics and Outcome of Human Assisted Fertilization by Subzonal Insemination and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Fertility and Sterility, 59 (1993): 826-35; P. Devroey et al., "Normal Fertilization of Human Oocytes after Testicular Sperm Extraction and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Fertility and Sterility, 62 (1994): 639-41; P. Devroey et al., "Pregnancies after Testicular Sperm Extraction and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection in Non-Obstructive Azoospermia," Human Reproduction, 10 (1995): 1457-60; and S. Silber "The Use of Epididymal Sperm in Assisted Reproduction," in J. Tesarik, ed., Male Factor in Human Infertility (Rome: Ares-Serono Symposia, 1994): 335- 68. A few reports have noted an increased frequency of sex chromosome anomalies. These need to be confirmed, but do not raise cautionary warnings sufficient to undermine this most significant advance in the treatment of male infertility. See, for example, P. In't Veld et al., "Sex Chromosomal Abnormalities and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Lancet, 773 (1995): 346; M. Bonduelle et al., "Comparative Follow-Up Study of 130 Children Born after ICSI and 130 Children Born after IVF," Human Reproduction, 10 (1995): 3327-31; and H. Tournaye et al., "Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI): The Brussels Experience," Reproduction, Fertility and Development, 7 (1995): 269-79.
9. See G. Palermo et al., "Pregnancies after Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection of Single Spermatozoon into an Oocyte," Lancet, 340 (1992): 17-18; G. Palermo et al., "Sperm Characteristics and Outcome of Human Assisted Fertilization by Subzonal Insemination and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Fertility and Sterility, 59 (1993): 826-35; P. Devroey et al., "Normal Fertilization of Human Oocytes after Testicular Sperm Extraction and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Fertility and Sterility, 62 (1994): 639-41; P. Devroey et al., "Pregnancies after Testicular Sperm Extraction and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection in Non-Obstructive Azoospermia," Human Reproduction, 10 (1995): 1457-60; and S. Silber "The Use of Epididymal Sperm in Assisted Reproduction," in J. Tesarik, ed., Male Factor in Human Infertility (Rome: Ares-Serono Symposia, 1994): 335- 68. A few reports have noted an increased frequency of sex chromosome anomalies. These need to be confirmed, but do not raise cautionary warnings sufficient to undermine this most significant advance in the treatment of male infertility. See, for example, P. In't Veld et al., "Sex Chromosomal Abnormalities and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," Lancet, 773 (1995): 346; M. Bonduelle et al., "Comparative Follow-Up Study of 130 Children Born after ICSI and 130 Children Born after IVF," Human Reproduction, 10 (1995): 3327-31; and H. Tournaye et al., "Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI): The Brussels Experience," Reproduction, Fertility and Development, 7 (1995): 269-79.
10. See G. Palermo et al., "Evolution of Pregnancies and Initial Follow-Up of Newborns Delivered after Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," JAMA, 276 (1996): 1893-97; and H. Tournaye and A. Van Steirteghem, "ICSI Concerns Do Not Outweigh Its Benefits," Journal of NIH Research, 9 (1997): 35- 40.
11. See G. Palermo et al., "Evolution of Pregnancies and Initial Follow-Up of Newborns Delivered after Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection," JAMA, 276 (1996): 1893-97; and H. Tournaye and A. Van Steirteghem, "ICSI Concerns Do Not Outweigh Its Benefits," Journal of NIH Research, 9 (1997): 35-40.
12. See G. Schatten, "The Centrosome and Its Mode of Inheritance: The Reduction of the Centrosome During Gametogenesis and Its Restoration During Fertilization," Developmental Biology, 165 (1994): 299-335; and C. Simerly et al., "The Paternal Inheritance of the Centrosome, the Cell's MicrotubuleOrganizing Center, in Humans and the Implications for Infertility," Nature Medicine, 1 (1995): 47-53.
13. See G. Schatten, "The Centrosome and Its Mode of Inheritance: The Reduction of the Centrosome During Gametogenesis and Its Restoration During Fertilization," Developmental Biology, 165 (1994): 299-335; and C. Simerly et al., "The Paternal Inheritance of the Centrosome, the Cell's MicrotubuleOrganizing Center, in Humans and the Implications for Infertility," Nature Medicine, 1 (1995): 47-53.
14. See L. Hewitson et al., "The Cell Biological Basis of Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection: Microtubule, Chromatin and Membrane Dynamics," Molecular Biology of the Cell, 1 (1996): 3717.
15. See Schatten, supra note 4.
16. See D. Gard, "γ-tubulin Is Asymmetrically Distributed in the Cortex of Xenopus laevis Oocytes," Developmental Biology, 161 (1994): 131-40.
17. See D.A. Compton and D.W. Cleveland, "NuMA, a Nuclear Protein Involved in Mitosis and Nuclear Reformation," Current Opinions in Cell Biology, 6 (1994): 343-46; and D.W. Cleveland, "NuMA: A Protein Involved in Nuclear Structure Spindle Assembly, and Nuclear Reformation," Trends in Cell Biology, 5 (1995): 60-64.
18. See D.A. Compton and D.W. Cleveland, "NuMA, a Nuclear Protein Involved in Mitosis and Nuclear Reformation," Current Opinions in Cell Biology, 6 (1994): 343-46; and D.W. Cleveland, "NuMA: A Protein Involved in Nuclear Structure Spindle Assembly, and Nuclear Reformation," Trends in Cell Biology, 5 (1995): 60-64.
19. See L. Hewitson et al., "Chromatin and DNA Configurations after Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection in the Rhesus Monkey: Failures and Successes," Biology of Reproduction, 55 (1996): 271-80; and P. Sutovsky et al., "Intracytoplasnuc Sperm Injection for Rhesus Monkey Fertilization Results in Unusual Chromatin, Cytoskeletal, and Membrane Events, but Eventually Leads to Pronuclear Development and Sperm Aster Assembly," Human Reproduction, 11 (1996): 1703-12.
20. See L. Hewitson et al., "Chromatin and DNA Configurations after Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection in the Rhesus Monkey: Failures and Successes," Biology of Reproduction, 55 (1996): 271-80; and P. Sutovsky et al., "Intracytoplasnuc Sperm Injection for Rhesus Monkey Fertilization Results in Unusual Chromatin, Cytoskeletal, and Membrane Events, but Eventually Leads to Pronuclear Development and Sperm Aster Assembly," Human Reproduction, 11 (1996): 1703-12.
21. See G. Huszar et al., "Correlation Between Sperm Creatine Phosphokinase Activity and Sperm Concentrations in Normospermic and Oligospermic Men," Gamete Research, 19 (1988): 67-75; and G. Huszar and L. Vigue, "Incomplete Development of Human Spermatozoa Is Associated with Increased Creatine Phosphokinase Concentrations and Abnormal Head Morphology," Molecular Reproduction and Development, 34 (1993): 292-98.
22. See G. Huszar et al., "Correlation Between Sperm Creatine Phosphokinase Activity and Sperm Concentrations in Normospermic and Oligospermic Men," Gamete Research, 19 (1988): 67-75; and G. Huszar and L. Vigue, "Incomplete Development of Human Spermatozoa Is Associated with Increased Creatine Phosphokinase Concentrations and Abnormal Head Morphology," Molecular Reproduction and Development, 34 (1993): 292-98.
23. See G. Huszar et al., "Sperm Creatine Kinase Activity in Fertile and Infertile Oligospermic Men," Journal of Andrology, 11 (1990): 40-46; and G. Huszar et al., "Sperm Creatine Phosphokinase M-Isoform Ratios and Fertilizing Potential of Men: A Blinded Study of 84 Couples Treated with In Vitro Fertilization," Fertility and Sterility, 57 (1992): 882-88.
24. See G. Huszar et al., "Sperm Creatine Kinase Activity in Fertile and Infertile Oligospermic Men," Journal of Andrology, 11 (1990): 40-46; and G. Huszar et al., "Sperm Creatine Phosphokinase M-Isoform Ratios and Fertilizing Potential of Men: A Blinded Study of 84 Couples Treated with In Vitro Fertilization," Fertility and Sterility, 57 (1992): 882-88.
25. See G. Huszar et al., "Creatine Kinase (CK) Immunocytochemistry of Human Hemizona-sperm Complexes: Selective Binding of Sperm with Mature CK-Staining Pattern," Fertility and Sterility, 61 (1994): 136-42.
26. See G. Huszar et al., "Sperm Plasma Membrane Remodeling During Spermiogenetic Maturation in Men: Relationship among Plasma Membrane 1,4-Galactosyl-Transferase, Cytoplasmic Creatine Phosphokinase, and Creatine Phosphokinase Isoform Ratios," Biology of Reproduction, 56 (1997): 1020-24.
27. See Huszar et al., supra note 12.
28. See Y. Hiramoto, "Microinjection of the Live Spermatozoa into Sea Urchin Egg," Experimental Cell Research, 27 (1962): 416-26.
29. See C. Markert and R. Petters, "Homozygous Mouse Embryos Produced by Microsurgery," Journal of Experimental Zoology, 201 (1977): 295-302; R. Ron-El et al., "Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection in the Mouse," Human Reproduction, 8 (1993): 128-34; and Y. Kimura and R. Yanagimachi, "Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection in the Mouse," Biology of Reproduction, 52 (1995): 709-20.
30. See C. Markert and R. Petters, "Homozygous Mouse Embryos Produced by Microsurgery," Journal of Experimental Zoology, 201 (1977): 295-302; R. Ron-El et al., "Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection in the Mouse," Human Reproduction, 8 (1993): 128-34; and Y. Kimura and R. Yanagimachi, "Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection in the Mouse," Biology of Reproduction, 52 (1995): 709-20.
31. See C. Markert and R. Petters, "Homozygous Mouse Embryos Produced by Microsurgery," Journal of Experimental Zoology, 201 (1977): 295-302; R. Ron-El et al., "Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection in the Mouse," Human Reproduction, 8 (1993): 128-34; and Y. Kimura and R. Yanagimachi, "Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection in the Mouse," Biology of Reproduction, 52 (1995): 709-20.
32. See G. Schatten et al., "Microtubule Configurations During Fertilization, Mitosis and Early Development in the Mouse and the Requirement for Egg Microtubule-Mediated Motility During Mammalian Fertilization," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 82 (1985): 4152-56; G. Schatten and H. Schatten, "Behavior of Centrosomes During Fertilization and Cell Division in Mouse Oocytes and in Sea Urchin Eggs," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 83 (1986): 105-09; and L. Hewitson et al., "Microtubule Organization and Chromatin Configurations in Hamster Oocytes During Fertilization, Parthenogenetic Activation and After Insemination with Human Sperm," Biology of Reproduction, 57 (1997): 967-75.
33. See G. Schatten et al., "Microtubule Configurations During Fertilization, Mitosis and Early Development in the Mouse and the Requirement for Egg Microtubule-Mediated Motility During Mammalian Fertilization," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 82 (1985): 4152-56; G. Schatten and H. Schatten, "Behavior of Centrosomes During Fertilization and Cell Division in Mouse Oocytes and in Sea Urchin Eggs," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 83 (1986): 105-09; and L. Hewitson et al., "Microtubule Organization and Chromatin Configurations in Hamster Oocytes During Fertilization, Parthenogenetic Activation and After Insemination with Human Sperm," Biology of Reproduction, 57 (1997): 967-75.
34. See G. Schatten et al., "Microtubule Configurations During Fertilization, Mitosis and Early Development in the Mouse and the Requirement for Egg Microtubule-Mediated Motility During Mammalian Fertilization," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 82 (1985): 4152-56; G. Schatten and H. Schatten, "Behavior of Centrosomes During Fertilization and Cell Division in Mouse Oocytes and in Sea Urchin Eggs," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 83 (1986): 105-09; and L. Hewitson et al., "Microtubule Organization and Chromatin Configurations in Hamster Oocytes During Fertilization, Parthenogenetic Activation and After Insemination with Human Sperm," Biology of Reproduction, 57 (1997): 967-75.
35. See Simerly et al., supra note 4; and G. Wu et al., "Microtubule and Chromatin Configurations During Fertilization and Early Development in Rhesus Monkeys, and Regulation by Intracellular Calcium Ions," Biology of Reproduction, 55 (1996): 269-71.
36. See Simerly et al., supra note 4; and G. Wu et al., "Microtubule and Chromatin Configurations During Fertilization and Early Development in Rhesus Monkeys, and Regulation by Intracellular Calcium Ions," Biology of Reproduction, 55 (1996): 269-71.
37. See C. Navara et al., "Microtubule Organization in the Cow During Fertilization, Polyspermy, Parthenogenesis, and Nuclear Transfer: The Role of the Sperm Aster," Developmental Biology, 162 (1994): 29-40.
38. See W. Breed et al., "Distribution of Microtubules in Eggs and Early Embryos of the Marsupial, Monodelphis domestica," Developmental Biology, 164 (1994): 230-40.
39. See L. Hewitson et al., "Homologous and Heterologous Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI): Cytoplasmic Source Affects Sperm Decondensation and Microtubule Organization," unpublished (1998).
40. See C. Keefer et al., "Cleavage Development of Bovine Oocytes Fertilized by Sperm Injection," Molecular Reproduction and Development, 25 (1990): 281-85.
41. See K. Goto et al., "Fertilization by Sperm Injection in Cattle," Theriogenology, 33 (1990): 238.
42. See K. Goto et al., "Blastocyst Formation Following Intracytoplasmic Injection of In-Vitro-Derived Spermatids into Bovine Oocytes," Human Reproduction, 11 (1996): 824-29.
43. See J.W. Catt and S.L. Rhodes, "Comparative Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI) in Human and Domestic Species," Reproduction, Fertility and Development, 7 (1995): 161-67.
44. See P. Sutovsky et al., "Binding of Oocyte Microvilli to the Perinuclear Theca of Fertilizing Sperm and Subsequent Theca Removal Constitute a Previously Unrecognized Step in Mammalian Fertilization," Developmental Biology, 188 (1997): 75-84.
45. See B. Tatham et al., "Centrifugation of Bovine Oocytes for Nuclear Micromanipulation and Sperm Microinjection," Human Reproduction, 11 (1996): 1499-503.
46. See Hewitson et al., supra note 21.
47. See Hewitson et al., supra note 9; and Sutovsky et al., supra note 9; and Wu et al., supra note 18.
48. See Palermo et al., supra note 3; and Tournaye and Van Steirteghem, supra note 3.
49. See R. Schoysman et al., "Pregnancy after Fertilization with Human Testicular Sperm," Lancet, 342 (1993): 1327-30; J. Tesarik et al., "Viable Embryos from Injection of Round Spermatids into Oocytes," N. Engl. J. Med., 333 (1995): 525; and J. Tesarik et al., "Spermatid Injection into Human Oocytes. II. Clinical Application in the Treatment of Infertility Due to Non- Obstructive Azoospermia," Human Reproduction, 11 (1996): 780-83.
50. See R. Schoysman et al., "Pregnancy after Fertilization with Human Testicular Sperm," Lancet, 342 (1993): 1327-30; J. Tesarik et al., "Viable Embryos from Injection of Round Spermatids into Oocytes," N. Engl. J. Med., 333 (1995): 525; and J. Tesarik et al., "Spermatid Injection into Human Oocytes. II. Clinical Application in the Treatment of Infertility Due to Non- Obstructive Azoospermia," Human Reproduction, 11 (1996): 780-83.
51. See R. Schoysman et al., "Pregnancy after Fertilization with Human Testicular Sperm," Lancet, 342 (1993): 1327-30; J. Tesarik et al., "Viable Embryos from Injection of Round Spermatids into Oocytes," N. Engl. J. Med., 333 (1995): 525; and J. Tesarik et al., "Spermatid Injection into Human Oocytes. II. Clinical Application in the Treatment of Infertility Due to Non-Obstructive Azoospermia," Human Reproduction, 11 (1996): 780-83.
52. See P. Patrizio, "Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI): Potential Genetic Concerns," Human Reproduction, 10 (1995): 2520-23; R. Reijo et al., "Diverse Spermatogenic Defects in Humans Caused by Y Chromosome Deletions Encompassing a Novel RNA Binding Protein Gene," Nature Genetics, 10 (1995): 383-93; R. Reijo et al., "Severe Oligozoospermia Resulting from Deletions of Azoospermia Factor Gene on Y Chromosome," Lancet, 347 (1996): 1290-93; and D. Menke et al., "Expression of DAZ, an Azoospermia Factor Candidate, in Human Spermatozoa," American Journal of Human Genetics, 60 (1997): 237-41.
53. See P. Patrizio, "Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI): Potential Genetic Concerns," Human Reproduction, 10 (1995): 2520-23; R. Reijo et al., "Diverse Spermatogenic Defects in Humans Caused by Y Chromosome Deletions Encompassing a Novel RNA Binding Protein Gene," Nature Genetics, 10 (1995): 383-93; R. Reijo et al., "Severe Oligozoospermia Resulting from Deletions of Azoospermia Factor Gene on Y Chromosome," Lancet, 347 (1996): 1290-93; and D. Menke et al., "Expression of DAZ, an Azoospermia Factor Candidate, in Human Spermatozoa," American Journal of Human Genetics, 60 (1997): 237-41.
54. See P. Patrizio, "Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI): Potential Genetic Concerns," Human Reproduction, 10 (1995): 2520-23; R. Reijo et al., "Diverse Spermatogenic Defects in Humans Caused by Y Chromosome Deletions Encompassing a Novel RNA Binding Protein Gene," Nature Genetics, 10 (1995): 383-93; R. Reijo et al., "Severe Oligozoospermia Resulting from Deletions of Azoospermia Factor Gene on Y Chromosome," Lancet, 347 (1996): 1290-93; and D. Menke et al., "Expression of DAZ, an Azoospermia Factor Candidate, in Human Spermatozoa," American Journal of Human Genetics, 60 (1997): 237-41.
55. See P. Patrizio, "Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI): Potential Genetic Concerns," Human Reproduction, 10 (1995): 2520-23; R. Reijo et al., "Diverse Spermatogenic Defects in Humans Caused by Y Chromosome Deletions Encompassing a Novel RNA Binding Protein Gene," Nature Genetics, 10 (1995): 383-93; R. Reijo et al., "Severe Oligozoospermia Resulting from Deletions of Azoospermia Factor Gene on Y Chromosome," Lancet, 347 (1996): 1290-93; and D. Menke et al., "Expression of DAZ, an Azoospermia Factor Candidate, in Human Spermatozoa," American Journal of Human Genetics, 60 (1997): 237-41.
56. See P. Vogt et al., "Microdeletions in Interval 6 of the Y Chromosome of Males with Idiopathic Sterility Point to Disruption of AZF, a Human Spermatogenesis Gene," Human Genetics, 89 (1992): 491-96; see Reijo et al., supra note 32; J. Pryor et al., "Microdeletions in the Y-Chromosome of Infertile Men," N. Engl. J. Med., 336 (1997): 534-39; and J. Mulhall et al., "Azoospermic Men with Deletions of the DAZ Cluster Gene Are Capable of Completing Spermatogenesis, Fertilization, Normal Embryonic Development and Pregnancy with Retrieved Testicular Spermatozoa and ICSI," Human Reproduction, 12 (1997): 503-08.
57. See P. Vogt et al., "Microdeletions in Interval 6 of the Y Chromosome of Males with Idiopathic Sterility Point to Disruption of AZF, a Human Spermatogenesis Gene," Human Genetics, 89 (1992): 491-96; see Reijo et al., supra note 32; J. Pryor et al., "Microdeletions in the Y-Chromosome of Infertile Men," N. Engl. J. Med., 336 (1997): 534-39; and J. Mulhall et al., "Azoospermic Men with Deletions of the DAZ Cluster Gene Are Capable of Completing Spermatogenesis, Fertilization, Normal Embryonic Development and Pregnancy with Retrieved Testicular Spermatozoa and ICSI," Human Reproduction, 12 (1997): 503-08.
58. See P. Vogt et al., "Microdeletions in Interval 6 of the Y Chromosome of Males with Idiopathic Sterility Point to Disruption of AZF, a Human Spermatogenesis Gene," Human Genetics, 89 (1992): 491-96; see Reijo et al., supra note 32; J. Pryor et al., "Microdeletions in the Y-Chromosome of Infertile Men," N. Engl. J. Med., 336 (1997): 534-39; and J. Mulhall et al., "Azoospermic Men with Deletions of the DAZ Cluster Gene Are Capable of Completing Spermatogenesis, Fertilization, Normal Embryonic Development and Pregnancy with Retrieved Testicular Spermatozoa and ICSI," Human Reproduction, 12 (1997): 503-08.
59. See P. Vogt et al., "Microdeletions in Interval 6 of the Y Chromosome of Males with Idiopathic Sterility Point to Disruption of AZF, a Human Spermatogenesis Gene," Human Genetics, 89 (1992): 491-96; see Reijo et al., supra note 32; J. Pryor et al., "Microdeletions in the Y-Chromosome of Infertile Men," N. Engl. J. Med., 336 (1997): 534-39; and J. Mulhall et al., "Azoospermic Men with Deletions of the DAZ Cluster Gene Are Capable of Completing Spermatogenesis, Fertilization, Normal Embryonic Development and Pregnancy with Retrieved Testicular Spermatozoa and ICSI," Human Reproduction, 12 (1997): 503-08.
60. See M. Kent-First et al., "The Incidence and Possible Relevance of Y-Linked Microdeletions in Babies Born after Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection and Their Infertile Fathers," Molecular Human Reproduction, 2 (1998): 943-50.
61. See Sutovsky et al., supra note 9.
62. See Tesarik et al. (1995), supra note 31; S. Antinori et al., "Fertilization with Human Testicular Spermatids: Four Successful Pregnancies," Human Reproduction, 12 (1997): 286- 91; and S. Fishel et al., "Human Fertilization with Round and Elongated Spermatids," Human Reproduction, 12 (1997): 336- 40.
63. See Tesarik et al. (1995), supra note 31; S. Antinori et al., "Fertilization with Human Testicular Spermatids: Four Successful Pregnancies," Human Reproduction, 12 (1997): 286-91; and S. Fishel et al., "Human Fertilization with Round and Elongated Spermatids," Human Reproduction, 12 (1997): 336- 40.
64. See Tesarik et al. (1995), supra note 31; S. Antinori et al., "Fertilization with Human Testicular Spermatids: Four Successful Pregnancies," Human Reproduction, 12 (1997): 286- 91; and S. Fishel et al., "Human Fertilization with Round and Elongated Spermatids," Human Reproduction, 12 (1997): 336-40.
65. See R.M. Green, "Parental Autonomy and the Obligation Not to Harm One's Child Genetically," Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 25 (1997): 5-15.
66. See E. Moretti et al., "Relationship among Head Size, Morphology and Chromosome Structure in Human Spermatozoa," in 53rd Annual Meeting for the American Society for Reproductive Medicine (Birmingham: American Society for Reproductive Medicine, 1997): P-138.
67. See S. Lalwani et al., "Biochemical Markers of the Early and Late Spermatogenesis: Relationship Between the Lactate Dehydrogenase-X and Creatine Kinase-M Isoform Concentrations in Human Spermatozoa," Molecular Reproduction and Development, 43 (1996): 495-502.
68. See M. Bonduelle et al., "Prospective Follow-Up Study of 1987 Children Born after Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI)," Treatment of Infertility: The New Frontiers (1998): at 42.